Title of topic: Mining conservations and utilization of natural resources in ancient India

By: Nivedita Pathak

Module 01

Introduction

Mining and metallurgy contributed a lot to India’s development. India has been recognized as a country well-endowed with various natural resources. Mining was practiced well in the land of India and along with mining, metallurgy of various metals also developed. This chapter will cover mining history of most well-known metals: coal, diamond, and gold. History and achievements of Indian metallurgy will also be discussed and following topics will be covered:

Mining scenario in Ancient India Mining for mostly used minerals in India History of Metallurgy in India Metallurgy of mostly used metals in Ancient India

Module 02

Mining scenario in Ancient India

Ancient Indian Mines:

Knowledge on the ancient Indian mines which were active during last three or more millennia, mines of the ores and minerals of copper, gold, zinc, lead and silver which were distributed throughout Rajasthan, Haryana, Bihar, Bengal, Gujarat, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh etc. The technology adopted for digging, mining, transportation, processing on the spot, provisions given for aeration, and lighting in mines etc.

Ancient Indian Knowledge in Metallurgy:

The production and purification of metals, use of flux and slag, temperature attained technology for production and purification of metals like tin, copper, iron, silver, zinc, lead. An understanding of the chemical reactions

accomplished like oxidation, reduction, slag formation, distillation of low boiling metals etc. The fine technology used for the large scale production of bronze, brass, panchaloha, bell metal, coin making metals and many alloys mentioned in chemistry books and also in the books like Channakya’s Arthasaastra. Impressive metallic alloy preparation techniques mentioned in the Rasa books, Rasopanishad and Bharadvaajaa’s writings. The mental ingots, sheets, plates etc of Indian origin excavated from other countries like Athens, Babylonia, Rome, and Egypt.

How the Ancient People Initiate the Mining Techniques

The process of mining the earth and finding the metals, minerals, etc and again making the earth to return back to its original state consists of different steps. Generally, mining techniques can be broadly classified into two types; they are Surface Mining and Underground Mining.

In pre-historic period, when the people had found metals like copper, iron on or close to earth surface, they used to manufacture some tools and weapons.

The ancient known mine is the “Lion Cave” which is in Swaziland. Ancient people used hammers, crude picks, etc. But they found very difficult to find the metals or any other precious stones which was in too deep. So they slowly started to invent new ideas to make the work simple. Since there is no blasting method available in that period, they first used to keep fire on the hard rocks to make it soft then they used water to cool it up and so they had broken those hard rocks easily.

The slaves, prisoners of war and the people who did criminal things had forced to work on the mining areas. And the kids were used to carry the ores from the underground mining area to the outer surface. Then the people who are so weak to work underground had made to separate the rich and poor metals.

In some countries they used “Black Powder” to disclose ore veins and earth to loosen. Then as the development occurs, the people have found a plenty of techniques to find the metals, minerals and other precious stones.

Some of the ancient mining techniques were-

1. Fire setting2. Hydraulic mining3. Reverse overshot water-wheels

1. Fire setting- fire setting method was used to fracture the rock mass during the 5th millennium B.C. In order to evacuate the consecutive fumes, aeration shafts were drilled and elaborated timbering and rock transportation methods allowed the exploitation of much complex deposit and ore (such as chalcopyrite deposits, an iron and copper sulfate).More recent archaeological examples are known from medieval Zawar Mochia in India.

Fire-setting is a method of traditional mining used since prehistoric times up to the Middle Ages. Fires were set against a rock face to heat the stone, which was then doused with liquid, causing the stone to fracture by thermal shock. Some experiments have suggested that the water (or any other liquid) did not have a noticeable effect on the rock, but rather helped the miners' progress by quickly cooling down the area after the fire. This technique was best performed in opencast mines where the smoke and fumes could dissipate safely. The technique was very dangerous in underground workings without adequate ventilation. The method became redundant with the growth in use of explosives.

2. Hydraulic Mining- Hydraulic mining is a form of mining that uses high-pressure jets of water to dislodge rock material or move sediment. In the placer mining of gold or tin, the resulting water-sediment slurry is directed through sluice boxes to remove the gold. It is also used in mining kaolin and coal.

Though successful in extracting gold-rich minerals, the widespread use of the process resulted in extensive environmental damage, such as

increased flooding and erosion, and sediment blocking waterways and covering over farm fields. These problems lead to its legal regulation. Hydraulic mining has since been used in various forms around the world.

