Migratory fishes in Myanmar rivers and wetlands:challenges for sustainable development between irrigationwater control infrastructure and sustainable inland capturefisheries

John C. ConallinA,H, Lee J. BaumgartnerA, Zau LunnB,G, Michael AkesterC,

Nyunt WinD, Nyi Nyi TunD, Maung Maung Moe NyuntE, Aye Myint SweE,

Nyein ChanB and Ian G. CowxF

AInstitute of Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW 2640,

Australia.BFauna and Flora International, Room 706, Myay Nu Condo, Myay Nu Street,

San Chaung Township, Yangon, 11111, Myanmar.CWorldFish, Department of Fisheries, West Gyogone, Bayint Naung Road, Insein

Township, 11181, Yangon, Myanmar.DDepartment of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, Office 36,

Nay Pyi Taw, 15011, Myanmar.EDepartment of Irrigation and Water Utilisation Management Ministry of Agriculture,

Livestock and Irrigation, Office 36, Nay Pyi Taw, 15011, Myanmar.FHull International Fisheries Institute, University of Hull, Hull HU67RX, UK.GPresent address: Biology Department, University of New Brunswick, PO Box 5050,

100 Tucker Park Road, Saint John, NB, E2L 4L5, Canada.HCorresponding author. Email: jconallin@csu.edu.au

Abstract. Irrigated agriculture andmaintaining inland capture fisheries are both essential for food and nutrition securityin Myanmar. However, irrigated agriculture through water control infrastructure, such as sluices or barrages, weirs and

regulators, creates physical barriers that block migration routes of important fish species. Blocking of fish migrationroutes, leading to a degradation of inland capture fisheries, will undermine Myanmar’s efforts to develop sustainably andmeet the sustainable development goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), and the sustainability targets within

the national Myanmar Sustainable Development Plans, as well as its Agricultural Development Strategy and InvestmentPlan. Despite the ambitious international and national targets, there is no explicit policy or legislation and no examples ofwhere fish have been considered in the development or operation of irrigation infrastructure in Myanmar. Solutions areneeded that provide opportunities to achieve multi-objective outcomes within irrigation infrastructure and water use. This

can be achieved by increasing cross-sectoral collaboration in irrigation projects, improving capacity, increasing researchwithin country by experts and providing technical solutions to aid in better management andmitigation options. This paperexplores the various components of policy and governance, institutional and educational capacity and technical and

management-based practices needed to plan and integrate better migratory fish and technical needs within irrigatedagricultural infrastructure in Myanmar.

Additional keywords: cross-sector collaboration, fish barriers, fish migration, fish passage, food and nutrition security,sustainable development goals.

Received 16 May 2019, accepted 3 July 2019, published online 30 July 2019

Introduction

Countries throughout Asia and South-East Asia are facing the

challenge of feeding growing human populations against abackdrop of environmental degradation and climate change(Godfray et al. 2010) to meet ambitious national development

targets and global initiatives, such as the United Nations (UN)sustainable development goals (SDGs, see https://www.un.org/

sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/, acces-sed 5 May 2019). Of these, SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) aims to end allforms of hunger and malnutrition by 2030, making sure all

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people, especially children and themore vulnerable, have accessto sufficient and nutritious food all year round. This involves

promoting sustainable agricultural practices and exploitation ofrenewable resources. Two sectors that can make considerablecontributions towards meeting these food and nutrition security

targets are inland capture fisheries and irrigation (Lynch et al.

2019;McCartney et al. 2019). (Note, inland capture fisheries arethose that extract living aquatic organisms from natural or man-

made inlandwaters, but exclude aquaculture facilities (Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations 1997).)

According to the statistics of the Food and AgricultureOrganization (FAO) of the UN, landings from Asian inland

capture fisheries in 2016 amounted to 7.7 million tonnes(7.7 Tg), which is 65% of the global inland catch (Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations 2018). These

fisheries are largely open access and provide affordable proteinand micronutrients, as well as livelihood opportunities to ruralpopulations, including the involvement of women in the

market chain (Youn et al. 2014). The Lower Mekong RiverBasin, as a comparative example, supports the most productiveinland fishery globally, producing some 2.4 Tg annually,valued at US$11 billion (Jensen 2001). This demonstrates the

tremendous importance of inland capture fisheries in terms offood and nutritional security and livelihoods in this region,delivering over 50% of the human animal protein to local

populations and providing significant contributions to individ-ual countries’ gross domestic product (GDP; Youn et al. 2014;Lynch et al. 2017). Inland capture fisheries also provide a

‘safety net’ in times of adversity (Bene 2003) and, whenmanaged well, offer support to environmental health andaquatic biodiversity, thereby contributing to SDG 2 (Zero

Hunger) as well as SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 3 (Good Healthand Well Being), SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 15 (Lifeon Land; Lynch et al. 2017).

Across Asia, rice is seen as themain staple food, and irrigated

water control infrastructure has proliferated to enhance itsproduction. Development and modernisation of irrigated riceproduction systems will be essential for South-east Asian

countries tomeet national and international development targets(Dubois et al. 2019; McCartney et al. 2019). However, thedietary contribution of white rice is dominated by carbohydrate,

with few amino acids and some micronutrients. To achieve abalanced diet requires inputs of protein and essential micronu-trients, most ofwhich are available from fish (Jensen 2001; Beneet al. 2015). Fish are far more nutritious than rice, and provide

essential amino and fatty acids, as well as micronutrients andcalcium, important for pregnancy and child development (first1000 days; Roos et al. 2007; Thilsted and Bose 2014). Thus, a

combination of fish and rice represents a balanced diet byproviding ‘sufficient and nutritious food all year round’ forpeople, as well as making important contributions to liveli-

hoods, thus contributing towards achieving SDG 2 (Lynch et al.2017). In addition, without eating small fish whole alongsiderice, stunting and malnutrition, especially in children, will

continue in South-East Asia (Roos et al. 2007; Vilain et al.

