MISCONCEPTIONS, SHARKS, AND STORYBOOKS€¦ · a lot of media coverage, their future is uncertain...
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S harks play a vital role in the health and well being of our ocean environment. As top predators, sharks help maintain a healthy balance in prey populations by removing sick and weak individuals (Griffin, Miller, Freitas, & Hirshfield, 2008). Despite this important role, sharks are still considered controversial and often feared by the general public due to sensationalized stories and stereotypes. Since a quarter of the world’s species of sharks are threatened with extinction, the continuation of these misunderstandings is of growing concern (Dulvy et al., 2014). Although sharks receive a lot of media coverage, their future is uncertain as controversial animals are often overlooked for protection and conservation. As such, it is essential not only to address misconceptions, but also inspire appreciation for sharks. Children’s perceptions of animals are often carried with them into adulthood, shaping their ability to learn about and empathize with generally unfavored animals (Sorin & Gordon, 2016). Children receive information about animals and the natural world from many different sources, including books. As such, children’s literature can be used to promote learning and interest in environmental issues, even from a young age (Kellert & Westervelt, 1983). Wildlife themed storybooks allow youth the chance to generate an emotional connection with the natural world. Similarly, these types of books have been found to improve attitudes, dispel myths, encourage discussion about conservation, and alter unfavorable viewpoints (Burke & Cutter-Mackenzie, 2010). While it is well understood that the media can influence the public’s perception of unfavored animals (Muter, Gore, Gledhill, Lamont, & Huveneers, 2013), studies on how storybooks influence children’s perceptions of these same animals are less prevalent. In an attempt to shed light on the complexities of children’s understandings of sharks, our study explored whether books with personal connection texts and questions address negative stereotypes and misconceptions. In storybooks, anthropomorphism, attributing human characteristics and emotions to animals, is a long-standing technique used by authors to encourage young readers to identify with animals. Previous research suggests that after reading storybooks with anthropomorphic animal characters, children are more likely to give factual and biological explanations of real animals if the animal characters are presented in a more realistic manner potraying limited human social and psychological abilities (Geerdts, Van de Walle & LoBue, 2016). Similar to realistic anthropomorphism, we investigated whether personal connection text and questions that connected children’s everyday actions with that of sharks could change children’s perceptions of sharks when compared to the same storybook that included only facts about sharks. Personal connection text and questions inculded examples such as, “Sand tiger sharks gather together in large groups where they find food. Do you like to eat lunch with your friends?” Methods Study Approach and Participants Informal education centers such as zoos and aquariums receive more than 700 million visitors annually (Gusset & Dick, 2011). Consequently, zoos and aquariums have an opportunity to impact attitudes about animals and their conservation which can have lasting benefits (Gusset & Dick, 2011; Seraphin, 2010). To aid in this venture, the North Carolina Aquariums, in conjunction with Unite For Literacy, designed a book that highlights common facts about sharks that are often exaggerated by stereotypes. We used this book to investigate children’s attitudes about sharks in a formal educational setting. The book contains personal connection texts and questions for the reader. These questions and texts were designed to encourage a link between the everyday actions of children and sharks (for example, a child using a fork and a sand tiger shark using its teeth like a fork). A modified book, which focussed on facts, without the personal connection text and questions, was also written. Children (ages 9-10) from two fourth grade classes (N=37) participated in the study. The students were divided into two groups (n=19 and n=18) based on their existing fourth grade class. The students in Group A were read the original book, while students in Group B were read the modified version. Specific information on ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status was not collected as part of this study. However, general demographic information about the county indicates that this population of students may represent a range of ethnic and socioeconomic diversity. Miami University’s Institutional Review Board approved all procedures in the study and parents gave MISCONCEPTIONS, SHARKS, AND STORYBOOKS Exploring Children’s Perceptions of Sharks through Drawing and Word Use After Exposure to Environmentally Focused Storybooks Nicole Warren 1,2 and Rachel Yoho 2 1 North Carolina Aquarium at Pine Knoll Shores, Pine Knoll Shores, North Carolina, USA 2 Department of Biology, Project Dragonfly, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA INTERNATIONAL ZOO EDUCATORS ASSOCIATION Journal | 2018 9
Transcript of MISCONCEPTIONS, SHARKS, AND STORYBOOKS€¦ · a lot of media coverage, their future is uncertain...
