Mining

For other uses, see Mining (disambiguation).Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other

Surface coal mining

Simplified world active mining map

geological materials from the earth from an orebody,lode, vein, seam, or reef, which forms the mineralizedpackage of economic interest to the miner.Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale,gemstones, limestone, dimension stone, rock salt, potash,gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain anymaterialthat cannot be grown through agricultural processes, orcreated artificially in a laboratory or factory. Mining ina wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewableresource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water.Mining of stones and metal has been done sincepre-historic times. Modern mining processes involveprospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potentialof a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials,and final reclamation of the land after the mine is closed.The nature of mining processes creates a potential neg-ative impact on the environment both during the miningoperations and for years after the mine is closed. Thisimpact has led most of the world’s nations to adopt regu-lations designed to moderate the negative effects of min-ing operations. Safety has long been a concern as well,

and modern practices have improved safety in mines sig-nificantly.

1 History

1.1 Prehistoric mining

Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert

Since the beginning of civilization, people have usedstone, ceramics and, later, metals found close to theEarth's surface. These were used to make early tools andweapons; for example, high quality flint found in north-ern France and southern England was used to create flinttools.[1] Flint mines have been found in chalk areas whereseams of the stone were followed underground by shaftsand galleries. The mines at Grimes Graves are especiallyfamous, and like most other flint mines, are Neolithicin origin (ca 4000 BC-ca 3000 BC). Other hard rocksmined or collected for axes included the greenstone of theLangdale axe industry based in the English Lake District.The oldest known mine on archaeological record isthe “Lion Cave” in Swaziland, which radiocarbon dat-ing shows to be about 43,000 years old. At this sitePaleolithic humans mined hematite to make the redpigment ochre.[2][3]Mines of a similar age in Hungary arebelieved to be sites where Neanderthals may have minedflint for weapons and tools.[4]

1.2 Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi.[5] At first,Egyptians used the bright greenmalachite stones for orna-

1

2 1 HISTORY

mentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494BC, large building projects required expeditions abroadto the area of Wadi Maghara in order “to secure miner-als and other resources not available in Egypt itself.”[6]Quarries for turquoise and copper were also found at“Wadi Hamamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubiansites”[6] on the Sinai Peninsula and at Timna.Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties. Thegold mines of Nubia were among the largest and mostextensive of any in Ancient Egypt, and are described bytheGreek authorDiodorus Siculus. Hementions that fire-setting was one method used to break down the hard rockholding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in oneof the earliest known maps. The miners crushed the oreand ground it to a fine powder before washing the powderfor the gold dust.

1.3 Ancient Greek and Roman Mining

Further information: Mining in Roman BritainMining in Europe has a very long history. Examples in-

Ancient Roman development of the Dolaucothi Gold Mines,Wales

clude the silver mines of Laurium, which helped supportthe Greek city state of Athens. Despite the mine havingover 20,000 slaves working in them, the technology wasessentially identical to their Bronze Age predecessors.[7]Other mines, such as on the island of Thassos, hadmarblequarried by the Parians after arriving in the 7th CenturyBC.[8] The marble was shipped away and was found tohave been used in buildings including the tomb of Am-phipolis. Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexanderthe Great, captured the gold mines of Mount Pangeo in357 BC to fund his military campaigns.[9] He also cap-

tured gold mines in Thrace for minting coinage, eventu-ally producing 26 tons per year.However, it is the Romans who developed large scalemining methods, especially the use of large volumes ofwater brought to the minehead by numerous aqueducts.The water was used for a variety of purposes, includingremoving overburden and rock debris, called hydraulicmining, as well as washing comminuted, or crushed, oresand driving simple machinery.The Romans used hydraulic mining methods on a largescale to prospect for the veins of ore, especially a nowobsolete form of mining known as hushing. It involvedbuilding numerous aqueducts to supply water to the mine-head where it was stored in large reservoirs and tanks.When a full tank was opened, the wave of water sluicedaway the overburden to expose the bedrock underneathand any gold veins. The rock was then attacked by fire-setting to heat the rock, which would be quenched with astream of water. The thermal shock cracked the rock, en-abling it to be removed, aided by further streams of waterfrom the overhead tanks. The Roman miners used simi-lar methods to work cassiterite deposits in Cornwall andlead ore in the Pennines.The methods had been developed by the Romans in Spainin 25 AD to exploit large alluvial gold deposits, the largestsite being at Las Medulas, where seven long aqueductswere built to tap local rivers and to sluice the deposits.Spain was one of the most important mining regions, butall regions of the Roman Empire were exploited. In GreatBritain the natives had mined minerals for millennia,[10]but when the Romans came, the scale of the operationschanged dramatically.The Romans needed Britannia's resources, especiallygold, silver, tin, and lead. Roman techniques were notlimited to surface mining. They followed the ore veinsunderground once opencast mining was no longer feasi-ble. At Dolaucothi they stoped out the veins, and droveadits through barren rock to drain the stopes. The sameadits were also used to ventilate the workings, especiallyimportant when fire-setting was used. At other parts ofthe site, they penetrated the water table and dewatered themines using several kinds of machine, especially reverseovershot water-wheels. These were used extensively inthe copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain, where one se-quence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs, andlifting water about 80 feet (24 m). They were worked astreadmills with miners standing on the top slats. Manyexamples of such devices have been found in old Ro-man mines and some examples are now preserved in theBritish Museum and the National Museum of Wales.[11]

1.4 Medieval Europe

Main article: Mining and metallurgy in medieval EuropeMining as an industry underwent dramatic changes inmedieval Europe. The mining industry in the early Mid-

1.4 Medieval Europe 3

Agricola, author of De Re Metallica

Gallery, 12th to 13th century, Germany

dle Ages was mainly focused on the extraction of copperand iron. Other precious metals were also usedmainly forgilding or coinage. Initially, many metals were obtained

through open-pit mining, and ore was primarily extractedfrom shallow depths, rather than though the digging ofdeep mine shafts. Around the 14th century, the demandfor weapons, armour, stirrups, and horseshoes greatly in-creased the demand for iron. Medieval knights, for exam-ple, were often laden with up to 100 pounds of plate orchain link armour in addition to swords, lances and otherweapons.[12] The overwhelming dependency on iron formilitary purposes helped to spur increased iron produc-tion and extraction processes.The silver crisis of 1465 occurred when the mines hadall reached depths at which the shafts could no longer bepumped dry with the available technology.[13] Althoughan increased use of bank notes, credit and copper coinsduring this period did decrease the value of, and depen-dence on, precious metals, gold and silver still remainedvital to the story of medieval mining.In the mid-sixteenth century the great attack on mineraldeposits spread from central Europe to England. Englandhad iron, zinc, copper, lead, and tin ores. On the conti-nent all mineral deposits belonged to the crown, and thisregalian right was stoutly maintained; but in England itwas pared down to gold and silver (of which there wasvirtually none) by a judicial decision of 1568 and a lawof 1688. Landlords therefore owned the base metals andcoal under their estates and had a strong inducement toextract them or to lease the deposits and collect royaltiesfrom mine operators. English, German, and Dutch cap-ital combined to finance extraction and refining. Hun-dreds of German technicians and skilled workers werebrought over; in 1642 a colony of 4,000 foreigners wasmining and smelting copper at Keswick in the northwest-ern mountains.[14]

Use of water power in the form of water mills was ex-tensive. The water mills were employed in crushing ore,raising ore from shafts, and ventilating galleries by pow-ering giant bellows. Black powder was first used in min-ing in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary in 1627.[15]Black powder allowed blasting of rock and earth to loosenand reveal ore veins. Blasting was much faster than fire-setting and allowed the mining of previously impenetra-ble metals and ores.[16] In 1762, the world’s first miningacademy was established in the same town.The widespread adoption of agricultural innovations suchas the iron plowshare, as well as the growing use of metalas a building material, was also a driving force in thetremendous growth of the iron industry during this pe-riod. Inventions like the arrastra were often used by theSpanish to pulverize ore after being mined. This devicewas powered by animals and used the same principlesused for grain threshing.[17]

Much of the knowledge of medieval mining techniquescomes from books such as Biringuccio’s De la pirotech-nia and probably most importantly fromGeorg Agricola'sDe re metallica (1556). These books detail many differ-ent mining methods used in German and Saxon mines.

4 1 HISTORY

One of the prime issues confrontingmedieval miners (andone which Agricola explains in detail) was the removal ofwater from mining shafts. As miners dug deeper to ac-cess new veins, flooding became a very real obstacle. Themining industry became dramatically more efficient andprosperous with the invention of mechanical and animaldriven pumps.