3. Reverse overshot water-wheels

Frequently used in mines and probably elsewhere (such as agricultural drainage), the reverse overshot water wheel was a Roman innovation to help remove water from the lowest levels of underground workings. It is described by Vitruvius in his work De Architectura published circa 25 BC. The remains of such systems found in Roman mines by later mining operations show that they were used in sequences so as to lift water a considerable height. Reverse overshot water-wheels

Module 03

Mining for mostly used minerals in India

Diamonds mining

India was the only major producer of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in South Africa in 1866.(5) Diamond was first found in India during the 4th century B.C. India’s diamonds were recognized by many people because of its big size and beauty. India's diamonds were mined in Golconda, Hindostan, and Raolconda. The main diamond fields were in Golconda. These sites were mostly alluvial. Among all diamonds in India, diamonds of Golconda were the most recognized. Diamonds of Golconda include the Hope Diamond, Koh-I-Noor diamond, Orlov Diamond, and Sanc Diamond.

Gold Mining in India

India has long been mining gold, first from the placers and then to the oxidized and primary zones of a variety of deposits. Archaeological data and written records indeed indicate that India worked gold placers and the rich oxidized zones of auriferous deposits. Large scale gold mining stated with the Mauryan colonization of the Deccan by the end of 4th century B.C.

Coal Mining

The industry of coal mining in India started in 1774 by M/s Sumner and Heatly of East India Company in the Raniganj Coalfield along the Western bank of river Damodar. From then on, the production of coal came to a sudden drop because of the lack of demand. However, after the start of Industrial Revolution, the introduction of the steam locomotive in 1853 again stimulated the commercial coal mining.

Within a short span, production rose to an annual average of 1 million tonne (mt) and India could produce 6.12 mts. per year by 1900 and 18 mts per year by 1920. The production got a sudden boost from the First World War but went through a slump in the early thirties. The production reached a level of 29 mts. by 1942 and 30 mts. by 1946.

Module 04

History of Metallurgy in India

Metals were mined and utilized in the past in processes from the use of native metals, to those metals which could be easily smelted from ores, and to those metals which was hard to be smelted. The common metals in antiquity are gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin and mercury. Indian metallurgists’ achievements were indeed significant. Its heritage in metallurgy is a matter of pride of India for sure.

Early Development until 200 CE

Metallurgy in India started during the 2nd millennium BCE and continued also in British Raj, British rule in the Indian subcontinent from 1858 to 1947. Recent excavation by an archaeologist Rakesh Tewari in Middle Ganga valley manifest that iron metallurgy began as early as 1800 BC. Other archaeological sites like Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in the state of Uttar Pradesh support this by providing iron implements from 1800 BC to 1200 BC. By the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was already used in India. In Southern India, iron objects were found to be created from 11th century BCE to 12th century BCE. However, these development was too early for important contact with Northern India

to take place. Early iron objects such as knives, arrow heads, spoons, bowls etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE were found in many sites.

Bronze Age swords of copper were found to be created from 2300 BCE. These swords consist of bronze but more commonly copper. Many of these were discovered in Fatehgarh. These swords date back to the period between 1700 BCE to 1400 BCE, but they were more commonly used in during the opening centuries of 1st millennium BCE.

In the beginning of 1st millennium BCE, the iron metallurgy largely developed in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy was gained during these years of peace. The key to successful iron production in India lay in the development of air blast supplied by the push-and-pull bellows (1). During the Maurya period (322 BCE-185 BCE) which was politically stable, technology of metallurgy was advanced greatly.

In 300 BCE, southern India was producing thee high quality steel by using the crucible skill. In this method, iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed together in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed carbon. The first of this crucible steel was Wootz steel. Wootz steel which originated in India before the Common era was exported to ancient Europe, China, and Arab world. It became prominent in the Middle East where it was soon known there as Damascus steel.

Early Common Era to Early Modern Era (200CE-1757CE)

Indian Blades made of Damascus steel was exported to Persia. Indian Wootz steel which was exported to ancient Europe, China, and the Arab world, came to be called as Damascus steel there. From 3rd century to 17th century, Indian manufactured Damascus swords were obviously articles of exceptionally high value and at the very top of the metal smith's art.

Also, during the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya(375-413), the world’s first iron pillar, the iron pillar of Delhi, was created. It is regarded as the most important and great testimony of metallurgy in Indian

subcontinent. The pillar, unlike the stone pillars, or lats, of Ashoka, is made of iron, and the village is better known as the site where Delhi’s sultans would build renowned Qutub minar and mosque. A very interesting fact about the Iron Pillar is that it is rust proof. Recently, the mystery of this Iron Pillar was revealed. The high amount of phosphor in the iron (about 1% compared to today’s usual 0.5%) formed a layer of "misamite" which protected the Iron Pillar from rusting. Unlike modern people who use mainly limestone, the ancient Indians used charcoal during iron extractions. It is surprising that ancient Indians figured this out long time ago but contemporary technique still deals with rusty iron.