2016). Unfortunately, these inland capture fisheries are underconsiderable pressure from societal development and humanpopulation growth, potentially disrupting sustainable develop-

ment initiatives across South-East Asia (Ziv et al. 2012).

Irrigation, hydropower, industrial and agricultural pollutionand aquaculture are all proliferating across the South-East Asian

region, and water regulation will most likely have seriousnegative consequences for fisheries (Stone 2011; Pukinskisand Geheb 2012), as has been the observed in many western

countries (Biswas 2012; Baumgartner et al. 2014a). Food andnutrition security is a major aim of the irrigation sector, andincreasingwater control infrastructure, including irrigated infra-

structure, with the primary objectives of expanding and increas-ing crop yields will potentially harm river health and inlandcapture fisheries production, negating their contribution toreduce malnutrition and increase food security (Ziv et al.

2012). Thus, there is an urgent need to harmonise the expansionof irrigated agriculture with protection of renewal foodresources, such as inland capture fisheries (Lynch et al. 2019;

McCartney et al. 2019).To complicate the harmonisation of irrigated agriculture

development and sustainable inland fisheries, a large proportion

of South-East Asian inland capture fisheries is supported bymigratory species that either move up- and downstream in rivers(longitudinally) or laterally onto floodplain andwetland systemsto breed (Dugan et al. 2010). It is thoughtmost fish species in the

major rivers of South-EastAsia aremigratory, and this is evidentfrom the Mekong, where many of the fish harvested are white(e.g. Pangasius spp.) or grey (e.g. Barbonymus altus, Barbony-

mus schwanenfeldii, Cyclocheilichthys spp., Rasbora spp.,Paralaubuca spp., Parachela spp., Thynnichthys thynnoides)fish species guilds thatmove longitudinally up- and downstream

and into tributaries and also laterally onto flood plains tocomplete their life cycles (Mekong River Commission 2008).Although data are scant from other South-East Asian systems, it

could be reasonably assumed that the requirement to migrate isobligatory formany species (Baumgartner et al. 2019a), and thatthis need tomigrate to complete their lifecycle is similar in othersystems within South-East Asia.

The effects of river developments are particularly severe fordiadromous fishes, which require connection between the seaand freshwater environments. There are several examples across

South-East Asia (Hogan et al. 2004), including Pangasius

krempfi, a catfish species of high economic value in theMekongthat is known to migrate from the South China Sea, through

Vietnam andCambodia, to its spawning grounds in Laos (Hoganet al. 2007). Similarly, hilsa shad (Tenualosa ilisha), hereafterhilsa, is an important fish species throughout rivers that flow intothe Bay of Bengal (Shohidullah Miah 2015). Hilsa live most of

their adult life in the ocean, but migrate far up coastal rivers incountries such as India, Bangladesh and Myanmar to theirspawning grounds (Hossain, Sharifuzzaman et al. 2019).

One country in the South-East Asian region that has beenundergoing rapid transition since constitutional reform in 2010is Myanmar (Webb et al. 2012). Myanmar presents a complex

case study in relation to the balancing of increasing irrigatedagricultural production while maintaining or increasing inlandcapture fisheries tomeet national and international development

plan targets. Although research has been done on the interac-tions between irrigated water control infrastructure and inlandcapture fisheries in other South-East Asian countries (Gregoryet al. 2018; Baumgartner et al. 2019a), there has been little work

in Myanmar (Baran 2017).

B Marine and Freshwater Research J. C. Conallin et al.

Presently, the status and effects of water control infrastruc-tures on inland capture fisheries in Myanmar have been little

studied and poorly documented (Lazarus et al. 2019). Further,the role inland capture fisheries, and specifically migratoryfishes, play in supporting local communities has not been

considered within the development and implementation ofirrigated water control infrastructure. As a country highlydependent on both rice and inland capture fisheries to provide

food and nutritional security, especially for the rural poorcommunities (Baran 2017), it is essential that any developmentprograms address the role fisheries play within irrigated agri-cultural landscapes. Without consideration and solutions to the

adverse effects irrigated water control infrastructure may haveon inland capture fisheries, Myanmar will struggle to meet thenational targets set out within the Myanmar Sustainable Devel-

opment Plan (Government of the Republic of Myanmar 2018),or the Agricultural Development Strategy and InvestmentStrategy (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation

2018), and their commitment to the SDGs, especially SDG 2(Zero Hunger; United Nations 2015).

This paper examines the challenges for Myanmar in relationtomaintaining or increasing inland capture fisheries as irrigation

expansion occurs in Myanmar, and the opportunities and con-straints between the two sectors. This paper provides insightsinto the current situation and then proposes ways forward so that

Myanmar can meet the challenge of balancing the obligations ofboth the irrigated agriculture and fisheries sectors to meet theirsector objectives while minimising the impact of one sector on

the other.

Myanmar’s development agenda

Sustainable development is a key priority for Myanmar and

is recognised in the country’s commitment to adopting the 2030Agenda for Sustainable Development (Boumann 2016). Inaddition, two major national development plans set the wayforward for the agricultural sector for Myanmar: the Myanmar

Sustainable Development Plan (MSDP) (2018–2030) (Gov-ernment of the Republic of Myanmar 2018) and the MyanmarAgricultural Development Strategy and Investment Plan (ADS)

(Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 2018). TheMSDP is made up of three pillars, five major goals and subse-quent strategies to meet the goals. Under Pillar 3 (People and

Planet), Goal 5, Natural Resources & the Environment forPosterity of the Nation, Strategy 5.1 is to ‘Ensure a clean envi-ronment together with healthy and functioning ecosystems’,

supported by Strategy 5.5 ‘Improve land governance and sus-tainable management of resource-based industries ensuring ournatural resources dividend benefits all our people’.