1.5 Classical Philippine Civilization

See also: Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philip-pinesMining in the Philippines began around 1000 BC. The

The image of a Maharlika class of the Philippine Society , de-picted in Boxer Codex that the Gold used as a form of Jewelry(ca.1400).

early Filipinos worked various mines of gold, silver, cop-per and iron. Jewels, gold ingots, chains, calombigas andearrings were handed down from antiquity and inheritedfrom their ancestors. Gold dagger handles, gold dishes,tooth plating, and huge gold ornamets were also used.[18]In Laszlo Legeza’s “Tantric elements in pre-HispanicPhilippines Gold Art”, he mentioned that gold jewelryof Philippine origin was found in Ancient Egypt.[18] Ac-cording to Antonio Pigafetta, the people of Mindoro pos-sessed great skill in mixing gold with other metals andgave it a natural and perfect appearance that could deceiveeven the best of silversmiths.[18] The natives were alsoknown for the jewelries made of other precious stonessuch as carnelian, agate and pearl. Some outstanding ex-

amples of Philippine jewelry included necklaces, belts,armlets and rings placed around the waist.

1.6 The Americas

Lead mining in the upper Mississippi River region of the U.S.,1865.

There are ancient, prehistoric copper mines along LakeSuperior, and metallic copper was still found there, nearthe surface, in colonial times. [19] [20] [21] Indegenouspeoples availed themselves of this copper starting atleast 5,000 years ago,”[19] and copper tools, arrowheads,and other artifacts that were part of an extensive na-tive trade network have been discovered. In addition,obsidian, flint, and other minerals were mined, worked,and traded.[20] Early French explorers who encounteredthe sites made no use of the metals due to the difficultiesof transporting them,[20] but the copper was eventuallytraded throughout the continent along major river routes.In Saskatchewan, Canada, there also are ancient quartzmines near Waddy Lake and surrounding regions.[22]

Miners at the TamarackMine in Copper Country, Michigan, U.S.in 1905.

In the early colonial history of the Americas, “nativegold and silver was quickly expropriated and sent back toSpain in fleets of gold- and silver-laden galleons,”[23] thegold and silver mostly from mines in Central and SouthAmerica. Turquoise dated at 700 A.D. was mined in

5

pre-Columbian America; in the Cerillos Mining Districtin New Mexico, estimates are that “about 15,000 tonsof rock had been removed from Mt. Chalchihuitl usingstone tools before 1700.”[24][25]

Mining in the United States became prevalent in the 19thcentury, and the General Mining Act of 1872 was passedto encourage mining of federal lands.[26] As with theCalifornia Gold Rush in the mid-19th century, mining forminerals and precious metals, along with ranching, was adriving factor in the Westward Expansion to the Pacificcoast. With the exploration of the West, mining campswere established and “expressed a distinctive spirit, an en-during legacy to the new nation;" Gold Rushers wouldexperience the same problems as the Land Rushers ofthe transient West that preceded them.[27] Aided by rail-roads, many traveledWest for work opportunities in min-ing. Western cities such as Denver and Sacramento orig-inated as mining towns.As new areas were explored, it was usually the gold(placer and then load) and then silver that were taken first,with other metals often waiting for railroads or canals.Coarse gold dust and nuggets do not require smelting andare easy to identify and transport.[21]

1.7 Modern period

In the early 20th century, the gold and silver rush to thewestern United States also stimulated mining for basemetals such as copper, lead, and iron as well as coal. Ar-eas in modern Montana, Utah, Arizona, and later Alaskabecame predominate suppliers of copper to the world,which was increasingly demanding copper for electricaland households goods.[28] Canada’s mining industry grewmore slowly than did the United States’ due to limitationsin transportation, capital, and U.S. competition; Ontariowas the major producer of the early 20th century withnickel, copper, and gold.[28]

Meanwhile, Australia experienced the Australian goldrushes and by the 1850s was producing 40% of theworld’s gold, followed by the establishment of largeminessuch as the Mount Morgan Mine, which ran for nearlya hundred years, Broken Hill ore deposit (one of thelargest zinc-lead ore deposits), and the iron ore mines atIron Knob. After declines in production, another boomin mining occurred in the 1960s. Now, in the early21st century, Australia remains a major world mineralproducer.[29]

As the 21st century begins, a globalized mining indus-try of large multinational corporations has arisen. Peakminerals and environmental impacts have also become aconcern. Different elements, particularly rare earth min-erals, have begun to increase in demand as a result of newtechnologies.

2 Mine development and lifecycle

Schematic of a cut and fill mining operation in hard rock.

The process of mining from discovery of an ore bodythrough extraction of minerals and finally to returning theland to its natural state consists of several distinct steps.The first is discovery of the ore body, which is carried outthrough prospecting or exploration to find and then definethe extent, location and value of the ore body. This leadsto a mathematical resource estimation to estimate the sizeand grade of the deposit.This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility studyto determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit.This identifies, early on, whether further investment in es-timation and engineering studies is warranted and identi-fies key risks and areas for further work. The next step isto conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial via-bility, the technical and financial risks, and the robustnessof the project.This is when the mining company makes the decisionwhether to develop the mine or to walk away fromthe project. This includes mine planning to evaluatethe economically recoverable portion of the deposit,the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability andpayability of the ore concentrates, engineering concerns,milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity re-quirements, and an analysis of the proposed mine fromthe initial excavation all the way through to reclamation.The proportion of a deposit that is economically recover-able is dependent on the enrichment factor of the ore inthe area.To gain access to the mineral deposit within an area it isoften necessary to mine through or remove waste mate-rial which is not of immediate interest to the miner. Thetotal movement of ore and waste constitutes the miningprocess. Often more waste than ore is mined during thelife of a mine, depending on the nature and location ofthe ore body. Waste removal and placement is a majorcost to the mining operator, so a detailed characteriza-tion of the waste material forms an essential part of thegeological exploration program for a mining operation.Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth re-covering, development begins to create access to the orebody. The mine buildings and processing plants are built,and any necessary equipment is obtained. The operation

6 3 MINING TECHNIQUES

of the mine to recover the ore begins and continues aslong as the company operating the mine finds it econom-ical to do so. Once all the ore that the mine can produceprofitably is recovered, reclamation begins to make theland used by the mine suitable for future use.

3 Mining techniques

Underground longwall mining.

Mining techniques can be divided into two commonexcavation types: surface mining and sub-surface (under-ground) mining. Today, surface mining is much morecommon, and produces, for example, 85% of miner-als (excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the UnitedStates, including 98% of metallic ores.[30]

Targets are divided into two general categories of ma-terials: placer deposits, consisting of valuable mineralscontained within river gravels, beach sands, and otherunconsolidated materials; and lode deposits, where valu-able minerals are found in veins, in layers, or in mineralgrains generally distributed throughout a mass of actualrock. Both types of ore deposit, placer or lode, are minedby both surface and underground methods.Some mining, including much of the rare earth elementsand uranium mining, is done by less-common methods,such as in-situ leaching: this technique involves diggingneither at the surface nor underground. The extraction oftarget minerals by this technique requires that they be sol-uble, e.g., potash, potassium chloride, sodium chloride,sodium sulfate, which dissolve in water. Some minerals,such as copper minerals and uranium oxide, require acidor carbonate solutions to dissolve.[31][32]

3.1 Surface mining

Main article: Surface mining

Surface mining is done by removing (stripping) surfacevegetation, dirt, and, if necessary, layers of bedrock in

order to reach buried ore deposits. Techniques of surfacemining include: open-pit mining, which is the recoveryof materials from an open pit in the ground, quarrying,identical to open-pit mining except that it refers to sand,stone and clay;[33] strip mining, which consists of strip-ping surface layers off to reveal ore/seams underneath;and mountaintop removal, commonly associated withcoal mining, which involves taking the top of a moun-tain off to reach ore deposits at depth. Most (but notall) placer deposits, because of their shallowly buriednature, are mined by surface methods. Finally, landfillmining involves sites where landfills are excavated andprocessed.[34]

Garzweiler surface mine, Germany

3.2 Underground mining

Main articles: Underground mining (hard rock) andUnderground mining (soft rock)Sub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts

Mantrip used for transporting miners within an undergroundmine

into the earth to reach buried ore deposits. Ore, for pro-cessing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to thesurface through the tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface min-ing can be classified by the type of access shafts used, theextraction method or the technique used to reach the min-eral deposit. Drift mining utilizes horizontal access tun-nels, slope mining uses diagonally sloping access shafts,and shaft mining utilizes vertical access shafts. Mining

7

in hard and soft rock formations require different tech-niques.Other methods include shrinkage stope mining, which ismining upward, creating a sloping underground room,long wall mining, which is grinding a long ore surfaceunderground, and room and pillar mining, which is re-moving ore from rooms while leaving pillars in place tosupport the roof of the room. Room and pillar mining of-ten leads to retreat mining, in which supporting pillars areremoved as miners retreat, allowing the room to cave in,thereby loosening more ore. Additional sub-surface min-ing methods include hard rock mining, which is miningof hard rock (igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary) ma-terials, bore hole mining, drift and fill mining, long holeslope mining, sub level caving, and block caving.

4 Machines

The Bagger 288 is a bucket-wheel excavator used in strip mining.It is also the largest land vehicle of all time.

