MIGRATION REALITIES AND STATE RESPONSES: TURKEY A NEW COUNTRY OF IMMIGRATION? · 2014-10-06 ·...

MIGRATION REALITIES AND STATE RESPONSES:

TURKEY – A NEW COUNTRY OF IMMIGRATION?

PROF. DR. AHMET İÇDUYGU, MIREKOC, KOC UNIVERSITY

ISTANBUL, TURKEY

EUI-MPC Summer School, June 24th, 2013

Florence

OBJECTIVES: FROM A COUNTRY CASE TO

GLOBAL MIGRATORY QUESTIONS

to map out some new migratory forms and processes in

Turkey, that implies a migratory transition in the country,

with various global implications

in order to better understand these new forms and

processes of migration, to explore the historical roots of the

migratory transition in the country that goes hand by hand

with policy changes

to elaborate the thematic and methodological challanges of

how to approach their study, that is the future of research

agenda for Turkish international migration studies which

may will have reflections on wider migration researching

and theorizing 2

THEORETICAL AND ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK:

MIGRATION SYSTEM THEORY

CONTENT

Introduction

A Historical Synopsis: Turkey and International Migration

Migratory Transition: Formation of the Transnational Communities and Emergence of a Country of Immigration

Contemporary Turkish International Migration Studies: a Mapping

Concluding Remarks

4

INTRODUCTION

Significance of Turkish International Migration

Both in historical and contemporary contexts – domestically,

regionally, and globally

In terms of its economic, political, social, and cultuıral

implications for domestic, regional, and global settings

Emerging as a main actor in various international migratory

systems and/or regimes

Involving various types of migrations

Within the context of emigration, immigration, and transit flows

Provides us with a rich case study for empirical, analytical,

theoretical, and policy research

5

INTRODUCTION Significance of Turkish International Migration

EU CONTEXT: “Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, Recommendation of the European Commission on Turkey’s progress towards accession” dated October 6, 2004

Turkey’s accession will be different from the previous enlargements due to its

population, size, geographical position…

... studies on the migration to occur following Turkey’s membership include various estimates… in order to prevent [migration from Turkey] from creating serious discomfort in the EU labour market… implementing permanent injunctions might be considered… however, Turkey’s population dynamics might provide benefits in terms of balancing the ageing population in the EU…

In terms of Turkey, managing the new and long external borders of the EU will constitute a significant political challenge and will require large investment… Closer cooperation before and after the accession shall make it easier… to handle migration and asylum issues in addition to… human trafficking…

6

INTRODUCTION

Significance of Turkish International Migration... Some examples... ...

Arrivals of Syrian refugees to Turkey...

Evacuation of Turkish workers from Libya...

Visa-free travel regime with Russia and other neighboring countries...

EU-Turkey Readmission Agreement Debate...

The Idea of Fence/Wall Construction at the Greek-Turkish Border...

FRONTEX’s RABBIT Operation at the Greek-Turkish Border...

Integration Difficulties of Turkish Migrants in Europe...

Success of the Turkish Migrants: Turkish ethnic businesses, Vural

Öger, Fatih Akın, Cem Özdemir and the others....

Islamophobia and the Swiss Ban Of Minarets ...

Irregular Turkish Construction Workers in Japan

7

INTRODUCTION

Significance of Turkish International Migration... Some examples... Posted pictures of M.K. Ataturk looking at Sydney’s famous Bondi

Beach

Aging of the European Population: Can Turkey be a remedy?...

When Turkey becomes a member state of the EU, and due to the free circulation of labour, if there will be mass migratory movements from the country...

Lobbying of Turkish migrants and transnational communities in the North America and Australia against the lobbies of Greeks and Armenians in those places...

Involvement of the Turkish migrants to the “fundamentalist Islamist” movements...

Involvement of the emigrants from Turkey to the “Kurdish nationalist/separatist” movements...

Suitcase-trader Russians in Turkey...

Sun or retirement migration of Europeans to Turkey...