The ADS aims for Myanmar to ‘achieve inclusive, competi-

tive, food and nutrition secure, climate change resilient, andsustainable agricultural systems contributing to the socio-economic well-being of farmers and rural people and further

development of the national economy’ by 2030, and recognisesthe importance of fisheries in Article 83 (Ministry of Agricul-ture, Livestock and Irrigation 2018). Sustainable development

of both the irrigation and fisheries sectors is recognised by all theplans as essential to meeting development targets, and theseprovide a high-level platform for going forward supported

by this common commitment to sustainable development.Although the high-level commitment in these plans is evident,

implementation of the plans will provide challenges forMyanmar for which solutions are not currently available.

Inland fisheries of Myanmar

Status of rivers and fish biodiversity in Myanmar

Four main river basins characterise the landscape withinMyanmar (Fig. 1), namely the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy), Bago,Sittaung and Thanlwin (Salween) rivers, which flow from thenorth to south through the country and enter the Andaman Sea

situated in the Bay of Bengal. These rivers and their associatedtributaries and wetlands contribute significantly to a myriad ofecosystem services for theMyanmar people (Hydro-Informatics

Centre 2017). They provide a major means of transport of bothlocal and commercial goods, important food, fibre and nutri-tional needs for riparian people along the rivers, subsistence and

commercial livelihoods, and form the basis of the inland fish-eries sector in Myanmar (Hydro-Informatics Centre 2017).

At least 570 freshwater fish species have been recorded fromMyanmar, of which 227 are endemic (Baran 2017). These data

do not include the Kaladan and Mekong river drainages alsopassing through small parts of Myanmar. Among the riversystems, the Ayeyarwady River supports the greatest diversity

of fish species (Kottelat 2017), with at least 388 fish species, ofwhich 26% are known only fromMyanmar (Baran 2017). Of the388 fish species recorded in the Ayeyarwady River, two have

been assessed in IUCN Red List as Critically endangered, six asEndangered, 20 as Vulnerable, 20 as Near Threatened, 131 asLeast Concern and 75 as Data Deficient (Baran 2017). At least

134 species have not yet been assessed (Kottelat 2017).Data on the life history strategies and movement patterns of

fishes are generally lacking for all river basins in Myanmar,although preliminary studies and anecdotal information on

fish species in the Ayeyarwady River suggest that many fishspecies within Myanmar waters migrate between habitats tocomplete their life cycles (Ko et al. 2016). Fish migration

patterns are thought to be similar to other riverine systems in theregion, such as the Mekong (Hogan et al. 2004; Baumgartneret al. 2014b).

It is hypothesised that three major migration zones exist inthe Ayeyarwady, with mixing of some fish species between twoor all zones (Fig. 1). Zone 1 is an upper cold water zone locatedabove Myitkyina, where species such as snow trout (Schi-

zothorax spp.) and mahseer (Tor spp.) are actively caught byfisherman targeting them moving up and down the river indifferent seasons. Zone 2 is a large middle zone where river and

wetland warm water species dominate (e.g. catfish; Wallago,Sperata spp., Notopterus; Fig. 1). Zone 3 is a delta brackishwater zone where both river–wetland and river–sea diadromous

fish (e.g. hilsa, wallago, silond catfish; Silonia silondia) aremigrating during different seasons (Fig. 1).

In addition to the major river migration zones, one long-

distance migrant, the eel Anguilla bicolor, transcends all thezones. Shorter-distance migratory fish species will be foundmoving within and between each of the zones, using both riverand wetland habitats during the different seasons, migrating

both up- and downstream but also with smaller lateral

Fish migration and irrigation infrastructure in Myanmar Marine and Freshwater Research C

migrations into the seasonally inundated flood plains and wet-lands to complete their life cycles (Ko et al. 2016). Maintaininglongitudinal and lateral connectivity that provides access to

habitats for spawning and nursery stages will be crucial for thesustainability of freshwater fish populations and diversity(Poulsen et al. 2004).

Fish migration research and management

One species that is particularly important to the Bay of Bengalregion, both economically and culturally, is hilsa shad (Hossain,

Sharifuzzaman et al. 2019). Adult fish migrate from the marineenvironment up rivers to spawn. These movements from the seaup rivers are triggered seasonally by phases of the moon and

rainfall (monsoon), and are usually associated with reproductivephases of the lifecycle; hence, migration is of importance to thesurvival and abundance of the species (Hossain, Das et al. 2019).

These spawning runs are thought to be repeated biannually fromthe second year of life during May–June and October–Novem-ber, but it is unknown whether they are different components of

the stock contributing to the migration runs (Akester 2019).Hilsa is a high-value species with two main components to

the fishery: marine and fresh water. In Myanmar, industrialfishing boats land 64% of the catch from coastal and offshore

waters, whereas small-scale artisanal boats take 36% from freshwaters (Akester 2019). The fishery is maintained by the recruit-ment of juveniles from freshwater spawning areas that are

dispersed for hundreds of kilometres inland and migrate backto the sea to grow into adults (upstream migration points arehighlighted in Fig. 1; Baran et al. 2015). Economically, hilsa is

the most important inland fish in Myanmar and Bangladesh,contributing 0.8% to Bangladesh’s GDP and US$12 million inexport earnings forMyanmar from the freshwater segment of the

Fish migration zone

Sluice or barrage high-impact area

Hilsa upper site recordings

N 0 100 200 km

C h i n a

I n d i a

Katha

Myitkyina

Mandalay

Pagan

V i e t n a m

L a o s

T h a i l a n d

M y a n m a r

Zone 1

Zone 2

Kalewa

Pyay

Bago

Sittaung

Yangon

Zone 2

Zone 3

B a n g l a d e s h

Chi

ndw

inA

yeta

rwad

dy

Thanlw

in

Fig. 1. Map showing the different river systems in Myanmar, including four major north–south river systems:

Ayeyarwady, Bago, Sittaung, Thanlwin. Fish migration zones lines are indicated: Zone 1, cold water zone;

Zone 2, warm water zone; Zone 3, brackish water zone. Sluice high-impact areas are circled. The most

upstream recording points of hilsa migrations are indicated by asterisks.