During the imperial Chola Dynasty, the statues of Nataraja and Vishnu were built in the 9th century. The casting involved the mixture of five metals: copper, zinc, tin, gold and silver.

Indian metallurgy under Mughal emperor Akbar flourished with excellent small firearms. Mughal handguns were stronger and more accurate than those of European countries. Srivastava and Alam commented about Indian coinage of the Mughal Empire during the reign of Akbar. Akbar reformed Mughal currency to make it one of the best known of its time. The new regime possessed a fully functioning trimetal (silver, copper, and gold) currency, with an open minting system in which anyone willing to pay the minting charges could bring metal or old or foreign coin to the mint and have it struck. All monetary exchanges were, however, expressed in copper coins in Akbar's time. In the 17th century, following the silver influx from the New World, silver rupee with new fractional denominations replaced the copper coin as a common medium of circulation. Akbar's aim was to establish a uniform coinage throughout his empire; some coins of the old regime and regional kingdoms also continued.

Colonial British Era to Republic of India (1757CE-1947CE)

Foreign competition, absence of tariff barriers and lack of technological innovation hindered the development of mining and metallurgy in India during the colonial period. British were aware that metal working played a considerable role in supporting indigenous power in the past through the

production of firearms and ammunition. Therefore, British took a step to limit Indian metallurgy and mining to prevent future wars and rebellions. In Arms Act in 1878, British limited Indian access to firearms. Rajasthan, the region rich with metals, were considered by British as an important mean that made Indians struggle so hardly against superior British. So by the 19th century, once flourished mines of Rajasthan were mostly abandoned and miners became almost extinct.

During the Company period, local workforce of mine and metallurgy gradually eroded as military opponents were eliminated. As late as the Rebellion of 1857, the mining of lead for ammunition at Ajmer was considered dangerous. Consequently, the mines in the region were mostly closed down by the British.

Module 05

Metallurgy of mostly used metals in Ancient India

India has a rich cultural heritage to boast about, but what many would not know is that ancient India had several achievements in metallurgy too. History traces the origin of metallurgy in India to 1st millennium BC. In ancient Vedic texts, there is sufficient mention of metals to support the fact that people of that era made use of metals in creating weapons, armour, ornaments, statues, pillars, artifacts, and–believe it or not–medicine.

Iron

The Iron Pillar in Delhi is proof of advanced metallurgy in ancient India. The pillar weighs over six tons, is more than seven meters tall, and is constructed on a single forge. Even in today’s technologically advanced world, creating an iron pillar of this nature will be considered a marvel. But what is even more marvelous is the fact that the pillar has not rusted, despite being 98 percent iron and over 1,600 years old. This is because the ancient Indians used charcoal as a reducing agent to extract pure iron with low carbon from the ore. Studies reveal that the use of iron may have begun in India from about the late 2nd millennium BC, and iron smelting was well established during that era.

Gold

While much of the gold in the past was imported from the Roman Empire, research shows that local supplies also formed a significant portion. The deepest ancient gold mine in the world was situated in Karnataka in India, with carbon dates from 1st millennium BC.

Zinc

Ancient mining sites found in Rajasthan reveal the use of highly developed metallurgical technology for extraction of zinc in ancient India. It is also believed that the production of zinc during that era was very common, and there is evidence to suggest that zinc was first produced in India.

Sliver

The discovery of ancient coins made of silver suggests that the metal was well in use in ancient India. The Aravalli region in northwest India is supposed to have been producing silver from about the mid of 1st millennium BC onwards, ranking it among the few major ancient silver-producing sites.

Copper

Copper and its alloys were used to create copper-bronze artifacts in India during 2nd millennium BC. Bronze images of Buddha and Hindu deities found in Magadha and Varanasi are ample proof of the rich use of copper technology in ancient India.

Metal therapy

Processed metals like mercury, gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, etc., were used by Indian seers to treat different disease conditions in ancient India. The metals acted as therapeutic tools that the seers used with authority

Ancient Indian Technology

Knowledge on the ancient Indian mines which were active during last three or more millennia, mines of the ores and minerals of copper, gold, zinc, lead and silver which were distributed throughout Rajasthan, Haryana,

Bihar, Bengal, Gujarat, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh etc. The technology adopted for digging, mining, transportation, processing on the spot, provisions given for aeration, and lighting in mines etc.