8

INTRODUCTION

Main argument: In the last decade, there is a migratory transtion in Turkey as it is becoming a country of immigration --- in addition to, its

role as a country of emigration and “transit” as a factual development as a discoursive development as a policy development

this takes place in a period of transformation that is prone to a

dynamic tension between the nationalist legacies (the politics of the past) and the worldviews based on globalism, transnationalism, and EU-zation

as a part of the modernity project: initially dominated by a nation-building process (in a nationally divided world), and later (now) turned into a modern-state building (in a globally integrated world)

the Turkish State tends to adopt itself to the country’s emigration and immigration roles in the globalized world

9

INTRODUCTION

IM TRANSITION AND CHANGING STATE POLICIES IN TURKEY

10

1923-2000

Nationalism and Its Legacy

2000s

Legacy of Nationalism

and

Politics of Past

Versus

Globalism/

Transnationalism/

EU-zation

Migration-

related State’s

Worldview

1923-1950/60

IM

through

Nationalism

1950/60-1980

IM

through

Developmentalism

1980-2000

IM

through

Globalism/

Transnationalism

2000s

IM

through

EU-zation/Globalism/

Transnationalism

Dominant

Migratory

Flows

- Emigration of

non-Muslim

Turkish Citizens

- Immigration of

“Turks” and

“Muslims”

- Emigration of

Turkish Citizens

- Emigration of non-

Muslim Turkish

Citizens

-Emigration of

Turkish Citizens

- Immigration of

“non-Turks” and

“non-Muslims”

- Immigration of “non-

Turks” and “non-

Muslims”

-Emigration of Turkish

Citizens

A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

A period of the last 100 years: from the early 20th century to the early 21st century

One country/”nation”/”state”, but so many migrations: a history of the modern Turkey

1. International Migration through Nationalism: 1923-1950/60

Emigration of non-Muslims Turkish citizens and immigration of “Turks/Muslims”

2. International migration through Developmentalism: 1950/60-1980

Emigration of “Turkish citizens”

3. International migration through Globalism/Transnationalism :1980-2000

Emigration of “Turkish citizens” and Immigration of “non-Turks” and “non-Muslims”

4. International migration through EU-zation/Globalism/Transnationalism : 2000s

Immigration of “non-Turks” and “non-Muslims” and Emigration of “Turkish citizens”

11

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, NATION-STATE, AND

GLOBALIZATION: WHAT HAPPENED IN THE

TWENTIETH CENTURY

Phases of nation-building and discourses on immigration (Wimmer and Schiller, 2002) 1870-1918: a period of: intense nation-building, globalization, and wide

spread labour migration with little or no restriction --- later “non-national” citizens were seen as risk to national sovereignty

1919-1945: first ended the period of free movement of people and other aspects of globalization, and gave way to “ethnic cleansing”, and later to the emergence of newly-nationalizing states --- border controlling and assimilating immigrants, as migration and migrants were seen a challenge to nation-building

1946-1989: cold war period --- “nation-state”, “state boundaries” and “nationality” became very central, labour migration, both temporary and permanent, was planned and controlled; assimilation policies were transformed to integration policies (maintained national identities), temporary settlements turned to the permanent ones (increasing ethnic diversities)

1989 onwards: post-cold war, intense “globalization”, postnational,

transnational phase --- fascinated by various kinds of flows of people, ideas, objects, and capital across the borders of states, “intensifying debates on “globalization”; anti-immigration and restrictive trends versus need for migration

12

A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

International Migration through Nationalism: 1923-

1950/60

Emigration of non-Muslims and immigration of “Turks”

(Historical Background): Deportation of Armenians in 1915-16

Population Exchange between Turkey and Greece in 1923

Immigration of Turks/Muslims from Balkans

Law of Settlement in 1934 Favouring immigrants and refugees with “Turkish descent and

culture”

13

14

A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

Population of Turkey by

Religion, 1914-91, (in thousands)