D Marine and Freshwater Research J. C. Conallin et al.

fisheries alone (Akester 2019). However, the species is facingincreasing threats from water control infrastructure develop-

ment that is blocking access to critical habitat.In the Ayeyarwady system, the main stem is the most

important migration route to upstream breeding sites, and there

are three main river channels in the Delta that are used tomaintain access to the main stem (Baran et al. 2015). It is thefree-flowing nature and convergence of these three migration

routes that is thought to contribute most to successful breedingand sustainability of the stock in the Ayeyarwady. Barriers onany of these migration routes in the Ayeyarwady would signifi-cantly affect hilsa migration patterns. This migration pattern is

likely similar in all rivers where hilsa migrate (e.g. Bago,Sittaung, Thanlwin; Fig. 1), and barriers to migration willpotentially reduce the Myanmar stock of hilsa. Such a demise

was evident on the Ganges River hilsa stock in Bangladesh andIndia (Bhaumik and Sharma 2012). In the 1970s, before con-struction of the Farakka Barrage on the Ganges River,500 km

upstream of the Gangetic delta, hilsa was plentiful and recordedup to 1400 km inland (Bhaumik and Sharma 2012; Ahsan et al.2014). After construction of the barrage and a failed fish lock,hilsa is no longer observed above the barrage, and the stock and

catches have declined significantly below the barrier due to thelimited spawning grounds below the barrage (Bhaumik andSharma 2012).

Main-stem dams remain a significant threat to all migratoryfish in Myanmar, but smaller structures, such as tidal barragesand sluices, probably hold a similar risk with cumulative effects

of blocking several migration routes for hilsa and a myriad ofspecies from the sea to the rivers, as well as in and out ofwetlands and tributaries (Gregory et al. 2018). Sluices under the

support of the The Farmland Law 2012 (see http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/mya139026.pdf) (which encourages higherrice production and installation of sluices) continue to be built,but currently have no requirements to assess any likely impact

on migratory species such as hilsa. Fish passage options holdgreat potential for improving connectivity for hilsa on existinglow-head sluices in the catchment (Gregory et al. 2018).

However, for future design and placement of sluices, fishmigration needs to be part of the criteria for site and infrastruc-ture type selection (e.g. drop-down gates, not undershot). In the

delta areas of the Ayeyarwady, Sittaung, Bago and Thanlwinrivers in Myanmar, sluices are already prevalent. In the Ayeyar-wady Delta alone there are over 150 sluices (Fig. 1). However,not all these structures hold a significant risk to hilsa migrations,

because many are on smaller side tributaries and polders thathilsa would probably not use. Currently there are no sluices ordams on the main delta tributaries (Irrigation Department,

unpubl. data), but if Myanmar is not to repeat the cross-sectoral impacts that other countries have experienced in theloss of hilsa populations, migration routes and spawning areas

need to be incorporated into infrastructure planning and reme-diation works need to be undertaken on sluices that are alreadyimpeding migration.

Freshwater fisheries legislation inMyanmar enacts a generalspecies-wide closed season from May to July (Baran et al.

2015), but currently there is no consideration for hilsa migrationwithin irrigation operations or infrastructure development

within the delta or upstream. Tidal sluices can easily interrupt

or even prevent the upstream movements of hilsa, and furtherinlandwetland irrigation infrastructure has the potential to block

access for juveniles into and out of wetland nursery areas.Informal and formal interviews conducted by the MyanmarDepartment of Fisheries reported fishers experiencing declines

in hilsa catch after the installation of sluices in different areas.Baran et al. (2015) identified spawning migration routes andmapped breeding areas, with adult fish reaching hundreds of

kilometres upstream (Fig. 1), but management plans have neverbeen established across sectors to consider these migrationroutes of hilsa (or any other species), and plan appropriately tomaintain access to upstream areas to complete their lifecycle.

Inland capture fisheries and irrigated rice productionin Myanmar

Official statistics from the Department of Fisheries in Myanmar

put the country’s 2017–18 freshwater fisheries yield at 1.595 Tg,but a more conservative figure is likely between 0.8 and 1 Tg(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2018).

These catch figures equate to between 0.5 and 1% of global fishproduction from all sources (including aquaculture; Departmentof Fisheries 2017). There is also a ‘hidden harvest’ factor with

unregistered fish production coming from subsistence, unre-ported and unregulated fishing practices (Fluet-Chouinard et al.

2018). Assuming that Myanmar’s annual inland capture fisheryproduction is close to 0.9 Tg, this would place Myanmar fourth

globally behind China, India and Bangladesh for freshwaterfisheries yields. At a conservative value of US$2 kg�1, the valueof inland fish when traded amounts to US$1.8 billion per year,

which is 54% of the value of Myanmar rice produced in 2017(13.4 Tg at US$250 Tg�1¼US$3.35 billion).