The production and purification of metals, use of flux and slag, temperature attained, technology for production and purification of metals like tin, copper, iron, silver, zinc, lead. An understanding of the chemical reactions accomplished like oxidation, reduction, slag formation, distillation of low boiling metals etc. The fine technology used for the large scale production of bronze, brass, panchaloha, bell metal, coin making metals and many alloys mentioned in chemistry books and also in the books like Channakya’s Arthasaastra. Impressive metallic alloy preparation techniques mentioned in the Rasa books, Rasopanishad and Bharadvaajaa’s writings. The mental ingots, sheets, plates etc of Indian origin excavated from other countries like Athens, Babylonia, Rome, and Egypt.

Iron making Technology:

Production of pig iron, cast iron, and wrought iron in ancient India. Delhi and Dhar iron pillar, forge welding, lamination, paint coating for preventing rusting. Making of swords, the Banaras and Kodumanal swords, carburization in iron instruments used in agriculture and surgery. Rust free preservation techniques adopted for iron, woortz steel. Large scale production of iron alloys, export of iron to European and Middle East countries etc.

Ceramics Science and Technology:

The top quality ceramic vessels, tiles, glazed vessels, beads, bricks etc produced in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, Varanasi, Thakshasila, Kalibhangan, Hastinapura and many other north and south Indian archeological sites. Variety of coloring materials used for the ceramic vessels and decoration ceramic articles.

Glass Technology:

Industrial and Instrumental Glass Technology existed in India. Variety of multi colored glasses with different size, shape, appearance, and capacity produced in India. The glass beads, ornaments, plates, vessels made using variety of inorganic coloring materials like the oxides, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates etc of chromium, lead, copper, iron, nickel, calcium, and sodium. The non metallic compounds used as coloring materials. Technology introducing the golden and silver leaf plates in glass

Objective

Mining and metallurgy contributed a lot to India’s development. India has been recognized as a country well-endowed with various natural resources. Mining was practiced well in the land of India and along with mining, metallurgy of various metals also developed. This chapter will cover mining history of most well-known metals: coal, diamond, and gold. History and achievements of Indian metallurgy will also be discussed and following topics will be covered:

Mining scenario in Ancient India Mining for mostly used minerals in India History of Metallurgy in India Metallurgy of mostly used metals in Ancient India

Summary

Mining of various metals and use of various metals in antiquity are very much linked to the history of the Indian civilization. As historical evidences prove, India indeed was a nation which has superior techniques of metallurgy and mining than other countries. Many of the modern Indian metallurgic methods came from ancient practices before the Industrial Revolution. Monuments of metallurgy such as iron pillar of New Delhi demonstrate superiority of India's metallurgic technologies. Also, Indian mining of metals such as coal well served India’s economy with many work opportunities and economic gains. Coal mining especially is well recognized even nowadays. Even though mining and metallurgy was disturbed by British during India’s colonial period, they indeed were the core activities of the Indian economy.

References

GoI. Coal Mining in India: the Past, from Government of India, Ministry of Coal, http://coal.nic.in/abtcoal.htm

CCL Background History of Coal Mining in India, from Central Coalfields Limited, http://ccl.cmpdi.co.in/vsccl/interest%20fact.htm

KHI Diamond Mines of the World: India's Diamonds of Golconda, from Kevin Hulsey Illustration INC., http://www.khulsey.com/jewelry/kh_jewelry_diamond_mines.html

Kenr Diamond Mines of India, by JJ Kent, http://www.jjkent.com/articles/diamond-mines-india.htm

ML The Gold, from Minelinks, http://www.minelinks.com/alluvial/gold1.html/

EN IM Article: India Mining, from Encyclopedia of the Nations, http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/India-MINING.html

DI Coal Industry, from Diehard Indian, http://www.diehardindian.com/infra/coal.htm

HMIS Article : History of Metallurgy in the Indian Subcontinent, from Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent

MHI Metallurgical Heritage of India, by S. Srinivasan and S. Ranganathan, http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/articles/metallurg_heritage_india/metallurgical_heritage_india.html

2 Atoms The Iron Pillar of New Delhi.Hundreds of Years Old, yet has Refused to Rust, from 2 Atoms, http://www.2atoms.com/weird/ancient/pillar.htm

Keay 2000 John Keay. India History. NY : Grove Press, 2000

Chaudhuri 1990 K.N.Chaudhuri. Asia Before Europe. Cambridge : UP 1990html

http://peperonity.com/go/sites/mview/a.mother.india/32684781

http://blog.mapsofindia.com/ancient-india/metallurgy-in-ancient-india/#sthash.FiMzuMZg.dpuf

Assignment

1. Explain the distribution of ancient Indian mines?2. Comment on metallurgical knowledge of ancient Indians?3. How the Ancient People Initiate the Mining Techniques4. Name some of the ancient mining techniques.5. Describe diamond mining in ancient India6. Since when gold mining started in India7. Discuss the history of metallurgy in India8. Name the mostly used metals in Ancient India?9. Name some of the prevailing technologies in ancient India?10. Where ceramics technology was used in ancient India?