S harks p l a y a v i t a l ro l e i n t he hea l t h and we l l be ing o f our ocean env i ronment .
As t op p reda t o r s , sha r ks he l p m a i n t a i n a h e a l t h y b a l a n c e i n p re y p o p u l a t i o n s b y r e m o v i n g s ick and weak indiv iduals (Gr i f f in , Mi l ler, Fre i tas, & Hirshf ie ld, 2008). Despite th is important ro le, sharks are s t i l l cons idered cont rovers ia l and o f ten fea red by the genera l p u b l i c d u e t o s e n s a t i o n a l i z e d s to r i e s and s t e reo t ypes . S i nce a quar te r o f the wor ld ’s spec ies o f s h a r k s a re t h re a t e n e d w i t h e x t i n c t i o n , t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e s e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s i s o f g row ing conce r n (Du l v y e t a l . , 2014 ) . A l t hough sha rks rece i ve a l o t o f med i a cove rage , t he i r future is uncertain as controversia l an ima ls a re o f ten over looked for p ro tec t ion and conserva t ion . As such , i t i s essen t ia l no t on l y to address misconcept ions, but a lso inspi re appreciat ion for sharks.
Chi ldren’s percept ions of an imals a re o f ten car r i ed w i th them in to adu l thood , shap ing the i r ab i l i t y t o l e a r n a b o u t a n d e m p a t h i z e w i th genera l l y un favored an ima ls (Sor in & Gordon, 2016) . Ch i ldren receive in format ion about animals and the natura l wor ld f rom many di fferent sources, including books. As such, ch i ldren’s l i terature can be used to promote learn ing and in te res t in env i ronmenta l i ssues , even f rom a young age (Ke l l e r t & W e s t e r v e l t , 1 9 8 3 ) . W i l d l i f e themed storybooks al low youth the chance to generate an emot iona l connect ion with the natura l wor ld. S im i l a r l y, t hese t ypes o f books h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o i m p r o v e att i tudes, dispel myths, encourage d i scuss ion abou t conse r va t i on , and a l te r un favorab le v iewpo in ts (Burke & Cutter-Mackenzie, 2010). Whi le i t is wel l understood that the
med ia can in f luence the pub l ic ’s percept ion o f un favored an ima ls (Muter, Gore, Gledhi l l , Lamont, & Huveneers, 2013), studies on how s to r ybooks i n f l uence ch i l d ren ’s percept ions of these same animals are less preva lent . In an at tempt to shed l ight on the complex i t ies o f c h i l d r e n ’s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f s h a r k s , o u r s t u d y e x p l o re d w h e t h e r b o o k s w i t h p e r s o n a l connec t ion tex ts and ques t ions address negat ive stereotypes and misconcept ions.
In storybooks, anthropomorphism, at t r ibut ing human character is t ics and emo t i ons t o an ima l s , i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g t e c h n i q u e u s e d by au tho rs to encourage young readers to ident i f y w i th an ima ls . P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t a f t e r r e a d i n g s t o r y b o o k s w i t h a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c a n i m a l c h a r a c t e r s , c h i l d re n a re m o re l ike ly to give factual and bio logical explanat ions of rea l an imals i f the an ima l characte rs a re presented i n a m o r e r e a l i s t i c m a n n e r potraying l imited human social and psycho log ica l ab i l i t i es (Geerd ts , Van de Walle & LoBue, 2016). Similar t o re a l i s t i c a n t h ro p o m o r p h i s m , we invest igated whether personal connect ion text and quest ions that c o n n e c t e d c h i l d re n ’s e v e r y d a y act ions wi th that of sharks could c h a n g e c h i l d re n ’s p e rc e p t i o n s o f sharks when compared to the s a m e s t o r y b o o k t h a t i n c l u d e d only facts about sharks. Personal connec t i on t e x t and ques t i ons inculded examples such as, “Sand t i ge r sha rks ga the r toge the r i n large groups where they f ind food. Do you l ike to eat lunch with your f r iends?”