A Bucyrus Erie 2570 dragline and CAT 797 haul truck at theNorth Antelope Rochelle opencut coal mine

Heavy machinery is used in mining to explore and de-velop sites, to remove and stockpile overburden, to breakand remove rocks of various hardness and toughness, toprocess the ore, and to carry out reclamation projects af-ter the mine is closed. Bulldozers, drills, explosives andtrucks are all necessary for excavating the land. In thecase of placermining, unconsolidated gravel, or alluvium,is fed into machinery consisting of a hopper and a shakingscreen or trommel which frees the desired minerals fromthe waste gravel. The minerals are then concentrated us-ing sluices or jigs.Large drills are used to sink shafts, excavate stopes, andobtain samples for analysis. Trams are used to transport

miners, minerals and waste. Lifts carry miners into andout of mines, and move rock and ore out, and machineryin and out, of underground mines. Huge trucks, shov-els and cranes are employed in surface mining to movelarge quantities of overburden and ore. Processing plantsutilize large crushers, mills, reactors, roasters and otherequipment to consolidate the mineral-rich material andextract the desired compounds and metals from the ore.

5 Processing

Main articles: mineral processing and extractive metal-lurgy

Once the mineral is extracted, it is often then processed.The science of extractive metallurgy is a specialized areain the science of metallurgy that studies the extraction ofvaluable metals from their ores, especially through chem-ical or mechanical means.Mineral processing (or mineral dressing) is a specializedarea in the science of metallurgy that studies the mechan-ical means of crushing, grinding, and washing that enablethe separation (extractive metallurgy) of valuable metalsor minerals from their gangue (waste material). Process-ing of placer ore material consists of gravity-dependentmethods of separation, such as sluice boxes. Only mi-nor shaking or washing may be necessary to disaggregate(unclump) the sands or gravels before processing. Pro-cessing of ore from a lode mine, whether it is a surfaceor subsurface mine, requires that the rock ore be crushedand pulverized before extraction of the valuable mineralsbegins. After lode ore is crushed, recovery of the valu-able minerals is done by one, or a combination of several,mechanical and chemical techniques.Since most metals are present in ores as oxides or sul-fides, the metal needs to be reduced to its metallic form.This can be accomplished through chemical means suchas smelting or through electrolytic reduction, as in thecase of aluminium. Geometallurgy combines the geo-logic sciences with extractive metallurgy and mining.

6 Environmental effects

Main article: Environmental issues with miningEnvironmental issues can include erosion, formation ofsinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil,groundwater and surface water by chemicals fromminingprocesses. In some cases, additional forest logging is donein the vicinity of mines to create space for the storageof the created debris and soil.[35] Contamination resultingfrom leakage of chemicals can also affect the health of thelocal population if not properly controlled.[36] Extremeexamples of pollution from mining activities include coalfires, which can last for years or even decades, producing

8 6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Iron hydroxide precipitate stains a stream receiving acid drainagefrom surface coal mining.

massive amounts of environmental damage.Mining companies in most countries are required to fol-low stringent environmental and rehabilitation codes inorder to minimize environmental impact and avoid im-pacting human health. These codes and regulations all re-quire the common steps of environmental impact assess-ment, development of environmental management plans,mine closure planning (which must be done before thestart of mining operations), and environmental monitor-ing during operation and after closure. However, in someareas, particularly in the developing world, governmentregulations may not be well enforced.For major mining companies and any company seekinginternational financing, there are a number of othermech-anisms to enforce good environmental standards. Thesegenerally relate to financing standards such as the EquatorPrinciples, IFC environmental standards, and criteria forSocially responsible investing. Mining companies haveused this oversight from the financial sector to argue forsome level of industry self-regulation.[37] In 1992, a DraftCode of Conduct for Transnational Corporations was pro-posed at the Rio Earth Summit by the UN Centre forTransnational Corporations (UNCTC), but the BusinessCouncil for Sustainable Development (BCSD) togetherwith the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) ar-gued successfully for self-regulation instead.[38]

This was followed by the Global Mining Initiative whichwas begun by nine of the largest metals and mining com-panies and which led to the formation of the InternationalCouncil on Mining and Metals, whose purpose was to“act as a catalyst” in an effort to improve social and envi-ronmental performance in the mining and metals indus-try internationally.[37] The mining industry has providedfunding to various conservation groups, some of whichhave been working with conservation agendas that are atodds with an emerging acceptance of the rights of in-digenous people – particularly the right to make land-usedecisions.[39]

Certification of mines with good practices occurs throughthe International Organization for Standardization (ISO).For example, ISO 9000 and ISO 14001, which certifyan “auditable environmental management system”, in-volve short inspections, although they have been accusedof lacking rigor.[37]:183–4 Certification is also availablethrough Ceres' Global Reporting Initiative, but these re-ports are voluntary and unverified. Miscellaneous othercertification programs exist for various projects, typicallythrough nonprofit groups.[37]:185–6

The purpose of a 2012 EPS PEAKS paper[40] was to pro-vide evidence on policies managing ecological costs andmaximise socio-economic benefits of mining using hostcountry regulatory initiatives. It found existing literaturesuggesting donors encourage developing countries to:

• Make the environment-poverty link and introducecutting-edge wealth measures and natural capital ac-counts.

• Reform old taxes in line with more recent financialinnovation, engage directly with the companies, en-acting land use and impact assessments, and incor-porate specialised support and standards agencies.

• Set in play transparency and community participa-tion initiatives using the wealth accrued.

6.1 Waste

Oremills generate large amounts of waste, called tailings.For example, 99 tons of waste are generated per ton ofcopper,[41] with even higher ratios in gold mining - be-cause only 5.3 g of gold is extracted per ton of ore, aton of gold produces 200,000 tons of tailings.[42] Thesetailings can be toxic. Tailings, which are usually pro-duced as a slurry, are most commonly dumped into pondsmade from naturally existing valleys.[43] These pondsare secured by impoundments (dams or embankmentdams).[43] In 2000 it was estimated that 3,500 tailings im-poundments existed, and that every year, 2 to 5 majorfailures and 35 minor failures occurred;[44] for example,in the Marcopper mining disaster at least 2 million tonsof tailings were released into a local river.[44] Subaque-ous tailings disposal is another option.[43] The mining in-dustry has argued that submarine tailings disposal (STD),

9

which disposes of tailings in the sea, is ideal because itavoids the risks of tailings ponds; although the practice isillegal in the United States and Canada, it is used in thedeveloping world.[45]

The waste is classified as either sterile or mineralised,with acid generating potential, and the movement andstorage of this material forms a major part of the mineplanning process. When the mineralised package is de-termined by an economic cut-off, the near-grade miner-alised waste is usually dumped separately with view tolater treatment should market conditions change and itbecomes economically viable. Civil engineering designparameters are used in the design of the waste dumps,and special conditions apply to high-rainfall areas and toseismically active areas. Waste dump designs must meetall regulatory requirements of the country in whose juris-diction the mine is located. It is also common practice torehabilitate dumps to an internationally acceptable stan-dard, which in some cases means that higher standardsthan the local regulatory standard are applied.[44]

6.2 Renewable energy and mining

Many mining sites are remote and not connected to thegrid. Electricity is typically generated with diesel gener-ators. Due to high transportation cost and theft duringtransportation the cost for generating electricity is nor-mally high. Renewable energy applications are becomingan alternative or amendment. Both solar and wind powerplants can contribute in saving diesel costs at mining sites.Renewable energy applications have been built at miningsites.[46] Cost savings can reach up to 70%.[47]

7 Mining industry

Main articles: List of mines, List of mining companiesand Category:Mining companies

Mining exists in many countries. London is known asthe capital of global “mining houses” such as Rio TintoGroup, BHP Billiton, and Anglo American PLC.[48] TheUSmining industry is also large, but it is dominated by thecoal and other nonmetal minerals (e.g., rock and sand),and various regulations have worked to reduce the signif-icance of mining in the United States.[48] In 2007 the totalmarket capitalization of mining companies was reportedat US$962 billion, which compares to a total global mar-ket cap of publicly traded companies of about US$50 tril-lion in 2007.[49] In 2002, Chile and Peru were reportedlythe major mining countries of South America.[50] Themineral industry of Africa includes the mining of variousminerals; it produces relatively little of the industrial met-als copper, lead, and zinc, but according to one estimatehas as a percent of world reserves 40% of gold, 60% ofcobalt, and 90% of the world’s platinum group metals.[51]

Mining in India is a significant part of that country’s econ-omy. In the developed world, mining in Australia, withBHP Billiton founded and headquartered in the country,and mining in Canada are particularly significant. Forrare earth minerals mining, China reportedly controlled95% of production in 2013.[52]

The Bingham Canyon Mine of Rio Tinto’s subsidiary, KennecottUtah Copper.