Regulating water for irrigation purposes is a key priority

within Myanmar to meet the development targets (Ministry ofAgriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 2018). Agricultural landdevelopment, irrigation expansion, road construction, hydro-power development and land reclamation are all needed for

Myanmar to develop but, as stated, these have the potential tonegatively affect inland fisheries, specifically key species thatmigrate to complete their lifecycles. Contributing 30% of

Myanmar’s GDP, the agriculture sector is essential for thecountry to continue to develop, and is viewed as the basis offood security in the country (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock

and Irrigation 2018). Government policy supports the expansionof agricultural lands to meet the market demand from theincreasing human population. Much of the investment in agri-

culture has focused on irrigation infrastructure, particularly theconstruction of dams, reservoirs, sluices to inhibit saltwaterintrusion and main canal systems to provide surface irrigationfor rice production (Aung et al. 2017; Ministry of Agriculture,

Livestock and Irrigation 2018). Myanmar’s agricultural policyalso encourages the expansion of irrigation water controlinfrastructure and canals for reducing the risks to production

because of climate change problems in the future (Ministry ofAgriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 2018).

Recent marine and freshwater fisheries studies in Myanmar

have indicated that marine and freshwater capture fisherieslandings in the country are in serious and gradual declinerespectively (Baran 2017; Akester 2019). In the Ayeyarwady

Fish migration and irrigation infrastructure in Myanmar Marine and Freshwater Research E

Delta area, 96% of these fisheries are connected to rivers andwetlands (Wah et al. 2016). The focus on rice and associated

irrigation systems has most likely already had a negative effecton freshwater fisheries in terms of reduced connectivity due tofish not being able to pass irrigation infrastructure, loss of

biological cues due to water regime changes, wetland andinstream habitat modifications and the use of agrochemicals(Nguyen-Khoa and Smith 2004).

Despite the social and economic importance of freshwaterfish in Myanmar, rice production is given priority in terms ofsectoral investment, mainly in the form of irrigation infrastruc-ture andwater provision (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and

Irrigation 2018). The Myanmar Irrigation Department deliverswater almost exclusively for rice culture and received 35% ofthe 2017 capital budget from the government, whereas the

Fisheries Department, in the same Ministry, received 0.2% fortheir fisheries sector work (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestockand Irrigation 2018). As mentioned, a major challenge facing

Myanmar as it develops is how to meet the demands of onesector (i.e. rice production) without compromising the sustain-ability of another sector (i.e. inland capture fisheries), alsohighlighted by Lynch et al. (2019) for many countries trying

to develop in a sustainable manner.The increase in irrigation water control infrastructure to

regulate water for irrigation purposes in Myanmar has the

potential to severely affect the inland fisheries of the country,specifically fish species that need to migrate to fulfil theirlifecycles. To address this challenge, cross-sectoral (e.g. fisher-

ies and irrigation) strategies and policy development that recog-nise the need for multi-objective outcomes within irrigationwater use and infrastructure development are required, even

when being implemented by singular objective-driven sectorssuch as irrigation. Existing policy and cross-sectoral workingshould be respected and built upon, so a good understanding ofthe sectoral workings is needed to progress this sector and

associated legislation in Myanmar (Tezzo et al. 2018).

Myanmar: an opportunity to meet the needs of sustainableirrigation and inland capture fisheries

Connectivity is recognised globally as a key feature to maintain

a healthy ecosystem and productive fisheries (Welcomme et al.2006), and river works, including the construction of irrigationinfrastructure (sluices, levees), are one of the major threats tomaintaining healthy freshwater ecosystems. Although there are

water control infrastructures on the tributaries andwetland areaswithin Myanmar, the main stems of the larger rivers, such as theAyeyarwady and Thanlwin, remain unregulated and large-scale

main stem connectivity remains high (Lazarus et al. 2019). Anincrease in irrigation infrastructure, including tidal barrages orsluices within the rivers and delta areas of Myanmar, has the

potential to affect fish migration patterns (especially of hilsa) indifferent ways by: (1) blocking access for adults moving fromthe sea into the freshwater environment and into tributaries to

spawn; (2) blocking access for juveniles into and out of wetlandnursery areas; (3) restricting downstream migration of bothadults and juveniles back to the sea; and (4) disrupting biologicalcues to migration due to the withholding of fresh water.

Maintaining intact large-scale connectivity and improving

regional- and local-scale connectivity that is currently lostthrough water control infrastructure will be essential for

Myanmar to meet its sustainable development targets. The maininterventions that will facilitate the uptake of fish migration andpassage within irrigation infrastructure planning, operations and

modernisation are summarised in Table 1. Potential mechan-isms for meeting these aspirations of cross-sectoral integrationare discussed below.

Policy, laws and governance support for fish migration

Although fish migration and the needs for fish passage are notyet explicitly mentioned in Myanmar legislation (Tsamenyi

2011), there are many policies and laws that could support theinclusion of fish migration and ensure appropriate and effectivefish passage in decision making on water control infrastructure

that affect rivers and wetlands (Myaing 2019). Supporting pol-icies can help provide a pathway forward for changing fromsingle-objective outcomes within a sectoral perspective to

considering multiple objectives between sectors, encouragingcross-sectoral integration to include fisheries in the planning anddesign of irrigation infrastructure (Neely et al. 2017). There arenumber of policies that can support this change in philosophy.