MethodsStudy Approach and Part ic ipantsIn fo rma l educat ion cente rs such as zoos and aqua r i ums rece i ve
m o re t h a n 7 0 0 m i l l i o n v i s i t o r s annua l l y (Gusse t & D ick , 2011 ) . Consequently, zoos and aquariums have an oppo r t un i t y t o impac t at t i tudes about an imals and the i r c o n s e r v a t i o n w h i c h c a n h a v e l as t ing bene f i t s (Gusse t & D ick , 2011; Seraph in , 2010) . To a id in th i s ven tu re , the Nor th Caro l i na Aqua r i ums , i n con junc t i on w i t h Un i t e Fo r L i t e r acy, des i gned a b o o k t h a t h i g h l i g h t s c o m m o n facts about sharks that are of ten exaggera ted by s te reotypes . We u s e d t h i s b o o k t o i n v e s t i g a t e ch i ld ren’s a t t i tudes about sharks in a formal educational sett ing. The book contains personal connection texts and quest ions for the reader. These quest ions and tex ts were d e s i g n e d t o e n c o u r a g e a l i n k between the everyday act ions o f chi ldren and sharks ( for example, a chi ld us ing a fork and a sand t iger shark us ing i ts teeth l ike a fork ) . A modi f ied book, which focussed on f ac t s , w i t hou t t he pe r sona l connec t i on t ex t and ques t i ons , was a lso wr i t ten.
Children (ages 9-10) from two fourth grade c lasses (N=37) part ic ipated in the s tudy. The s tudents were d i v i ded i n t o two g roups ( n=19 and n=18) based on the i r ex ist ing four th grade c lass. The students in Group A were read the or ig ina l book, wh i le s tudents in Group B were read the mod i f i ed ve rs ion . Spec i f ic in format ion on ethn ic i ty, g e n d e r, a n d s o c i o e c o n o m i c s ta tus was not co l lected as par t o f t h i s s tudy. Howeve r, gene ra l demograph i c i n fo rma t i on abou t t h e c o u n t y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s p o p u l a t i o n o f s t u d e n t s m a y represent a range o f e thn ic and soc ioeconom ic d i ve r s i t y. M i am i Un i ve rs i t y ’s I ns t i t u t i ona l Rev iew Boa rd app roved a l l p rocedu res i n t he s t udy and pa ren t s gave
MISCONCEPTIONS, SHARKS, AND STORYBOOKSExplor ing Chi ldren’s Percept ions of Sharks through Drawing and Word
Use Af ter Exposure to Environmental ly Focused StorybooksNicole Warren1,2 and Rachel Yoho2
1North Carol ina Aquar ium at Pine Knol l Shores, P ine Knol l Shores, North Carol ina, USA2Department of Bio logy, Pro ject Dragonf ly, Miami Univers i ty, Oxford, Ohio, USA
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wri t ten consent for thei r chi ldren’s part ic ipat ion. Students a lso gave verbal assent to part ic ipate in the s t udy. Upon comp le t i on o f t he study, students received a copy of the Sand T iger Sharks book.
D a t a C o l l e c t i o n a n d A t t i t u d e AssessmentBefore and after reading the book, S a n d T i g e r S h a r k s , s t u d e n t s were asked to c rea te a d raw ing w i t h l a b e l s a n d s h a re v e r b a l l y the i r ideas , op in ions and be l ie fs about sharks through open-ended conversat ions. Each student was a lso asked to “L ist the f i rst three words tha t come to m ind when th ink ing o f the word shark . ” The use o f “ f i r s t -word” impress ions a l lowed ch i ld ren the oppor tun i ty to express ideas that they may not have been able to draw (Seraphin, 2010 ) . O the r p rompts i nc l uded “Tel l me about your drawing” and “How do you fee l about sharks?” In the ques t ion ing , pos i t i ve and negative descript ive wordings were avoided to min imize b ias.