While exploration and mining can be conducted by indi-vidual entrepreneurs or small businesses, most modern-day mines are large enterprises requiring large amountsof capital to establish. Consequently, the mining sectorof the industry is dominated by large, often multinational,companies, most of them publicly listed. It can be ar-gued that what is referred to as the 'mining industry' isactually two sectors, one specializing in exploration fornew resources and the other in mining those resources.The exploration sector is typically made up of individualsand small mineral resource companies, called “juniors”,which are dependent on venture capital. The mining sec-tor is made up of large multinational companies that aresustained by production from their mining operations.Various other industries such as equipment manufacture,environmental testing, and metallurgy analysis rely on,and support, the mining industry throughout the world.Canadian stock exchanges have a particular focus onmin-ing companies, particularly junior exploration compa-nies through Toronto’sTSX Venture Exchange; Canadiancompanies raise capital on these exchanges and then in-vest the money in exploration globally.[48] Some have ar-gued that below juniors there exists a substantial sectorof illegitimate companies primarily focused on manipu-lating stock prices.[48]

Mining operations can be grouped into five major cate-gories in terms of their respective resources. These areoil and gas extraction, coal mining, metal ore mining,nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying, and miningsupport activities.[53] Of all of these categories, oil andgas extraction remains one of the largest in terms of itsglobal economic importance. Prospecting potential min-ing sites, a vital area of concern for the mining industry,is now done using sophisticated new technologies such as

10 7 MINING INDUSTRY

seismic prospecting and remote-sensing satellites. Min-ing is heavily affected by the prices of the commodityminerals, which are often volatile. The 2000s com-modities boom (“commodities supercycle”) increased theprices of commodities, driving aggressive mining. In ad-dition, the price of gold increased dramatically in the2000s, which increased gold mining; for example, onestudy found that conversion of forest in the Amazon in-creased six-fold from the period 2003–2006 (292 ha/yr)to the period 2006–2009 (1,915 ha/yr), largely due to ar-tisanal mining.[54]

7.1 Corporate classifications

Mining companies can be classified based on their sizeand financial capabilities:

• Major companies are considered to have an ad-justed annual mining-related revenue of more thanUS$500 million, with the financial capability to de-velop a major mine on its own.

• Intermediate companies have at least $50 millionin annual revenue but less than $500 million.

• Junior companies rely on equity financing as theirprincipal means of funding exploration. Juniors aremainly pure exploration companies, but may alsoproduce minimally, and do not have a revenue ex-ceeding US$50 million.[55]

7.2 Regulation and governance

New regulation and process of legislative reforms aimsto enrich the harmonization and stability of the miningsector in mineral-rich countries.[56] The new legislationfor mining industry in the African countries still appearsas an emerging issue with a potential to be solved, un-til a consensus is reached on the best approach.[57] Bythe beginning of the 20th century the booming and morecomplexmining sector inmineral-rich countries providedonly slight benefits to local communities in terms of sus-tainability. Increasing debates and influence by NGOsand communities appealed for a new program whichwould have had also included a disadvantaged communi-ties, and would have had worked towards sustainable de-velopment even after mine closure (included transparencyand revenue management). By the early 2000s, commu-nity development issues and resettlements became main-streamed in Bank mining projects.[57] Mining-industryexpansion after an increase of mineral prices in 2003 andalso potential fiscal revenues in those countries createdan omission in the other economic sectors in terms of fi-nances and development. Furthermore, it had highlightedregional and local demand ofmining-revenues and lack ofability of sub-national governments to use the revenues.The Fraser Institute (a Canadian think tank) has high-lighted the environmental protection laws in developing

countries, as well as the voluntary efforts by mining com-panies to improve their environmental impact.[58]

In 2007 the Extractive Industries Transparency Initia-tive (EITI) was mainstreamed in all countries cooperat-ing with the World Bank in mining industry reform.[57]The EITI is operating and implementing with a supportof EITI Multi-Donor Trust Fund, managed by TheWorldBank.[59] The Extractive Industries Transparency Initia-tive (EITI) aims to increase transparency in transactionsbetween governments and companies within extractiveindustries[60] by monitoring the revenues and benefits be-tween industries and recipient governments. The en-trance process is voluntary for each country and is beingmonitored by multi-stakeholders involving government,private companies and civil society representatives, re-sponsible for disclosure and dissemination of the recon-ciliation report;[57] however, the competitive disadvan-tage of company-by company public report is for some ofthe businesses in Ghana, the main constraint.[61] There-fore, the outcome assessment in terms of failure or suc-cess of the new EITI regulation does not only “rest onthe government’s shoulders” but also on civil society andcompanies.[62]

On the other hand, criticism points out two main imple-mentation issues; inclusion or exclusion of artisanal min-ing and small-scale mining (ASM) from the EITI and howto deal with “non-cash” payments made by companies tosubnational governments. Furthermore, disproportion ofthe revenues mining industry creates to the comparativelysmall number of people that it employs,[63] causes anothercontroversy. The issue of artisanal mining is clearly anissue in EITI Countries such as the Central African Re-public, D.R. Congo, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone –i.e. almost half of the mining countries implementing theEITI.[63] Among other things, limited scope of the EITIinvolving disparity in terms of knowledge of the indus-try and negotiation skills, thus far flexibility of the policy(e.g. liberty of the countries to expand beyond the mini-mum requirements and adapt it to their needs), creates an-other risk of unsuccessful implementation. Public aware-ness increase, where government should act as a bridgebetween public and initiative for a successful outcome ofthe policy is an important element to be considered.[64]

7.3 World Bank

The World Bank has been involved in mining since1955, mainly through grants from its InternationalBank for Reconstruction and Development, with theBank’s Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency offer-ing political risk insurance.[65] Between 1955 and 1990 itprovided about $2 billion to fifty mining projects, broadlycategorized as reform and rehabilitation, greenfield mineconstruction, mineral processing, technical assistance,and engineering. These projects have been criticized,particularly the Ferro Carajas project of Brazil, begun in1981.[66] The World Bank established mining codes in-

11

tended to increase foreign investment; in 1988 it solicitedfeedback from 45 mining companies on how to increasetheir involvement.[37]:20

In 1992 the World Bank began to push for privatiza-tion of government-owned mining companies with a newset of codes, beginning with its report The Strategy forAfrican Mining. In 1997, Latin America’s largest minerCompanhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) was privatized.These and other developments such as the Philippines1995 Mining Act led the bank to publish a third report(Assistance for Minerals Sector Development and Reformin Member Countries) which endorsed mandatory envi-ronment impact assessments and attention to the con-cerns of the local population. The codes based on thisreport are influential in the legislation of developing na-tions. The new codes are intended to encourage develop-ment through tax holidays, zero custom duties, reducedincome taxes, and related measures.[37]:22 The results ofthese codes were analyzed by a group from the Universityof Quebec, which concluded that the codes promote for-eign investment but “fall very short of permitting sustain-able development”.[67] The observed negative correlationbetween natural resources and economic development isknown as the resource curse.

8 Safety

Le Petit Journal illustration of the Courrières mine disaster

Safety has long been a concern in the mining business es-pecially in sub-surface mining. The Courrières mine dis-aster, Europe’s worst mining accident, involved the deathof 1,099 miners in Northern France on March 10, 1906.

Firefighter training in fell slate mine, Germany

Remnants of pit “San Vicente” in Linares, Jaén, Spain. On itslast day of operation, in 1967, six workers died in an elevatoraccident.[68]

This disaster was surpassed only by the Benxihu Collieryaccident in China on April 26, 1942, which killed 1,549miners.[69] While mining today is substantially safer thanit was in previous decades, mining accidents still occur.Government figures indicate that 5,000 Chinese minersdie in accidents each year, while other reports have sug-gested a figure as high as 20,000.[70] Mining accidentscontinue worldwide, including accidents causing dozensof fatalities at a time such as the 2007 UlyanovskayaMinedisaster in Russia, the 2009 Heilongjiang mine explosionin China, and the 2010 Upper Big Branch Mine disasterin the United States.Mining ventilation is a significant safety concern formany miners. Poor ventilation inside sub-surface minescauses exposure to harmful gases, heat, and dust, whichcan cause illness, injury, and death. The concentra-tion of methane and other airborne contaminants un-derground can generally be controlled by dilution (ven-tilation), capture before entering the host air stream(methane drainage), or isolation (seals and stoppings).[71]Rock dusts, including coal dust and silicon dust, can causelong-term lung problems including silicosis, asbestosis,and pneumoconiosis (also known as miners lung or blacklung disease). A ventilation system is set up to forcea stream of air through the working areas of the mine.