Article 45 of the Constitution of the Republic of the Union of

Myanmar (2008, see http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs5/Myanmar_Constitution-2008-en.pdf, accessed it 5 May 2019)

states ‘the union shall protect and conserve the natural envi-ronment’. The Myanmar National Water Policy (see http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/uga158331.pdf, accessed 5 May

2019) (the first policy to integrate water policy for watersheds,rivers, lakes and reservoirs, groundwater aquifers and coastaland marine waters) provides guiding principles in line with

integrated water resources management (IWRM), promotingthe ‘co-operation and coordination of regional and uniongovernment’, and that water should be managed as ‘a commonpool community resource’. Laws such as The Environmental

Conservation Law (ECL2012) and Rules (ECL Rules 2014)(see https://www.dica.gov.mm/en/printpdf/1043, accessed 3May 2019) state the need for ‘systematic integration of policies

for a sustainable use of environmental and natural resources’.Much of this legislation and policy has been captured within

the two major national sustainable development plans described

above, namely the MSDP and ADS. The inclusion of fishmigration in water control infrastructure planning will beimportant for Myanmar to meet goals such as ‘natural resourcesand the environment for the prosperity of the Nation’ as listed in

the ADS (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation2018). The ADS, approved in 2018, both recognises the impor-tance of fisheries and makes reference to the 2014 Myanmar

NationalWater Policy (see http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/uga158331.pdf, accessed 5 May 2019) and its guiding princi-ples. It also notes that in Myanmar no single institution is

responsible for the management of water resources and thatthe Myanmar Water Framework Directive (see https://www.niva.no/en/projectweb/myanmar/publications, accessed 3 May

2019) will provide an umbrella statement of general principlesgoverning the exercise of legislative and executive powers(Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 2018). TheADS has three development pillars (Governance, Production

and Competitiveness) and, under the first, ‘sound statistical

F Marine and Freshwater Research J. C. Conallin et al.

systems for evidence-based decisions’ calls for a fisheriescensus (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation

2018). Under the second pillar, a new Fisheries and AquacultureResearch Service will be established and a new FreshwaterFisheries Law will be drafted to promote the ‘conservation offish species and marine and fishery resources’ (Ministry of

Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 2018).At the international level, there are several supporting poli-

cies and plans. Specific to fish migration, it can be argued that

sustaining or improving fish passage in adversely affected areas

across Myanmar is essential to meeting SDG 2 (Zero Hunger),and its emphasis on achieving food security and improved

nutrition through the promotion of sustainable agriculture(Lynch et al. 2017). In many cases, both the national andinternational laws, policies and development plans implicitlypromote and support the need to consider fish migration and fish

passage in irrigation infrastructure planning and refurbishmentworks. They can be referred to and lay the foundation for cross-sectoral engagement and the inclusion of multi-objective think-

ing in planning and implementation of irrigation infrastructure

Table 1. Main interventions that will facilitate the uptake of fish migration and passage within irrigation infrastructure planning, operations and

modernisation

DOF, Department of Fisheries; DRD, Department of Rural Development; IWUMD, IrrigationWater Utilisation Management Department; MOALI, Ministry

of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation; SDGs, sustainable development goals

Topic Description Recommendations and possible interventions

Supporting policy and law for fish

migration and fish passage

Although there are no explicit policies

or laws regarding fish migration and

passage, there are several existing

high-level supporting policies and

laws

Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar (2008)

� Union shall protect and conserve the natural environment

Myanmar National Water Policy

� Integrate water policy for watersheds

� Promotes IWRM and water as a common pool resource

Environmental Conservation Law (2012) and Rules (2014)

� Systematic integration of policies for a sustainable use of environmental

and natural resources

Supporting high-level plans for fish

migration and fish passage

Leading on from supporting policy,

there are several supporting national

plans and international

commitments

UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

� SDGs, specifically SDG 2

Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan (2018–2030)

� Strategy 5.1 is to ‘Ensure a clean environment together with healthy and

functioning ecosystems’

Myanmar Agricultural Development Strategy and Investment Plan

� Sustainable agricultural system contributing to socioeconomic

well-being

Institutional roles and capacity

strengthening

To implement high-level plans,

institutional capacity is needed

within the irrigation and fisheries

sectors

MOALI departments (DOF, IWUMD, DRD) collaborate

National and international investors in infrastructure key stakeholders

Increase cross-sector collaboration within MOALI on irrigation projects

Mid-level professional training programs within MOALI on fish migration

and passage

Research needs for fish migration There is currently very little

information on key migratory fish or

their migration routes

Identification of key migratory fish species and fish migration routes

� Invest in research projects aimed at identifying key species and mapping

migration routes

� Invest in techniques such as tagging and microchemistry

� Initiate pragmatic approach of rule-based fish passage design; improve

as more information becomes available

Existing irrigation infrastructure

remediation and future plans

Existing and planned irrigation infra-

structure has potential negative

effects on fisheries

Assess and prioritise remediation works at key existing water control

infrastructure sites

At key fish migration barriers, investigate fish passage options with

emphasis on localised designs and operations

Planned irrigation infrastructure projects

� Assess migratory fish routes and appropriate fish passage designs to be

included in infrastructure design and costings

Education and academia importance Knowledge institutes can play a key

role in research and design

Build capacity and provide funding for knowledge institutes to provide

information needed

� Academics work with international research community to develop fish

migration and passage curriculum and training

� Create opportunities for M.Sc., Ph.D. in fields of fish migration

� Link academic community with government to work on projects

Capacity building in research projects Increase capacity and research

opportunities through projects

Capacity building through research-focused projects

� Plan and implement pragmatic research projects aimed at acquiring

needed information while building capacity

Fish migration and irrigation infrastructure in Myanmar Marine and Freshwater Research G

as development plans are enacted. However, the irrigation andfishery sectors need the capacity and appropriate mechanisms in

place to be able to understand how to turn policy into reality onthe ground. This is recognised as a challenge in all single-objective sectors globally (Pak Tee 2008; Fraser et al. 2017),

and better dissemination of information, capacity building,recognition of the rights of those who are most vulnerable andstrengthening cooperation between different actors are all

important for the formulation of policy and implementation ofhigh-level plans.

Institutional roles and capacity within the irrigationand fisheries sector

Although policy, legislation and governance systems can play acritical role in why fish migration should be better integrated

within irrigation planning and operating infrastructure, theinstitutions and individuals themselves probably play a strongerrole in choosing to collaborate or not (Hudson et al. 2019).Relationships between departments are fundamental to cross-

sectoral collaboration, and the objectives of the institution playpivotal roles in their ability orwant or need to cooperate. Singular‘silo’-based objective thinking and the perception of competition

rather than collaboration can paralyse a collaborative platformneeded for fisheries and fish migration to be included in irriga-tion planning and operations (Neely et al. 2017).

