Middle Eastern Rhythms

8/9/2019 Middle Eastern Rhythms

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Middle Eastern Rhythms FAQ

(rhythms for middle eastern dance for

dumbek, dumbec, doumbec, doumbek, Arabictabla, darabuka, tombak, zarb, zills ...)

Here are some traditional rhythms (mizan, iqa, vazn, darb, dawr, adwar) that are playedas Middle Eastern and Mediterranean dance rhythms or as accompaniment to Middle

Eastern and Mediterranean melodies. I would appreciate any comments, corrections, oradditional rhythms or variations.

Send e-mail to me: !

Note: you will need javascript enabled on your browser to send me email by clicking

here. Why is that you may ask?

The online version of this page is at:

http://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhythm.html

Q: Where can I find out more about tapes, videos and other instructional

resources?

Short answer; look here: " Mary Mark's Guide to Middle Eastern Percussion Resources

Page". http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/user/mmbt/www/percussion/learn-med.html

Please don't e-mail me asking me to send you tapes or instructional resources -- what I

have is here in these web pages -- at the moment I don't have instructional tapes or

videos of my own. Please do e-mail me if you think something needs clarification oryou'd like to give me feedback on these pages.

Q: Where do I get a drum?

In the past it had been hard to find good imported Middle Eastern drums, but these daysthere are many places to order inexpensive, quality drums. If you are an inexperienced

buyer, you may want to check for drum shops or import stores locally so you canactually put your hands on the drum and see what style of drum you prefer.

See also What Kind of Drum Should I Get?

I suggest the following online stores --

Touch the Earth -- These folks import stuff from a variety of places -- some

unique items. They are also SCA merchants and glad to help you find exactlywhat you are looking for if you get in touch with them.

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Mid-East Mfg -- Mid-East is one big manufacturer of the popular hard-fired

ceramic-style dumbek. They also have a sizable import business for drums andother instruments.

[François, one of my intrepid translators suggests these for you Canadians:]

Soul Drums -- If you live in the Toronto, Canada area this is a good source foreverything that has to do with percussion. They also run drum clinics and lessons

on a regular basis. Arabian Nights -- This is an online shop operating out of Victoria BC, Canada.

They sell various musical instruments and articles coming from the Middle East.

Q: What's in a name? ( A note on naming conventions )

I use names for these rhythms which tend to be accepted among the community of

drummers that I have known and the sparse documentation that exists on this (extremelyfolk) tradition. I have tried to note variations of name. Also note that many of the namesare transliterated from some language that doesn't use roman letters so spelling may

vary. Please let me know if you know of other names or local traditions.

For Arabic names I've tried to use a consistent transliteration that uses capital consonantsfor emphatic sounds and double vowels for long vowels. If you are aware of

misspellings of the Arabic, please do let me know.

For Greek and Balkan names I've tried to use commonly accepted transliterations and

spellings.

In many cases the names that are used in practice are inconsistent. Folk musicians inmany of the cultures of these areas often do not even name rhythms -- they simply know

what rhythm goes with what song and play it.

Q: What's the deal with 4/4, 6/8? ( Time Signatures, Music Theory )

For a modern western percussionist (or musician considering rhythm) the most important

thing is how many beats there are to a measure. That is: modern musicians break music

down into repeating segments of the same length called "measures". The measures are

then broken down into a fixed number of possible divisions. When you see that somesong is in "6/8" -- that means that it is divided into measures that contain six "eighth"notes. The whole modern world doesn't use this method (Balkan folk musicians, for

instance, have a pulse-length based system) and it was certainly not used when much

Middle Eastern music was formulated (more on this subject below). I've tried to use timenotations that would be familiar to western musicians with some notation to show

variations such as shortened segments.

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Q: What is this "D t k" stuff? ( Notation )

If you read music you may want to check out another version of this page that uses

western musical notation.

I assume you know how to hit the drum -- if not I will have a section on that when I gettime -- I do suggest, however, that if you are interested in playing in the traditional styleyou find a teacher or a good player and get them to give you a first lesson. This will

hopefully save you from developing bad habits early.

In "traditional" Arabic Tabla/Darabuka, TEK and KA may be played with either hand

and represent different sounds: TEK indicates either the accented strike or possibly theresonant (as opposed to damped) high-pitched sound -- depending on your methodology.

However many people find it easier to learn (and teach) by using the traditional names toindicate the preferred hand to strike with.

Note that it almost doesn't matter which hand you strike with as long as you are makingthe right sound -- however by putting the accents on the dominant hand and following

the notation for suggested hands you will probably wind up with a more "traditional

sound" to your playing.

There are many forms of rhythm notation -- the most popular is standard western

musical notation. I find that difficult to read, so I use a sort of "timeline" form that showswhere the strikes occur during the measure. It uses a fixed-width font so that eachcharacter is a fixed amount of time (a 1/16 note for most of the rhythms shown below.)

Text Key:

D Dum (right hand clear low tone)

T Tek (right hand high crisp tone)

K Ka (left hand, sounds like Tek)

- space after note (sustain)

_ space during a rest . shortened space

P Pop (Ka while deadening head w/ other hand cupped)

S Slap (loud or accented right hand, non-clear tone)

G Grab (or Stop, like Grab)

m Alternate "Dum" (left hand low tone, often muffled)

r finger roll

3 triplet

: inter-segment break

| inter-measure break

Note: Accented (fundamental) strikes are indicated with an UPPERCASE letter.