12 9 RECORDS

The air circulation necessary for effective ventilation ofa mine is generated by one or more large mine fans, usu-ally located above ground. Air flows in one direction only,making circuits through the mine such that each mainwork area constantly receives a supply of fresh air. Wa-tering down in coal mines also helps to keep dust levelsdown: by spraying the machine with water and filteringthe dust-laden water with a scrubber fan, miners can suc-cessfully trap the dust.[71]

Gases in mines can poison the workers or displace theoxygen in the mine, causing asphyxiation.[71] For this rea-son, the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration re-quires that groups of miners in the United States carrygas detection equipment that can detect common gases,such as CO, O2, H2S, CH4, as well as calculate % LowerExplosive Limit. Regulation requires that all productionstop if there is a concentration of 1.4% of flammablegas present. Additionally, further regulation is being re-quested for more gas detection as newer technology suchas nanotechnology is introduced.Ignited methane gas is a common source of explosionsin coal mines, which in turn can initiate more extensivecoal dust explosions. For this reason, rock dusts such aslimestone dust are spread throughout coal mines to dimin-ish the chances of coal dust explosions as well as to limitthe extent of potential explosions, in a process known asrock dusting. Coal dust explosions can also begin inde-pendently of methane gas explosions. Frictional heat andsparks generated by mining equipment can ignite bothmethane gas and coal dust. For this reason, water is oftenused to cool rock-cutting sites.[72]

Miners utilize equipment strong enough to break throughextremely hard layers of the Earth’s crust. This equip-ment, combined with the closed work space in whichunderground miners work, can cause hearing loss.[73] Forexample, a roof bolter (commonly used by mine roofbolter operators) can reach sound power levels of up to115 dB.[73] Combined with the reverberant effects of un-derground mines, a miner without proper hearing pro-tection is at a high risk for hearing loss.[73] By age 50,nearly 90% of U.S. coal miners have some hearing loss,compared to only 10% among workers not exposed toloud noises.[74] Roof bolters are among the loudest ma-chines, but auger miners, bulldozers, continuous miningmachines, front end loaders, and shuttle cars and trucksare also among those machines most responsible for ex-cessive noise in mine work.[74]

Since mining entails removing dirt and rock from its nat-ural location, thereby creating large empty pits, rooms,and tunnels, cave-ins as well as ground and rock falls are amajor concern within mines. Modern techniques for tim-bering and bracing walls and ceilings within sub-surfacemines have reduced the number of fatalities due to cave-ins, but ground falls continue to represent up to 50% ofmining fatalities.[75] Even in cases where mine collapsesare not instantly fatal, they can trap mine workers deep

underground. Cases such as these often lead to high-profile rescue efforts, such as when 33 Chilean minerswere trapped deep underground for 69 days in 2010.High temperatures and humidity may result in heat-related illnesses, including heat stroke, which can be fatal.The presence of heavy equipment in confined spaces alsoposes a risk to miners. To improve the safety of mineworkers, modern mines use automation and remote op-eration including, for example, such equipment as auto-mated loaders and remotely operated rockbreakers. How-ever, despite modern improvements to safety practices,mining remains a dangerous occupation throughout theworld.

8.1 Abandoned mines

Warning sign near a dangerous area filled with open mineshafts,Calico Ghost Town, California.

There are upwards of 560,000 abandoned mines onpublic and privately owned lands in the United Statesalone.[76][77] Abandoned mines may be dangerous to any-one who attempts to explore them without proper knowl-edge and safety training.

9 Records

See also: Extremes on Earth § SubterraneanAs of 2008, the deepest mine in the world is TauTona inCarletonville, South Africa at 3.9 kilometres (2.4 mi),[78]replacing the neighboring SavukaMine in the NorthWestProvince of South Africa at 3,774 metres (12,382 ft).[79]East Rand Mine in Boksburg, South Africa briefly heldthe record at 3,585 metres (11,762 ft), and the first minedeclared the deepest in the world was also TauTona whenit was at 3,581 metres (11,749 ft).The Moab Khutsong gold mine in North West Province(South Africa) has the world’s longest winding steel wirerope, able to lower workers to 3,054 metres (10,020 ft)in one uninterrupted four-minute journey.[80]

13

Chuquicamata, Chile, site of the largest circumference and sec-ond deepest open pit copper mine in the world.

The deepest mine in Europe is the 16th shaft of the ura-nium mines in Příbram, Czech Republic at 1,838 me-tres (6,030 ft),[81] second is Bergwerk Saar in Saarland,Germany at 1,750 metres (5,740 ft).The deepest open-pit mine in the world is BinghamCanyon Mine in Bingham Canyon, Utah, United Statesat over 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). The largest andsecond deepest open-pit copper mine in the world isChuquicamata in Chuquicamata, Chile at 900 metres(3,000 ft), 443,000 tons of copper and 20,000 tons ofmolybdenum produced annually.[82][83][84]

The deepest open-pit mine with respect to sea level isTagebau Hambach in Germany, where the base of the pitis 293 metres (961 ft) below sea level.The largest underground mine is Kiirunavaara Mine inKiruna, Sweden. With 450 kilometres (280 mi) of roads,40 million tonnes of ore produced yearly, and a depth of1,270 metres (4,170 ft), it is also one of the most modernunderground mines. The deepest borehole in the world isKola Superdeep Borehole at 12,262 metres (40,230 ft).This, however, is not a matter of mining but rather relatedto scientific drilling.

10 Metal reserves and recycling

Main articles: Landfill mining and Recycling

During the twentieth century, the variety of metals usedin society grew rapidly. Today, the development of majornations such as China and India and advances in technolo-gies are fueling an ever greater demand. The result is thatmetal mining activities are expanding and more and moreof the world’s metal stocks are above ground in use ratherthan below ground as unused reserves. An example is thein-use stock of copper. Between 1932 and 1999, copperin use in the USA rose from 73 kilograms (161 lb) to 238kilograms (525 lb) per person.[85]

95% of the energy used to make aluminium from baux-ite ore is saved by using recycled material.[86] However,

levels of metals recycling are generally low. In 2010,the International Resource Panel, hosted by the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP), published re-ports onmetal stocks that exist within society[87] and theirrecycling rates.[85]

The report’s authors observed that the metal stocks in so-ciety can serve as huge mines above ground. However,they warned that the recycling rates of some rare metalsused in applications such as mobile phones, battery packsfor hybrid cars, and fuel cells are so low that unless fu-ture end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically steppedup these critical metals will become unavailable for usein modern technology.As recycling rates are low and so much metal has alreadybeen extracted, some landfills now contain higher concen-trations of metal than mines themselves.[88] This is espe-cially true with aluminium, found in cans, and preciousmetals in discarded electronics.[89] Furthermore, wasteafter 15 years has still not broken down, so less process-ing would be required when compared to mining ores.A study undertaken by Cranfield University has found£360million of metals could bemined from just 4 landfillsites.[90] There is also up to 20MW/kg of energy in waste,potentially making the re-extraction more profitable.[91]However, although the first landfill mine opened in TelAviv, Israel in 1953, little work has followed due to theabundance of accessible ores.[92]

11 See also

• Outline of mining

• Asteroid mining

• Automated mining

• Environmental impact of mining

12 References[1] Hartman, Howard L. SME Mining Engineering Hand-

book, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and ExplorationInc, 1992, p3.

[2] Swaziland Natural Trust Commission, “Cultural Re-sources - Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern,” Re-trieved August 27, 2007, .

[3] Peace Parks Foundation, “Major Features: Cultural Im-portance.” Republic of South Africa: Author. RetrievedAugust 27, 2007, .

[4] “ASA - October 1996: Mining and Religion in AncientMan”. www2.asa3.org. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[5] Shaw, I. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt.New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 57-59.

14 12 REFERENCES

[6] Shaw, I. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt.New York: Oxford University Press, p. 108.

[7] “MINING GREECE ANCIENT MINES”. www.miningreece.com. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[8] “MINING GREECE ANCIENT QUARRIES IN THAS-SOS”. www.miningreece.com. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[9] “MININGGREECETHEGOLDMINESOFALEXAN-DER THE GREAT”. www.miningreece.com. Retrieved2015-06-11.

[10] “The Independent, 20 Jan. 2007: ''The end ofa Celtic tradition: the last gold miner in Wales’'".News.independent.co.uk. 2007-01-20. Archived fromthe original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved 2013-06-22.

[11] The Romans in Britain: mining Archived May 10, 2013 atthe Wayback Machine

[12] A culture of Improvement. Robert Friedel. MIT Press.2007. Pg.81

[13] “Chapter 7: Medieval Silver and Gold”. Mygeology-page.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved 2013-06-22.

[14] Heaton Herbert (1948) Economic History of Europe. AHarper International Edition. Fifth printing. February1968. P.316

[15] Heiss, A.G. & Oeggl, K. (2008). Analysis of the fuelwood used in Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age coppermining sites of the Schwaz and Brixlegg area (Tyrol, Aus-tria). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17(2):211-221, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, .

[16] The use of Firesetting in the Granite Quarries of SouthIndia Paul T. Craddock The Bulletin of the Peak DistrictMines Historical Society, Vol. 13 Number 1. 1996

[17] “The Spanish Tradition in Gold and Silver Mining.” OtisE. Young Arizona and the West, Vol. 7, No. 4 (Win-ter, 1965), pp. 299-314 (Journal of the Southwest) StableURL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40167137.

[18] Ancient Philippine Civilization. Accessed January 7,2013.(archived from the original on 2007-12-01).

[19] Lankton, L. (1991). Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, andDeath at the Lake Superior Copper Mines. New York: Ox-ford University Press, p. 5-6.

[20] West, G.A. (1970). Copper: its mining and use by theaborigines of the Lake Superior Region. Westport, Conn:Greenwood Press.