Numbers of people who migrated to Turkey

by regions, 1923-95

Total (1923-1945) : 846 638

Total (1923-1995) : 1 686 163

Year 1923-39 1940-45 1946-95

Bulgaria 198688 15744 603585

Greece 384000 - 25889

Romania 117095 4201 1264

Yugoslavia 115210 1671 188040 China - - 2878

Others 10029 - 17869

Total 825022 21616 839525

Year 1914 1927 1945 1955 1965 1991

Muslims 12941 13290 18511 23810 31139 56860

Greeks 1549 110 104 87 76 8

Armenians 1204 77 60 60 64 67

Other Christians 176 71 38 62 74 50

Jews 128 82 77 46 38 20

# of non-Muslims 3057 340 279 255 252 145

Total 15997 13360 18790 24065 31391 57005

% of non-Muslims 19,1 2,5 1,5 1,1 0,8 0,2



International migration through Developmentalism: 1950/60-1980 The ‘local’ consolidation phase of nation-building: 1950-1980

Five-year Development Plans since the early 1960s

a) lessening the tension arising from unemployment, (b) providing the country with the acquisition of skills in the foreign countries by the returning migrants, and (c) having the most important source of foreign exchange earnings.


(initially, increasing mass internal (rural-urban) migration)

Labour migration (to Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, Australia, and North America)

Cold war tension/militarization: using “non-Muslims” as scapegoats (“tools”) in the international relations --- in particular, Greeks

15



16

Turkish Labour Migration by Destination, 1961-2005

Host Countries 1961-1974 1975-1980 1981-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000 2001-2005 Total

Europe 790017 13426 2612 9647 10465 16561 842728

Arab Countries 2441 74181 423208 208274 32195 57974 798273

Australia 5806 2647 2478 1324 515 176 12946

CIS Countries 115 65521 89623 155259

Others 12235 14792 4875 125238 4256 17533 178929

Total 810499 105046 433173 344598 112952 181867 1988135



17

010000200003000040000500006000070000

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Turkish Citizens Asylum Seeking in Europe, 1980-2005



18

Turkish Migrant Stock Abroad, mid-1980s, mid-1990s and mid-2000s Mid-1980s Mid-1990s Mid-2000s

Country x 1,000 % x 1,000 % x 1,000 %

Austria 75.0 3.2 136.4 4.2 130.0 4.2

Belgium 72.5 3.1 79.5 2.4 50.0 1.6

Denmark 22.0 0.9 37.0 1.1 35.0 1.1

France 146.1 6.3 198.9 6.1 208.0 6.7

Germany 1,400.4 59.9 2,049.9 63.4 1,912.2 61.6

Netherlands 156.4 6.7 167.0 5.1 100.2 3.2

Sweden 22.0 0.9 25.0 0.8 14.0 0.4

Switzerland 51.0 2.2 73.0 2.2 79.5 2.5

UK 10.0 0.4 29.0 0.6 52.0 1.3

Other European countries 42.0 1.8 87.0 2.7 120.0 1.9

Total Europe 1,997.4 85.4 2,852.7 88.3 2,700.9 87.1

Arab countries 200.0 8.6 127.0 3.9 107.0 3.4

Australia 35.0 1.5 45.0 1.4 50.0 1.6

CIS countries 0.0 0.0 50.0 1.5 36.0 1.2

North American countries 80.0 3.4 120.0 3.7 160.0 5.1

Other countries 25.0 1.1 35.0 1.1 50.0 1.6

Total 2,337.4 100.0 3,229.7 100 3,103.9 100.0



International migration through

Globalism/Transnationalism: 1980-2000


Emigration of “Turkish citizens” to Europe (family reunion,

asylum and irregular migration)

towards the formation of Turkish transnational communities

Emigration of “Turkish citizens” to new destinations (MENA

and CIS countries)

Emigration from Turkey: diversified with the movement of

family members of labour migrants in Europe, plus with the

migration of asylum sekers, professionals, and students

19



International migration through Globalism/Transnationalism:

1980-2000

Immigration of “foreigners” (non-Turks, non-Muslims)

Irregular labour migration

Transit Migration

Regular labour migration (particularly professionals)

Asylum seekers

Immigration of “foreigners” (non-Turks, non-Muslims)

Asylum Flows/Irregular Flows from

Afganistan, since late 1970s (1980-2000: 15 000 – 20 000)

Iran, since early 1980s (1980-2000: 500 000 – 1 million)

Iraq, since late 1980s (1991: 400 000; and 1990-2000: over 100 000)

and various Asian and African countries

Irregular Labour migrants from

Former USSR and Eastern European countries (16-19 % of foreigners arriving in Turkey are from the CIS, late 1990s)