Within Myanmar, from an institutional perspective, both thefisheries (DOF) and irrigation (Irrigation Water Utilisation Man-agement Department, IWUMD) departments are under the sameMinistry, namely MOALI. Although not guaranteed, this poten-

tially simplifies and should aid cooperation and the ability ofcross-sectoral decision making between fisheries and irrigation.The Department of Rural Development, which also sits within

MOALI, could also play a critical role within the implementationand institutionalisation of fish migration and passage withinirrigation infrastructure planning due to its focus on livelihood

enhancement. The concept of cross-sectoral multiple objectiveswithin sectoral programs is not common in Myanmar, andcapacity needs to be built to better understand the reasoning to

consider fish migration; this calls for cross-sectoral collaborationto meet multiple outcomes. Investors in irrigation at the nationallevel or international donor level should be encouraged to see theneed for cross-sectoral collaboration and multi-objective sector

outcomes. For international donors, agreements such as the SDGsprovide another incentive and sound basis for including cross-sectoral collaboration within the projects they fund within

Myanmar. The Fisheries andAquaculture Research Service, onceestablished, and the Myanmar Fisheries Federation (a non-profitorganisation that supports and promotes the fisheries sector in

Myanmar) could also play key institutional roles (Ministry ofAgriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 2018).

Remediation of existing infrastructure and engineering-based solutions

The inclusion of fish migration in irrigation infrastructureplanning and refurbishment has not yet occurred in Myanmar,although steps are now being made to promote this action.Historically, infrastructure associated with flood control, irri-

gation and drainage, in addition to multipurpose water storage

dams (potable water, hydropower and irrigation), was builtwithout consideration of migratory fish. Retrofitting existing

irrigation infrastructure with fish passage options is possible,although typically more expensive than incorporating them inthe original infrastructure designs. For species like hilsa, any

solutions to fish passage will need to allow upstream migrationsto spawning grounds, then downstream return migrations ofjuveniles and adults to the ocean. In some cases the opening of

tidal barrages, designed to exclude brackish water from cropirrigation systems, could be timed to allow fish migrations, atleast downstream migrations. However, fish migration andirrigation schemes operate across multiple scales and holistic,

system-scale approaches should be adopted to assess, plan andimplement successful programs that consider the needs of bothfish, including ecology across thewhole life cycle, and irrigation

to avoid and lessen impacts.

Technical know-how through research on fish migration

Currently, fisheries in Myanmar receive inadequate funding inthe annual MOALI budget to monitor the inland capture fish-eries and the abundance and condition of individual fish species,perform research into areas of need, such as mapping of

migratory fish routes and identifying trade-offs between irri-gation and fisheries, and adaptively manage the inland fisheryresource and collaboration between sectors.

This investment is inadequate to fulfil the mandated respon-sibilities. For example, historically, government funding wasnot available for the DOF to be able to conduct fish surveys at

existing irrigation sites to assess the effects infrastructure washaving on fisheries, or at proposed new sites to assess potentialimpact (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation 2018).

Government funding has also not been available for researchinto the migratory pathways of even the most important com-mercial species, such as hilsa. However, there are now jointprojects between the Myanmar Government and international

donors that are beginning to look into these research needs andbuild the capacity of both sectors to be able to assess andmitigate potential impacts (Baumgartner et al. 2019b; Ei

2019). Adequate research and appropriate data are needed tointegrate fish migration requirements into irrigation infrastruc-ture planning, modernisation and refurbishment, and the ability

to manage adaptively. The more data generated, the greater theability of decisionmakers tomake evidence-based decisions andjustify the need for working cross-sectorally (Cooke et al. 2017).

Although a lack of data affects the precision of the recom-

mendations, it should not prohibit the integration of fish migra-tion into irrigation infrastructure planning and refurbishment,because strategies can be devised and implemented with limited

data. Research and data acquisition can then be used to improvethe initial recommendations through an adaptive managementprocess. For example, simple rules can be applied to fish passage

design, such as the requirement to pass all sizes and species offish known to be present, from the very small to the very large.This type of decision-making information is already available

for similar systems, such as the Mekong (Baumgartner et al.2019a), where rule-based approaches are applied, and can beimproved through further research and development specificto Myanmar. Specifically for fish migration, and leading on

from techniques such as traditional local knowledge on fish

H Marine and Freshwater Research J. C. Conallin et al.

movement from fishers (Bao et al. 2001), techniques such asotolith microchemistry and tagging studies are well suited to

providing insights into fishmigration routes for different species(Radigan et al. 2018). Such studies also build capacity toincrease in-country expertise for further research into fish

migration and fish passage design (Fukushima et al. 2014;Walther et al. 2017). If applying an approach in an adaptivemanagement framework, sites constructed with conservative

criteria can be studied and the results applied to future projects.