[21] Ricard, T. A. (1932), A History of American Mining,McGraw-Hill Book Company.

[22] Bruno, L. & Heaman, L.M. (2004). Structural con-trols on hypozonal oroganic gold mineralization in theLa Rouge Domain, Trans-Hudson Orogen, Saskatchewan.The Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 41, Issue12, pp. 1453-1471.

[23] Vaden, H.E. & Prevost. G. (2002). Politics of Latin Amer-ica: The Power Game. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, p. 34.

[24] Maynard, S.R., Lisenbee, A.L. & Rogers, J. (2002).Preliminary Geologic Map of the Picture Rock 7.5 -Minute Quadrangle Sante Fe County, Central New Mex-ico. New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Re-sources, Open-File Report DM-49.

[25] The Cerrillos Hills Park Coalition, (2000). Cerrillos HillsHistoric Park Vision Statement. Public documents: Au-thor. Retrieved August 27, 2007, . Archived August 1,2012 at the Wayback Machine

[26] McClure R, Schneider A. The General Mining Act of1872 has left a legacy of riches and ruin. Seattle PI.

[27] Boorstin, D.J. (1965). The Americans: The National Ex-perience. New York: Vintage Books, pp. 78-81.

[28] Miller C. (2013). Atlas of US and Canadian Environmen-tal History, p64. Taylor & Francis.

[29] History of Australia’s Minerals Industry. Australian AtlasofMinerals Processing, Mines, and& Processing Centres.

[30] Hartmann HL. Introductory Mining Engineering, p. 11.First chapter.

[31] “In Situ Leach Mining (ISL) of Uranium”. World-nuclear.org. Retrieved 2013-06-22.

[32]

[33] “Mining, Quarrying & Prospecting: The Differencebetween Mining, Quarrying & Prospecting”. mqp-geotek.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[34] Landfill Mining Landfill Mining, Preserving Resourcesthrough Integrated Sustainable Management of Waste,Technical Brief from the World Resource Foundation

[35] “Logging of forests and debris dumping”.Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 2013-06-22.

[36] Larmer, Brook (January 2009). “The Real Price of Gold”.National Geographic.

[37] Moody R. (2007). Rocks and Hard Places. Zed Books.

[38] Abrahams D. (2005). Regulations for Corporations: Ahistorical account of TNC regulation, p. 6. UNRISD.

[39] Chapin, Mac (2004-10-15). “A Challenge to Conserva-tionists: Can we protect natural habitats without abusingthe people who live in them?". World Watch Magazine. 617. Retrieved 2010-02-18.

[40] Bloom, M.J. & Denison, M. (2012) Environmentalmanagement for extractives, PROFESSIONAL EVI-DENCE AND APPLIED KNOWLEDGE SERVICEShttp://partnerplatform.org/?zl177g4a

[41] “Consequences of over Exploitation of Mineral Re-sources”. www.preservearticles.com. Retrieved 2015-06-11. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)

[42] “What is the Cost of Mining Gold? - Visual Capitalist”.Visual Capitalist. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

15

[43] US EPA. (1994). Technical Report: Design and Evalua-tion of Tailings Dams.

[44] TEMartin, MPDavies. (2000). Trends in the stewardshipof tailings dams.

[45] Coumans C. (2002). Mining’s Problem with Waste. Min-ingWatch Canada.

[46] http://www.th-energy.net/english/platform-renewable-energy-and-mining/database-solar-wind-power-plants/

[47] http://www.mining.com/web/at-mining-sites-renewable-energy-systems-are-up-to-70-percent-less-expensive-than-diesel-power/

[48] MacDonald A. (2002). Industry in Transition: A Profileof the North American Mining Sector. Free full-text.

[49] Reuters. Global stock values top $50 trln: industry data.

[50] Environmental Effects of Foreign Investment Versus Do-mestic Investment in theMining Sector In Latin-America.OECD.

[51] Mining in Africa - Overview. Mbendi.

[52] China’s Continuing Monopoly Over Rare Earth Minerals.U.S. News & World Report.

[53] United States Bureau of Labor http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs004.htm#nature

[54] Swenson JJ, Carter CE, Domec J-C, Delgado CI (2011)Gold Mining in the Peruvian Amazon: Global Prices,Deforestation, and Mercury Imports. PLoS ONE 6(4):e18875. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018875. Lay sum-mary: Amazon Gold Fever Comes with a High Environ-mental Cost.

[55] “Metals Economics Group World Exploration Trends Re-port” (PDF). Metals Economics Group Inc. Retrieved2009-05-05.

[56] Cambell, Bonnie (2008). “Regulation & Legitimacy inthe Mining Industry in Africa: Where does” (PDF).Review of African Political Economy 35 (3): 367–389.doi:10.1080/03056240802410984. Retrieved 7 April2011.

[57] The World Bank. ces.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/336099-1288881181404/7530465-1288881207444/eifd19_mining_sector_reform.pdf “The World Bank’s Evolutionary Approachto Mining Sector Reform” Check |url= scheme (help)(PDF). Retrieved 4 April 2011.

[58] Do Canadian mining companies operating abroad faceweaker environmental regulations?. MiningFacts.org.Fraser Institute.

[59] Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative.“Governance Structure”. Retrieved 4 April 2011.

[60] Business and Human Right Resource Centre (2009).“Principles: Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative(EITI)". Retrieved 6 April 2011.

[61] The Ghanaian Journal. “At the Fifth EITI Global Confer-ence”. Retrieved 3 April 2011.

[62] Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. “Report of5th EITI Global Conference in Paris, 2011” (PDF). Re-trieved 4 April 2011.

[63] World Bank’s Oil, Gas and Mining Policy and Opera-tions Unit (COCPO). “Advancing the EITI in the MiningSector: Implementation Issues” (PDF). Retrieved 6 April2011.

[64] Revenue Watch Institute 2010. “Promoting Transparencyin the Extractive Sectors: An EITI Training for TanzaniaLegislators”. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011.Retrieved 6 April 2011.

[65] For an overview of the Bank andmining, seeMining, Sus-tainability and Risk:World Bank Group Experiences.

[66] See the 1995World Development 23(3) pp. 385-400.

[67] GRAMA. (2003). The Challenges of Development, Min-ing Codes in Africa And Corporate Responsibility. In:International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy:Trends and Prospects. Summarized in the African MiningCodes Questioned.

[68] Mañas Mármol, Francisco (31 July 2011). “San Vicente:Un pozo de leyenda”. Linares28.es. Retrieved 28 May2013.

[69] “Marcel Barrois” (in French). Le Monde. March 10,2006.

[70] "Where The Coal Is Stained With Blood". TIME. March2, 2007

[71] “NIOSH Mining Safety and Health Ventilation”. UnitedStates National Institute for Occupational Safety andHealth. Retrieved 2007-10-29.

[72] NIOSH, Coal Mine Explosion Prevention Archived July4, 2012 at the Wayback Machine

[73] Peterson, J.S.; P.G. Kovalchik; R.J. Matetic (2006).“Sound power level study of a roof bolter” (PDF). TransSoc Min Metal Explor (320): 171–7. Archived from theoriginal (PDF) on January 15, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-16.

[74] “NIOSH Engineering Controls Research Shows Promisein Reducing Noise Exposure Among Mine Workers”.NIOSH. Retrieved 9 July 2012.

[75] NIOSHGround Control ProgramArchivedMay 17, 2012at the Wayback Machine

[76] Kertes, N., (March, 1996). US abandonedmine count stilla mystery - General Accounting Office report. AmericanMetal Market, Retrieved August 27, 2007,

[77] People, Land, and Water (March, 2007). KEEP OUT!OldMines Are Dangerous. Office of Surface Mining: U.S.Department of the Interior. Retrieved Aug, 27, 2007,

[78] “TauTona, Anglo Gold - Mining Technology”. SPG Me-dia Group PLC. 2009-01-01. Retrieved 2009-03-02.

16 14 EXTERNAL LINKS

[79] Naidoo, Brindaveni (2006-12-15). “TauTona to take'deepest mine' accolade”. Creamer Media’s MiningWeekly Online. Archived from the original on 2007-08-19. Retrieved 2007-07-19.

[80] “Mining and minerals in South Africa”. SouthAfrica.info.8 August 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.

[81] “Mineral deposits: from their origin to their environmen-tal impacts”. Taylor & Francis.

[82] “Chuquicamata | MINING.com”. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[83] “Chuquicamata’s Life Underground Will Cost a Fortune,but is Likely to Pay Off for Codelco | Copper InvestingNews”. 2015-04-06. Archived from the original on April6, 2015. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[84] “The TEX Report Ltd.”. www.texreport.co.jp. Retrieved2015-06-11.

[85] The Recycling Rates of Metals: A Status Report 2010,International Resource Panel, United Nations Environ-ment Programme

[86] Tread lightly: Aluminium attack Carolyn Fry,Guardian.co.uk, 22 February 2008.