Using word themes developed by Se raph i n ( 2010 ) , we c rea ted a f lowchart to separate shark words into emot ional and non-emot ional ca tegor ies . W i th in the emot iona l word g roup, words were fu r the r d iv ided into negat ive and posi t ive. L ikewise with in the non-emot ional g roup , words were d i v ided i n to sc ience content and stereotypes. Words which could not be p laced i n to the above ca tego r i es we re considered unclassi f ied (F igure 1) .
Analys is of DrawingsH u g h e s ’ ( 2 0 1 3 ) s t u d y o n invest igat ing youth’s percept ions o f chee tahs th rough s to ry te l l i ng and Fawce t t ’s ( 2002 ) s t udy on C h i l d re n ’s W i l d A n i m a l S t o r i e s i n s p i r e d o u r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l analysis. We used Chambers’ (1983) D raw-a-Sc ien t i s t -Tes t as a too l to assess s tudents ’ percept ions of sharks through drawing. In an unobtrus ive manner, drawing can a lso g ive students the opportuni ty to ref lect and art iculate their ideas and pe rcep t i ons i n a way t ha t cou ld be more comfo r tab le and interest ing to them (Hughes, 2013; Fawcett , 2002).
C h a m b e r s ( 1 9 8 3 ) u s e d s e v e n standard image indicators (eg. lab coat and eye g lasses) to ana lyze
t he ex t en t t o wh i ch a d raw ing presented the standard image of a sc ient ist . In an attempt to remove sub jec t i v i t y, we d id no t choose any indicators of the stereotypica l image of a shark. Instead, we used i n te rp re ta t i ve phenomeno log ica l analys is ( IPA), s imi lar to that used by Hughes (2013) . We examined the students’ drawings for deta i ls “wi th in [ the] exper ience that may be t aken fo r g ran ted” w i t h t he ob j ec t i v e o f ach i e v i ng a sense o f unders tand ing (Laver ty, 2003; T i t sche r e t a l . , 2000 ) . IPA i s a pa r t i cu la r method o f qua l i t a t i ve analys is of data that “a ims to offer insights into how a given person, in a g iven context , makes sense of a given phenomenon” (Orford, 2008). Pre-drawings and post-drawings o f G roup A and Group B we re separated and each drawing was analyzed for central characterist ics tha t appeared to represent how s tuden t s pe rce i ved sha rks . We identif ied major themes through the use o f conceptua l and non l inear emergent processes and d iscuss a se lect ion of those themes here.
ResultsChi ldren’s Word Choices Before reading Sand T iger Sharks, m a n y s t u d e n t s u s e d n e g a t i v e (Group A - 45%,; Group B - 41%) and stereotypica l (19% and 28%, respec t i ve l y ) words to desc r ibe sharks (see Tab le 1 ) . A f ter be ing r e a d t h e b o o k w i t h p e r s o n a l connec t i on t ex t , s tuden ts mos t f requen t l y used pos i t i v e wo rds (36%) to describe sharks. For those who were read the modi f ied book, many students used stereotypica l words (32%). A l though pai red pre to post compar isons revea led no s ign i f i can t change in the use o f stereotypica l words, af ter reading the o r i g i na l book w i th pe rsona l c o n n e c t i o n t e x t t h e r e w a s a s i gn i f i c an t i nc rease i n pos i t i v e words (p = 0.04) and a s igni f icant decrease in negat ive words when read ing the modi f ied shark facts only book (p = 0.05) .
P e rc e p t i o n s o f S h a r k s B a s e d on the i r Ro le as a Predator and Drawing Analys isI n ove r ha l f o f t he p re - read ing d r a w i n g s ( 5 7 % ) , s h a r k s w e re shown chas i ng o r ea t i ng p rey. F i r s t i m p r e s s i o n w o r d s t h a t accompanied these p ictures of ten
i nc l uded “mea t -ea te r, ” “b l ood , ” o r “p reda to r. ” D raw ings i n t h i s theme appeared to demonst ra te s t u d e n t s ’ u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t sharks were top predators in the o c e a n . A f t e r t h e re a d i n g , t h i s theme was s t i l l apparent in both groups of students. However, the language and words accompanying the drawings changed. More than ha l f o f the d raw ings (63%) now inc luded words such as “helpers” and “boss of the ocean,” especial ly i n pos t -d raw ings f rom s tuden ts who read the book wi th personal connect ion text . (F igure 2) .