FAQs

1. In which areas ancient Indians had knowledge?The production and purification of metals, use of flux and slag, temperature attained technology for production and purification of metals like tin, copper, iron, silver, zinc, lead

2. Where impressive metallic alloy preparation techniques are mentioned?Impressive metallic alloy preparation techniques mentioned in the Rasa books, Rasopanishad and Bharadvaajaa’s writings.

3. How mining technique is classified?Generally, mining techniques can be broadly classified into two types; they are Surface Mining and Underground Mining.

4. How tools and weapons were made in pre historic periods?In pre-historic period, when the people had found metals like copper, iron on or close to earth surface, they used to manufacture some tools and weapons.

5. How rocks were broken in ancient times?Since there is no blasting method available in that period, they first used to keep fire on the hard rocks to make it soft then they used water to cool it up and so they had broken those hard rocks easily.

6. Who were the workers in mines?The slaves, prisoners of war and the people who did criminal things had forced to work on the mining areas. And the kids were used to carry the ores from the underground mining area to the outer surface.

7. Name some of the ancient mining techniques?

Some of the ancient mining techniques were-

Fire setting Hydraulic mining Reverse overshot water-wheels

8. What is Hydraulic mining?Hydraulic mining, is a form of mining that uses high-pressure jets of water to dislodge rock material or move sediment.

9. Where reverse overshot water wheel was used?Reverse overshot water wheel were frequently used in mines and in agricultural drainage system

10. Where was diamond mined in India?India's diamonds were mined in Golconda, Hindostan, and Raolconda.

11. Which are the common metals in antiquity?

The common metals in antiquity are gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin and mercury.

Quiz1. Metallurgy in India started in –

a) 2nd millennium BCEb) 3rdmillennium BCEc) 5thmillennium BCEd) During British era

Answer a)2. The industry of coal mining in India started in-

a) 1575b) 1674c) 1774d) 1874

Answer c)

3. Diamond was first found in India duringa) the 4th century B.Cb) the 5th century B.Cc) the 6th century B.Cd) the 7th century B.C

Answer a)4. The ancient known mine is the “Lion Cave” is ina) Indiab) UKc) Egyptd) Swaziland

Answer d)

5. When the iron metallurgy largely developed in India?a) 1st millennium BCEb) 2ndmillennium BCEc) 3rdmillennium BCE

d) 4thmillennium BCEAnswer a)6. the iron pillar of Delhi, was created in the reign of –

a) Ashokab) Chandragupta II Vikramadityac) Harappad) Mughals

Answer b)7. flourished mines of Rajasthan were mostly abandoned

during-a) Mughal Empireb) Gupta dynastyc) Ashoka Empired) British Empire

Answer d)

8. technology of metallurgy was advanced greatly during-a) Ashoka dynastyb) Maurya dynastyc) Chola dynastyd) British era

Answer b)9. The first Coalfield in India was –

BokaroRaniganjDhanbadGodavari

Answer b)10. Which method was used to fracture the rock mass?

a) Fire settingb) Hydraulic miningc) Reverse overshot water-wheelsd) Black powder

Answer a)

Glossary

Ammunition- anything that can be used in combat including bombs, missiles, warheads, landmines, naval mines, and anti-personnel mines

BCE- an abbreviation for 'Before Common Era', a non-religious alternative to the use of B.C. in designating the first period of the Gregorian Calendar, the era of prehistory and much of antiquity.

Black Powder- is a chemical explosive—the earliest known. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate.

Crucible- is a container that can withstand very high temperatures and is used for metal, glass, and pigment production as well as a number of modern laboratory processes

Metallurgy - the technique or science of working or heating metals so as to give them certain desired shapes or properties.

Middle Ages- is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: Antiquity, Medieval period, and Modern period.

Millennia- is a period of time equal to 1000 years

Pre-historic - Prehistory is the span of time before recorded history or the invention of writing systems

Slurry- a thin mixture of an insoluble substance, as cement, clay, or coal, with a liquid, as water or oil

Surface Mining- a method of mining used to extract minerals and metals near the surface of the Earth.

Therapeutic- relating to the healing of disease.Underground Mining- refers to various underground mining techniques used to excavate hard minerals, mainly those containing metals