Importance of education and academia

Knowledge institutes, such as research centres and universities,play a key role in research and development in countries all overthe world (Holmes and Lock 2010). Universities in Myanmar

have the potential to integrate fish migration considerationswithin both their fisheries-based and engineering curricula.Currently there is a lack of knowledge and capacity among the

academic profession on freshwater fisheries management andecology, and specifically fish migration, which is a challengewhen trying to include this into curricula, as cited within many

Myanmar professional fields (Kirkpatrick 2017). This can beovercomewith support from donors and international researchersby helping acknowledge systems around fish migration within

water control infrastructure-dominated landscapes, thus build-ing capacity through research-based approaches where localresearchers and academic teaching staff are trained and infor-mation more widely disseminated (Nuttavuthisit 2017). This will

effectively increase knowledge of fish migration for use withindecision making and facilitate researchers and academics tobecome local leaders in fish migration research (e.g. World Fish

Migration Day; Brink 2018). There is also an opportunity todo this within the fisheries and irrigation training centres inMyanmar, such as the Irrigation Technology Centre situated in

Bago. Knowledge on fish migration and research, and mitigationtechniques, such as fish passage, have been included in a newfisheries and aquaculture-based degree at Yangon University.International donors and their partners should work with the

training centres and universities to strengthen the curricula andbuild the capacity of the trainers and lecturers to teach and con-duct research in fish migration and fish passage technical solu-

tions.Masters, Ph.D. andmid-level professional programs shouldbe offered, supported by international partners (Shah and LopesCardozo 2019).

Capacity building through research and ecosystem-basedapproaches to fish migration

Stepwise, ecosystem-focused approaches are needed to take a

system-scale view of fishmigration needs, and these approachesshould encompass capacity building through research toenhance Myanmar’s knowledge of: its migratory fish species,

and their migration routes; impacts and trade-offs betweenfisheries and irrigation; and technical and operations-basedsolutions.

An example of capacity building through research focused ondeveloping fish passage at an irrigation infrastructure in theBago catchment in Myanmar. Building on knowledge from fishpassage projects in Laos, and following the guidelines in

Baumgartner et al. (2019a) and Mekong River Commission

(2014), a stepwise approach is being taken to reinstating fishmigration routes at a catchment scale. The step-wise process

encompasses five main components: (1) identifying potentialfish barriers in the catchment (both desktop and field appraisal);(2) conducting a prioritisation process for each barrier;

(3) designing fishways for key barriers; (4) constructing andoperationalising plans for fish passage; and (5) monitoringfisheries responses to the opening of the fishways.

Apart from the technical emphasis, the project focuses onhaving DOF and IWUMD work closely together to providesolutions to the prioritised barriers. It is envisioned that this pilotproject will incite a process within MOALI that will allow them

to seek funding to remediate the top-priority barriers and extendthe program into other catchments, such as the Ayeyarwady andSittaung.

IWRM is increasingly becoming a focus within water man-agement within Myanmar (Van Dorp et al. 2018) and shouldhelp facilitate knowledge acquisition and working cross-

sectorally, as well as encourage projects focussed on fishmigration and fish passage. Specific to fish migration and fishpassage, ecosystem-basedmanagement approaches for fisheriesmanagement have been developed (Gregory et al. 2018).

Because both irrigation areas and fisheries operate acrossmultiple spatial scales, using approaches that operate acrossthe different scales is most appropriate for fish migration

outcomes, especially long-distance migrants (Goulding et al.

2019). Ecosystem-based approaches have the ability to look atthe system scale (e.g. an irrigation scheme will affect fisheries

upstream and downstream of the direct irrigation area) andexplicitly outline the impacts and trade-offs irrigation is havingon the fisheries (Gregory et al. 2018). These approaches then

drill down and focus on key impact components to fisheries,termed ‘choke points’, such as the loss of connectivity throughinfrastructure development, and devise remediation measures atthese choke points (e.g. fish passage solutions at irrigation

infrastructure; Fig. 2).

Concluding remarks

As stated by McCartney et al. (2019), the irrigation sector in

developing countries needs to shift from simply maximisingcrop yields to a much more ambitious approach to maximisebenefits across a range of uses of irrigation water and water

control infrastructure. InMyanmar, national sustainability plans(e.g. MDSP 2030 and ADS) and the country’s commitment tothe UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development highlight its

commitment to sustainable development. For this to become areality, and to meet the food and nutritional security targets setout in those plans, expansion of both irrigated agriculture andprovision of sustainable inland fish stocks are needed.Migratory

fishes are an important component of the Myanmar inlandcapture fisheries, and their migration routes are currently notincluded in any water control infrastructure planning. A sum-

mary of needs and actions is given in Table 1. Thus, there is aneed for policy and legislation within Myanmar to support fishmigration, and the need to work across sectors to achieve multi-

objective outcomes within irrigated agricultural landscapes.Capacity building through research projects is needed to enablesectors such as fisheries and irrigation to collaborate, and

Fish migration and irrigation infrastructure in Myanmar Marine and Freshwater Research I

increase the knowledge base on migratory fisheries and the

effects and trade-offs associated with irrigation infrastructure.As a pragmatic way forward, a focus on capacity buildingthrough research projects will also help inform policy devel-opment and knowledge gaps. Existing policies and strategies

will need to be revised based on the knowledge gained fromcross-sectoral projects and interactions.

Conflicts of interest

Lee Baumgartner is an Associate Editor for Marine and

Freshwater Research and John Conallin is a guest editor of this

Research Front. Despite this relationship, these authors did notat any stage have editor-level access to this manuscript while inpeer review, as is the standard practice when handling manu-

scripts submitted by an editor to this Journal. Marine and

Freshwater Research encourages its editors to publish in theJournal and they are kept totally separate from the decision-

making processes for their manuscripts. The authors have nofurther conflicts of interest to declare.

Declaration of funding

The authors acknowledge the support of the AgriculturalResearch for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) who

funded this work, and from the Myanmar Ministry of Agricul-ture, Livestock and Irrigation for in-kind staff time.

Acknowledgements

The authors also thank the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation

(MOALI), with a special mention of the Departments of Fisheries Director

General, Khin Maung Maw, and staff, as well as Irrigation and Water

Utilisation and Management Department Director General, Kyaw Myint

Hlaing, and staff. The authors also appreciate the efforts of Thein Zaw Latt

from Fauna and Flora International and Deanna Duffy from Charles Sturt

University in producing the figures.

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