[87] Metal Stocks in Society: Scientific Synthesis 2010,International Resource Panel, United Nations Environ-ment Programme

[88] "http://www.macfarlanes.com/media/1467/landfill-mining-new-opportunities-ahead.pdf" (PDF).www.macfarlanes.com. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[89] “Landfill Mining”. www.enviroalternatives.com. Re-trieved 2015-06-11.

[90] “Study shows around £360 million of metals could bemined from just four landfill sites”. www.rebnews.com.Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[91] "http://www.elfm.eu/Uploads/ELFM/FILE_79F81D49-34DC-4B5B-9BFC-5E5101CE7520.PDF"(PDF). www.elfm.eu. Retrieved 2015-06-11.

[92] “Assessing the opportunities of landfill mining - Researchdatabase - University of Groningen”. www.rug.nl. Re-trieved 2015-06-11.

13 Further reading• Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. World Pop-ulation and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953)pp 749–881; with many tables and maps on theworldwide mining industry in 1950, including coal,metals and minerals

• Ali, Saleem H. (2003)Mining, the Environment andIndigenous Development Conflicts. Tucson AZ: Uni-versity of Arizona Press.

• Ali, Saleem H. (2009) Treasures of the Earth: need,greed and a sustainable future. NewHaven and Lon-don: Yale University Press

• Even-Zohar, Chaim (2002). From Mine to Mis-tress: Corporate Strategies and Government Policiesin the International Diamond Industry. Mining Jour-nal Books. p. 555. ISBN 0-9537336-1-0.

• Geobacter Project: Gold mines may owe their ori-gins to bacteria (in PDF format)

• Garrett, Dennis Alaska Placer Mining

• Jayanta, Bhattacharya (2007). Principles of MinePlanning (2nd ed.). Wide Publishing. p. 505. ISBN81-7764-480-7.

• Morrison, Tom (1992) Hardrock Gold: a miner’stale. ISBN 0-8061-2442-3

• John Milne: The Miner’s Handbook: A Handy Ref-erence on the subjects of Mineral Deposits(1894)Mining operations in the 19th century.

• Aryee, B., Ntibery, B., Atorkui, E. (2003) Trendsin the small-scale mining of precious minerals inGhana: a perspective on its environmental impact (inJournal of Cleaner Production 11: 131-140)

• The Oil, gas and Mining Sustainable Commu-nity Development Fund (2009) Social Mine ClosureStrategy, Mali(in )

14 External links• First chapter of Introductory Mining Engineering

• An introduction to geology and hard rock mining

• Role of Construction and Mining Sector in Econ-omy for the year 2013

17

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text• Mining Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining?oldid=686990322 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel,Sjc, Fredbauder, SimonP, Heron, Rlee0001, Olivier, Edward, Fred Bauder, Shimmin, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, G-Man, Janko, Tp-bradbury, Marshman, Kaare, Lewisdg2000, SEWilco, Omegatron, Joy, Owen, Shantavira, SD6-Agent, Robbot, Lowellian, Meelar,Alan Liefting, Buster2058, Giftlite, RIUSABruce, Marcika, Obli, Everyking, Niteowlneils, San de Berg, Bccomm, Bobblewik, JuremaOliveira, John Abbe, Andycjp, Antandrus, David Eerdmans~enwiki, MisfitToys, Jossi, AndrewKeenanRichardson, Icairns, Gscshoyru,Fintor, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Fanghong~enwiki, Trevor MacInnis, Clubjuggle, Corti, Scottk, Freakofnurture, Eyrian, Discospinster, Inky-paws, Vsmith, SECProto, ESkog, Calamarain, Kbh3rd, RJHall, El C, Gilgamesh he, Sietse Snel, Art LaPella, Dennis Brown, PatrikR,Bobo192, Stesmo, Smalljim, Tronno, Vortexrealm, Arcadian, Haham hanuka, Hagerman, Pearle, Ranveig, Jumbuck, Stephen G. Brown,Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Mark Dingemanse, Nik42, LtNOWIS, Arthena, Paleorthid, Craigy144, Fritzpoll, Bantman, Snowolf,Ksnow, Velella, Wtshymanski, Suruena, Osfn8, Bsadowski1, Tobyc75, Crosbiesmith, Daranz, Stemonitis, Woohookitty, Scriberius, LOL,Bonus Onus, Astator, Moormand, Schzmo, TreveX, Rchamberlain, Wayward, Toussaint, Mandarax, Graham87, FreplySpang, Josh Par-ris, Saperaud~enwiki, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, JHMM13, Oblivious, Ligulem, Williamborg, Fish and karate, Casimir~enwiki, Adam Johnston,Ground Zero, Dullfig, Nihiltres, Hottentot, RexNL, Ahunt, Physchim62, Imnotminkus, DVdm, Bgwhite, WriterHound, Wavelength,Sceptre, Huw Powell, RussBot, Admiral Roo, Fz22, Manop, Njh~enwiki, Wimt, David R. Ingham, NawlinWiki, Leutha, Nirvana2013,Rjensen, Howcheng, Irishguy, Danlaycock, DeadEyeArrow,Wknight94, Searchme, Tigershrike, Scott Adler, 21655, Zzuuzz, Closedmouth,Јованвб, Chanheigeorge, Josh3580, Naught101, HereToHelp, Anclation~enwiki, Exit2DOS2000, Mejor Los Indios, DVDRW,Mgc0wiki,Matkoo~enwiki, Veinor, SmackBot, Esradekan, Hydrogen Iodide, Zerida, Wegesrand, Piksi, Pennywisdom2099, Mdd4696, Josephpry-mak, ZS, Niro5, Ian Rose, Richmeister, Gilliam, Algont, Hmains, Skizzik, Dyvroeth, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Philosopher, DocKrin,Jprg1966, Timneu22, Hibernian, Ctbolt, DHN-bot~enwiki, Antonrojo, Darth Panda, Nick Levine, Tharikrish, OrphanBot, Ww2censor,Pnkrockr, Parent5446, Pax85, Ed.Levinson, TedE, Rolinator, CuBiXcRaYfIsH, RandomP, Tomtefarbror, LeoNomis, FelisLeo, Kukini,Ohconfucius, Yohan euan o4, Scientizzle, Yvesanju, Peterlewis, Osbus, IronGargoyle, Ben Moore, 16@r, A. Parrot, Smith609, Opti-male, Dblecros, Optakeover, Waggers, McTrixie, Geologyguy, Dhp1080, Condem, Aboeing, Peter Horn, GorillazFanAdam, DabMachine,EmreDuran, BranStark, Vanished user, JMK, Clarityfiend, JoeBot, Geaugagrrl, J Di, JSoules, Tawkerbot2, DangerousPanda, CmdrObot,Iced Kola, Saleemhali, MarsRover, Innomad, Gold Guru, Fairsing, Slazenger, Astrochemist, Rifleman 82, Gogo Dodo, JFreeman, Pas-cal.Tesson, Hispalois, Tawkerbot4, Naudefj, DumbBOT, Optimist on the run, JohnClarknew, Legotech, TruthbringerToronto, Epbr123,Mercury~enwiki, Radical Ans, BenMerill, Sselbor, Mojo Hand, Hogrim, Pjvpjv, Marek69, A3RO, NigelR, Mailseth, Zachary, Civertan,Big Bird, Sam42, Natalie Erin, LachlanA, Thadius856, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Storslem, Seaphoto, Emeraldcityserendipity, Earth-Person, Shreddingt, Tillman, WikiTim2, Launderson Quinn, Ingolfson, Sluzzelin, Volcanoguy, JAnDbot, Forthnoggin, MER-C, Kedi thetramp, T L Miles, The Transhumanist, Hut 8.5, TJBlackwell, Rothorpe, SiobhanHansa, FaerieInGrey, Twanderson, Hroðulf, Pedro, Bong-warrior, VoABot II, Dekimasu, JNW, Catgut, WhatamIdoing, D-rew, Cyktsui, Miner Frank, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Beagel, Nankai, E-pen,Calltech, Skumarla, Hdt83, MartinBot, Alimac4, Poeloq, Jemather, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Rjw666, PrestonH, Jayantaism, Mausy5043,Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Rgoodermote, Tlim7882, Velveteman1, Maurice Carbonaro, Lhynard, HelgeRieder, Leon II, Mididoctors,G-41614, TheChrisD, Koven.rm, Rocket71048576, Mrg3105, AntiSpamBot, NewEnglandYankee, Christian Rößler, DadaNeem, SJP,Biglovinb, Kenneth M Burke, Mrmuk, DorganBot, Geo Word, Banjodog, DASonnenfeld, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Vranak,Deor, VolkovBot, Newmusic59, Pleasantville, Kelapstick, Jeff G., Delicasso, Philip Trueman, Blendus, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Technopat,Joshryder90, Qxz, Mstheisi, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Lamanda, Ihaveawedgie27, Suirad, Herzi Pinki, Djoeyd114, Plazak, Andrewaskew,Michaeldsuarez, KstyleGunZ, Cantiorix, Altermike, Vicrod2, Strangerer, Turgan, Lyndj, Insanity Incarnate, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, PGWG,W4chris, Kaly99, EJF, SieBot, Moleskiw, Ivan Štambuk, Pippppen, Avirama, RJaguar3, Yintan, Aristolaos, LeadSongDog, Flyer22 Re-born, Wilson44691, Yerpo, Baxter9, Telcourbanio, Webschem, Oxymoron83, Puuropyssy, Smilesfozwood, Harry~enwiki, KoshVorlon,AlaskaMining, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, SH84, Techman224, BenoniBot~enwiki, Belligero, Maelgwnbot, Envirocorrector, Crazy-charles80, Chadcole74, Avecchione, Pinkadelica, Denisarona, Chrisjr36, Mrfebruary, WikipedianMarlith, Faithlessthewonderboy, Clue-Bot, Clinchfield, The Thing That Should Not Be, ImperfectlyInformed, Arakunem,WDavis1911, Agogino, Joao Xavier, Regibox, Steveonz,CounterVandalismBot, Tony.321, Niceguyedc, Bluey mow, LonelyBeacon, Miningminer, Tisdalepardi, Awickert, Robert Skyhawk, Ex-cirial, Alexbot, The flamingo, Abrech, Muenda, Commdor, Ziko, BobertWABC, Promethean, 7&6=thirteen, Jo Weber, CMW275, Yoy-oyyoyo, Mlaffs, CGX, Thingg, Jakeclark99, Aitias, DerBorg, Versus22, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Botang, DumZiBoT, Life of Riley,XLinkBot, SimpsonsFan2008, Qfl247, Avoided, JamesMichaelCarberry, Billwhittaker, NellieBly, Patjoh041, Alexius08, Markcheong,RyanCross, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Freakmighty, Element16, Landon1980, Gnotsie, Blechnic, Rich jj,TutterMouse, Roynora, GD 6041, CanadianLinuxUser, SpillingBot, Sebastian scha., Technowiki7, Cst17, MrOllie, Download, Jreconomy,Glane23, Wipware, Favonian, Willjen21, Tsange, Spcspcspcbowden, Qwrk, Numbo3-bot, Newfraferz87, Tide rolls, ,ماني Gail, Zorrobot,Jarble, Bermicourt, LuK3, Lucas Novokuznetsk, Realm of the crimson viper, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Mengfeish,Ripper0607, Mystic meg is bleeding love, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Pianonon troppo, Theseeker4, Materialscientist, 90 Auto, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, E2eamon, Crimsonmargarine, GB fan,Frankenpuppy, Sajrox1, Capricorn42, Brufydsy, DSisyphBot, Stars4change, Jsharpminor, Imapregnantmale, Imapregnantmale2, Scottthe-zombie, TehPh1r3, GrouchoBot, Abce2, RibotBOT, Kyng, The Interior, 2cool4udude, N419BH, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, ChaheelRiens, Erik9, Sterlingw, Banana 1996, TEDLEVITT, LSG1-Bot, George2001hi, FrescoBot, Tobby72, Lothar von Richthofen, Bartelsman,D'ohBot, Cdarende, Cabro-foto, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Nadinet~enwiki, MacMed, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Notedgrant, Hell-knowz, Hsh8, A8UDI, Ezhuttukari, Serols, Obscurasky, Laventure, Jauhienij, Jack4673, Trappist the monk, Comnenus, Benbullen, Vrena-tor, Enscripted, Innotata, Jesse V., Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Guerillero, Onel5969, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, Fetch-commsAWB, Wstdonwiteout, DiligentDavidG, NerdyScienceDude, Aircorn, Skamecrazy123, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading,Iamanediter, Immunize, Gfoley4, Ibbn, Fellbeast III, Crinkly bottom, Winner 42, Jayantw, Wikipelli, K6ka, John Cline, Fæ, Adt121494,Sab polyvore, H3llBot, Monterey Bay, Makecat, Rcsprinter123, Dryker, L Kensington, MonoAV, Donner60, Puffin, Orange Suede Sofa,Monteitho, Dineshkumar Ponnusamy, Pack456, RockMagnetist, Wakebrdkid, Spicemix, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, WarillusenGC, Corusant, Monsoon Waves, O.Koslowski, Widr, Morgan Riley, Theopolisme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Estate11,HMSSolent, Gob Lofa, Toolsbuilt123456789, Topmusicman, Jfrog23, Beaucouplusneutre, Abz26, Lrostad, MusikAnimal, RighteousD-enizen, Mark Arsten, Rm1271, Sanju25000, Knightserbia, Probity incarnate, GetTrolledSon, AlexMcBurnie, Enrrique Rodrigo, Xlxgog-gaxlx, Anbu121, BattyBot, Ymbouveret, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Scissors86, Drwongtong35, Dexbot, Iamthebest243, Myner49, Annebrand, Mxheil, Lugia2453, Frosty, Philipandrew, KarinaAt3, Corinne, GabeIglesia, Dehbanana, Hillbillyholiday, Donald mcfearson, Dr-maximus1000, Eyesnore, Nonsenseferret, QuantifiedElf, Tentinator, Killerslayer10, Joy Richard Preuss Gold, WyeatesODI, Theboss247,ElHef, Grimaceadd, Ugog Nizdast, Magicman10001, Alexzombie9, Ginsuloft, AddWittyNameHere, DarkestElephant, TrekkieSpeller,