A l though pos t read ing d raw ings s t i l l d e m o n s t r a t e d s h a r k s a s p redato rs tha t cou ld a t tack and k i l l prey, students d id not appear to depict as much fear or host i l i ty t o w a rd s s h a r k s i n t h e i r w o r k . I n t e re s t i n g l y, d r a w i n g s b y t h e group that read the facts only book revolved around human and shark in te ract ions . Before the read ing, only 3 drawings inc luded humans, a l l o f wh ich i l l u s t r a ted humans e i the r be ing ea ten by sharks o r running away from sharks whi le on the beach. A f te r the read ing, a l l 3 drawings by the same students i n c l u d e d h u m a n s s w i m m i n g o r b o a t i n g a l o n g s i d e t h e s h a r k s . In fac t , 2 out o f the 3 draw ings i nc l uded the human cha rac te r s sm i l i ng . Add i t iona l l y, 2 o f these d r a w i n g s n o w s h o w e d s h a r k s pursuing the correct prey ( i .e., f ish) instead of people.
A f t e r read i ng bo th ve r s i ons o f t h e b o o k , S a n d T i g e r S h a r k s , s tuden ts appeared to rep resen t sharks in a more posi t ive manner, demons t r a t i ng l e ss ma l i ce and f e a r. F o r e x a m p l e , a s t u d e n t pr ior to reading stated, “a l l good sharks are dead sharks” and drew a de-f inned shark. Af ter reading, t h i s s tuden t dep ic ted an i n tac t shark and said,“ I guess sharks are more in te res t ing than I thought ” (F igure 3) .
Beyond the percept ion of sharks as predators in the pre- and post-reading drawings, other emergent themes inc luded the ana tomica l presentat ion of the sharks, colors used, and type o f shark . O f the 51 to ta l co lored shark drawings, t he ma jo r i t y ( 96%) rep resen ted sharks as blue, b lack, or gray. Out of a total of 74 drawings from both
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groups, a l l showed a cauda l f in , 91% showed a dorsa l f i n and/or pectora l f i n , 84% showed tee th , and over ha l f (59%) inc luded gi l ls . O f the 74 to ta l d raw ings on ly 8 drew a dist inct ly di fferent ly shaped shark (such as a hammerhead shark or a thresher shark with a long tai l ) . Ove ra l l , mos t s tuden ts c rea ted a v i su a l l y s im i l a r sh a r k be fo re and a f t e r read i ng bo th ve r s i on o f the Sand T ige r Sharks book . Al though student’s drawings were s imi la r pre- and post- read ing, a difference in descript ive langugage was observed.
F rom th is s tudy, we f ind severa l indicators for potent ia l d i fferences between the book w i th persona l connect ion text and the book with sha rk f ac t s on l y. We obse r ved an i nc rease i n ph rases such as “ l ike me” or “ l ike humans” or, for example , an i l l us t ra t ion showing sharks going out to eat in groups (an example used in the personal connect ion book; see Figure 4). As such, we hypothes ize that books with personal connect ion text and quest ions may be use fu l fo r the intended purpose of th is act iv i ty, wh ich was creat ing a mean ingfu l connec t i on be tween the reade r and sharks.