20

21



Iranians Iraqis Other Total

Cases Persons Cases Persons Cases Persons Cases Persons

1997 746 1 392 1 275 2 939 83 117 2 104 4 448

1998 1 169 1 979 2 350 4 672 124 187 3 643 6 838

1999 2 069 3 843 1 148 2 472 184 290 3 401 6 605

2000 2 125 3 926 791 1 671 108 180 3 024 5 777

2001 1 841 3 485 497 998 372 709 2 710 5 177

2002 1 456 2 505 402 974 219 315 2 077 3 794

2003 1 715 3 092 159 342 373 514 2 247 3 948

2004 1 225 2 030 472 956 540 922 2 237 3 908

2005 1 021 1 716 490 1 047 753 1 151 2 264 3 914

2006 1 343 2 297 364 724 1 094 1 527 2 801 4 548

2007 1 024 1 668 1 784 3 470 1 651 2 502 4 413 7 604

2008 1 230 2 217 3 161 6 904 1 925 3 270 6 316 12 981

2009 1 981 3 763 1 140 7 834

Total

16 964 32 131 12 893 30 932 7 426 12 824 37 237 77 376

Asylum Applications in Turkey, 1997–2009



22 .0

10000.0

20000.0

30000.0

40000.0

50000.0

60000.0

70000.0

80000.0

90000.0

100000.0

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Figure 1: Irregular Migrants, Transit Migrants and Irregular

Labor Migrants in Turkey, 1995-2010

Irregular Migrants Transit Migrants Irregular Labor Migrants

A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY

AND INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

23

Table 1: Irregular Migrants, Transit Migrants and Irregular Labor Migrants in , 1995-2009, Top Ten Source Countries

Irregular Migrants Transit Migrants Irregular Labor Migrants

COUNTRY

TOTAL

MIGRATION COUNTRY

TOTAL

MIGRATION COUNTRY

TOTAL

MIGRATION

Iraq 129 454 Iraq 129 454 Moldavia 55 022

Pakistan 69 660 Pakistan 69 660 Georgia 25 344

Afghanistan 59 281 Afghanistan 59 281 Romania 24 168

Moldavia 55 022 Iran 28 432 Russian Federation 20 470

Iran 28 432 Palestine 25 398 Ukraine 20 566

Palestine 25 398 Bengladesh 21 593 Azerbaijan 17 382

Georgia 25 344 Somalia 21 533 Bulgaria 12 831

Romania 24 168 Maruitania 15 690 Germany 7 929

Bangladesh 21 593 Syria 11 147 Armenia 6 805

Somalia 21 533 Myanmar 10 569 United Kingdom 5 998

Others 336 609 Others 79 746 Others 138 045

TOTAL 796 494 TOTAL 461 934 TOTAL 334 560

MIGRATORY TRANSITION: FORMATION OF THE TRANSNATIONAL COMMUNITIES AND EMERGENCE OF A COUNTRY OF IMMIGRATION

International migration through EU-

zation/Globalism/Transnationalism : 2000s

Emigration of “Turkish citizens”:

the number of migrants to Turkey exceeds the number of

migrants from Turkey

incresed number of returnees

emigration/emigreants increasingly became an issue of

transnational (diaspora) communities

Immigration of “non-Turks” and “non-Muslims” intensified, diversified, consolidated...

drew international attention, particularly from the EU

required new legislation and administartive mechanisms for its

management

24


25

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Irregular Migration 92 400 82 800 56 200 61 200 57 428 51 983 64 290 65 737 34 345

Illegal entries 57 300 44 200 30 348 34 745 26 046 18 876 30 120 45 462 22 975

Overstays 35 100 38 600 25 852 26 455 31 382 33 107 34 170 20 275 11 370

Asylum application 5 200 3 794 3 966 3 908 3 914 4 548 7 640 12 981 7 834

of which: Afghan 400 47 77 341 365 339 427 1 571 1 009

of which: 3 500 2 505 3 108 2 029 1 716 2 297 1 668 2 217 1 981

of which: 1 000 974 342 964 1 047 724 3 470 6 904 3 763

Residence Permit 161 254 157 670 152 203 155 500 131 594 186 586 183 757 174 926 163 326

of which: work 22 414 22 556 21 650 27 500 22 130 22 805 25 475 18 900 17 483

of which: study 23 946 21 548 21 810 15 000 25 240 24 258 22 197 28 597 27 063

of which: or 114 894 113 566 108 743 113 000 84 224 139 523 135 365 127 429 118 780