18 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Tigerlily713, JaconaFrere, Euromine, Oom1ngmach5, Monkbot, Buscus 3, Robert PEnergy, Lordmine mining, Miningglobal, Eurodyne,IApplepet, RegistryKey, Dylan.lewis2530, KasparBot, Nikrulez, Vort, Mintai03, DavidSB and Anonymous: 902

15.2 Images• File:Bagger-garzweiler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Bagger-garzweiler.jpg License: CC BY-SA2.5 Contributors: selbst fotografiert und zusammengesetzt von User:Martinroell Original artist: User:Martinroell

• File:BergwerkFellFeuerwehr2010A.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/BergwerkFellFeuerwehr2010A.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: HelgeRieder

• File:Bingham_Canyon_April_2005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Bingham_Canyon_April_2005.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Original uploader was Timjarrett at en.wikipedia Original artist: Tim Jarrett

• File:CalicoGhostTownwarningsign.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/CalicoGhostTownwarningsign.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Scottthezombie

• File:Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpgLi-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sze Sze SOO

• File:Chuquicamata-002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Chuquicamata-002.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 de Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Coal_Haul_Truck_at_North_Antelope_Rochelle.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Coal_Haul_Truck_at_North_Antelope_Rochelle.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Provided by Peabody Energy Original artist: PeabodyEnergy, Inc.

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Courrières_1906_LeJ.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Courri%C3%A8res_1906_LeJ.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Le Petit Journal. Nr. 801. 23. März 1906 Original artist: ?

• File:Cut_and_fill_schematic.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Cut_and_fill_schematic.png License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kelapstick

• File:Dolaucothimap4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Dolaucothimap4.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Peterlewis at English Wikipedia

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Gallery_medieval_silver_mine_Germany_southern_Black_Forest_12th_century.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Gallery_medieval_silver_mine_Germany_southern_Black_Forest_12th_century.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Eigenes Werk, http://kartan.de Original artist: Christian Rößler

• File:Georgius_Agricola.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymnasium/agrigale.htm Original artist: {{creator:|Year = }}

• File:IAPH_Pozo_San_Vicente.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/IAPH_Pozo_San_Vicente.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Instituto Andaluz del Patrimonio Histórico Original artist: Romero García, Javier

• File:Iron_hydroxide_precipitate_in_stream.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Iron_hydroxide_precipitate_in_stream.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Kilianstollen_Zug.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Kilianstollen_Zug.jpg License: CC BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work.(→ weitere 1,826 Bilder von mir in der Galerie) Original artist: Stefan Flöper

• File:Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Loyal West in the Times of the Rebellion [1] Original artist: Barberand Howe

• File:Naturales_4.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Naturales_4.png License: Public domain Contrib-utors: http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?pn=116&size=screen&oid=VAB8326 Original artist: Boxer Codex

• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:SL500_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/SL500_01.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:Published with author’s permission Original artist: http://www.eickhoff-bochum.de/de/

• File:Schlaegel_und_Eisen_nach_DIN_21800.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Schlaegel_und_Eisen_nach_DIN_21800.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vorlage vom Heraldiker erhalten nach DIN 21800 Original artist:unbekannt; uploaded by T. Rystau (de:Benutzer:Ollemarkeagle)

• File:Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: KVDP

• File:Strip_coal_mining.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Strip_coal_mining.jpg License: CC BY 2.5Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CCBY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil

• File:Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Tagebau_Garzweiler_Panorama_2005.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raimond Spekking

15.3 Content license 19

• File:TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI_sepia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI_sepia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Keweenaw National Historical Park archives,Jack Foster Collection. Downloaded from http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/byways/photos/61352 Original artist: Adolph F. Isler (1848-1912);dust cleaned up by Howcheng.

• File:TimnaChalcolithicMine.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/TimnaChalcolithicMine.JPG Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: self-made; Mark A. Wilson[1] Original artist: Wilson44691

• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs),based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

15.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0