Discussion and Conclusions A growing number o f educators , bo th i n fo rma l and fo rma l , have embraced the va lue and impact t h a t s t o r y b o o k s c a n h a v e o n y o u n g c h i l d r e n ’s i n t e r e s t i n l ea r n ing about w i ld l i f e . I n many ways, ch i ld ren’s l i te ra ture a l lows f o r c o n n e c t i o n s t o b e m a d e between c lassroom learn ing and the outs ide natu ra l wor ld . A t an impor tan t deve lopmenta l s tage , s t o r y b o o k s m a y i n f l u e n c e a ch i l d ’s env i ronmen ta l behav io r s in the fu tu re . Books w i th added p e r s o n a l t e x t a n d q u e s t i o n s can connect young readers w i th
sc ien t i f i c i n fo rmat ion in an age-appropr ia te and fami l i a r fo rmat . Th i s fo rmat can enhance young re a d e r ’s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e re l a t i o n s h i p a n i m a l s h a v e w i t h h u m a n s a n d t h e i r h a b i t a t s .I n g e n e r a l , b o o k s c a n b e a ca t a l y s t f o r obse r va t i on and a pa th to i n fo rmed d i a l ogue tha t i s c ruc ia l to c r i t i ca l th ink ing . As such , zoos and aqua r i ums a re un ique ly pos i t ioned to cap i ta l i ze on us i ng s to r ybooks to i nsp i re l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s a n d h e l p address chi ldren’s misconcept ions a b o u t e n v i r o n m e n t a l t o p i c s , i n c l u d i n g e n d a n g e r e d l a r g e predators. Storybooks with added persona l text and quest ions may be a use fu l educa t i ona l t oo l i n increasing chi ldren’s knowledge of a part icu lar an imal species, whi le a lso address ing possib le negat ive percept ions.
A q u a r i u m s a n d z o o s h a v e t h e opportuni ty to use storybooks as a t echn ique to engage v i s i t o r s i n sha rk conse rva t i on and a l t e r ch i l d ren ’s pe rcep t i ons . Ove ra l l , i t i s impor tan t to no te tha t th i s s t u d y re p re s e n t s o n l y a s m a l l f ract ion of ch i ldren’s exper iences with sharks, the media, and books. I t i s unknown how exposu re to t h i s t ype o f s to r ybook ove r an extended per iod of t ime re lates to a sh i f t in at t i tude of ch i ldren long-term. However, we hope that our work wi l l inspire group reading and conserva t ion educa t ion l ea r n ing expe r i ences a t o the r zoos and aquar iums.
Figure 1: Flow chart of shark word categories.
Table 1: Words used to descr ibe sharks
Sand Tiger Sharks book with additional personal connection
text and questions
Sand Tiger Sharks book with shark facts only
Shark Words Total Pre A
Total Post A
t-test p Value
Total Pre B
Total Post B
t-test p Value
Negative 26 17 0.19 22 12 0.05*
Vicious, mean, fierce, unkind, violent, deadly, scary, creepy, terrifying, frightful, bloody, blood, run, crazy, stupid, dangerous, greedy, weird, reckless, bite, killer
Positive 10 20 0.04* 8 14 0.08
“Like me,” “like humans,” cool, rad, gnarly, amazing, awesome, strong, helper, not scary, silly, funny, smart, cute, cuddly, friendly, nice, boss, safe, fun, caring, prefect
Science Content 8 6 0.60 5 5 1.0
Fish, fishy, gills, soft, a sea animal, lives in the sea, specifically named sharks (such as Hammerhead sharks or whale sharks)
Stereotype 11 7 0.23 14 18 0.45
Big, large, hungry, meat-eater, large or sharp teeth, great white, predator, hunter, gray
Unclassified 3 5 0.36 4 8 0.23
Other (water, ocean, plant, food)
Total words 58 55 54 57
* Asterisk represents statistical significance after paired t-test analysis of paired pre and post samples.
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Acknowledgements Specia l thanks to Amy Harpe, Debbie Garr is, and Jamie Bercaw Anzano for the i r endless support and help wi th implementat ion. This work was conducted as a part of a graduate s tudy through Pro ject Dragonf ly a t Miami Univers i ty in Oxford, Ohio.
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Figure 2: Perceptions of sharks as predators before (left drawing) & after (right drawing) the reading of the book by the same student. Note that although drawings were similar the students’ language changed from negative & stereotypical to mostly positive.
Figure 3, below: Perceptions of sharks by a student before (drawing left) and after (drawing right) the reading of the Sand Tiger Sharks book. Pre-reading, the student stated, “all good sharks are dead sharks.” Post-reading the student said, “I guess sharks are more interesting than I thought.”
Figure 4, above: Perceptions of sharks eating in groups from a student in Group A after reading the Sand Tiger Sharks book with added personal connection text and questions. This is a direct representation of information shared in the book.
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