Indicative Number of Migration to Turkey, 2001–2009


While Turkey was becoming a country of asylum,

immigration and transit in the period 1980-2000

Three main legal instruments, 1934 Settlement Law, 1950

Law on Residence and Travel of Aliens, and 1951 Convention

(and 1967 Protocol), were not able to respond to migratory

developments

Then, 1994 Regulation was made:

The 1994 Regulation on Procedures and Principles related to

mass influx and foreigners arriving in Turkey either as

individuals or in groups wishing to seek asylum either from

Turkey or requesting residence permits with the intension of

seeking asylum from a third Country. No: 94/6169, The Official

Gazette No: 22127. (30 November 1994)

first pro-active administrative/legislative attempt for migration

management in the globalizing world of 1990s in Turkey

it reflects the tension tension between the nationalist legacies (the

politics of the past) and the worldviews based on globalism and

transnationalism

26


New Legislations for Immigration and

Asylum in 2000s

2003 Law for Work Permits of

Foreigners

2005 Action Plan on Migration and

Asylum (EU-based)

2006 Law of Settlement

2013 “Law on Foreigners and

International Protection”

27

CONTEMPORARY TURKISH INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION STUDIES: A MAPPING

(benefited from the typologies of King, 2001)

Deconstructing the Binaries of Migration ---

Blurring the Distrinction

Process and Product

Transnational communities and current emigratory

flows

Internal versus International Migration

Dynamics and mechanisms of mobility patterns

within and beyond national borders

Temporary versus Permanent Migration

Circularity, fluid migration

Regular (“Legal”) and Irregular (“Illegal”)

Migration

Changing types, dynamics and mechanisms

28

CONTEMPORARY TURKISH INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION STUDIES: A MAPPING

(benefited from the typologies of King, 2001)

New Motivations and Settings for Migration

Globalization, new types of mobilities

Beyond economic considerations, some social,

cultural, political motivations

New space-time flexilities

Personal self-realization

Turkish case present an interesting case to

elaborate the cause, process and consequences of

international migration for empirical research

and theorizing

for comparative studies

for “old” and “new” migratoryflows and communities

29

CONTEMPORARY TURKISH

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION STUDIES: A

MAPPING

New Migration Migrations: Some Examples

Migration of Crisis: Refugees, Irregular (“Illegal”)

Migration

Growth in Independent Female Migration

Student, Skilled and Professional Migrants

Shuttle Migration, Circular or Fluid Migration

The Transnationalisation of Intimacy: Love and

Marriage Migrations

Migrations of Environmental Preferences --- Sun and

Retirement Migration

30

CONCLUDING REMARKS

It is important to think of the Turkish case:

as a part of the modernity project: initially dominated

by a nation-building process (in a nationally divided

world), and later (now) turned into a modern- state

building (in a globally integrated world)

this takes place in a period of transformation that is

prone to a dynamic tension between the nationalist

legacies (the politics of the past) and the worldviews

based on globalism, transnationalism, and EU-zation

as a transforming one within the dynamic interplay of

various actors and processes both in Europe, Turkey,

and elsewhere

as an important one, which seems to keep its

importance, regardless of its EU membership prospect

as a country of immigration (in addition to, of

emigration and transit)

31

CONCLUDİNG REMARKS

Research is needed:

With “new” research questions

With “new” theorizing, but possibly knowing the

“old”research and theorizing issues

Critical of the “old” typologies

Comparative ones

Interdisciplinary, rather than a cross-disciplinary or

multidisciplinary

What Turkey-related migratory flows and

migrants provide us with a fertile ground for

such research that will also contribute to the

theorizing

32

“thank you…”

33

MIGRATION REALITIES AND STATE RESPONSES: TURKEY A NEW COUNTRY OF IMMIGRATION? · 2014-10-06 ·...

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