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traditions of North Africa are still today heavily influenced by Arabic empire roots rather than by

the rest of mainland Africa. That is the music is primarily monotonal and of simple rhythm.

Polyrhythm and harmony are almost non-existent in Middle Eastern music. That does not mean by

any measure that the music is simple. The "interesting" and unique aspects of each performance

come from the "ornamentation" of the tune by each instrument rather than from the "merging" of

various tones and times that is formed by harmony and polyrhythm. The Arabic (andMediterranean) music tradition tends to be based on the soloist or small ensemble -- a natural

outgrowth of folk groups and a nomadic bard tradition.

An interesting side note: Islamic tradition holds the musical arts in an odd dichotomy. Many Islamic

fundamentalists have held that music for pleasure (rather than to worship or to declare the glory of

Allah) is a sinful distraction -- however throughout history Islamic rulers (and no doubt the general

populace) tended to patronize the musical arts.

Khalifates with courts in the Maghreb developed forms of stylized concerts that formalized many

new musical as well as rhythmic structures including a complex style of concert called the "nuba".

This presence in Europe, along with the cultural interaction during the crusades, was responsible formany Middle Eastern instruments and musical forms finding their way into Europe. For instance

I've heard people argue that the frame drum (extremely popular in North Africa throughout history)

found it's way into Ireland as the bodhran this way -- this is probably apocryphal I'm not aware of

anything but speculation to support the theory.

There are numerous problems for modern students attempting to study early Middle Eastern music:

Arabic writers tend to describe such things and music and dance rather poetically (in terms of

impressions and feelings and effect on audience) rather than give much technical detail of form or

technique. Apparently there was no standardized musical notation -- though Middle Eastern

scholars were impressed by western notational methods (probably "discovered" by the Middle East

around the time of the crusades), these methods did not lend themselves well to representing the

more varied (in terms of tone and rhythm) music of the Middle East. Studying rhythmic modes is

even more difficult -- very little rhythmic notation exists, even for songs that are otherwise quite

well documented. Apparently either (as in many oral traditions) the rhythmic modes were so well

known scholars did not bother to document them or they could find no good method for doing so.

Attempts were made by a number of Middle Eastern scholars to document their highly oral musical

traditions; unfortunately most of these documents are not available today -- although there are many

references to them in historical works. The Mongul invasions of the 'Abbasid empire and sacking of

such academic centers as Baghdad in 1258 destroyed most of the relevant academic documents (not

to mention the scholars!). Safi-al-Din, the author of two of the oldest surviving technical texts onmusic was one of the few who barely escaped the purge and wound up working in the Mongul

court.

Additionally there is a long standing division between folk and academic (classical) music in Arabic

tradition -- I think most scholars found it beneath them to study (or at least write about) folk music.

As the Turkish/Ottoman empire rose out of the remains of the Arabic Khalifates they adopted the

court music forms of the Arabs and also further developed the "marching military band" that the

Arabs had found useful in intimidating their enemies. These were loud affairs consisting of many

percussion instruments, horns, and loud reeds. In this context loud outdoor instruments and music

were developed, while the complex court musical scene fostered more complex musical andrhythmic forms.


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Modern Middle Eastern music is mishmash of local folk traditions, the remains of ancient classical

forms, and aspects of western popular and sometimes classical music. As the Ottoman empire's

influence gave way to western influence during the first part of the 20th century, Egyptian

composers developed a lot of music that is a fusion of western classical form with middle eastern

music. This movement was responsible for bringing orchestra style ensembles and harmonic music

to the middle eastern mix. In terms of rhythmic elements it seems that a lot of diversity has beenlost, odd or complex rhythmic forms have been discarded or lost, in favor of more westernized,

even-counted measures. Modern (traditional) Persian music, for instance rarely has rhythms that are

not cycles of 2, 4, or 6 beats while historical records seem to indicate that much longer cycles were

common in the past.

Recently, during the rise of the oil economies (late 20th century), cheap labor brought from Africa

has brought a bit of central African polyrhythmic tradition to the Middle East -- especially to areas

in the Persian Gulf.

See below for more technical analysis of historical sources.

Q: So I want to learn some rhythms. Where do we start?

Let's start with a rhythm called "maqsuum". This rhythm is common and widespread -- you will

find it in music throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean.

The simple Maqsum is the basis of many rhythms and is especially important in modern and folk

Egyptian rhythm. If you listen to Middle Eastern percussion accompanying music you will often

hear the distinctive [DT-TD-T-] of the Maqsum. I've heard Hossam Ramzy exaggerate thatmaqsum is the basis of all Egyptian rhythm. The simple maqsum and all the ways in which it can beembellished really demonstrates the Middle Eastern percussion tradition. The Middle Eastern

percussion instruments are responsible for laying out the meter of a song but there is also room for

plenty of expression by each individual instrument. In parts of the Mahgreb (e.g. Tunisia) this

family of rhythms may be called "Duyek".

maqsuum 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D-T-__T-D-__T-__| basic formD-T-kkT-D-kkT-kk| filled

D-S-tkS-D-tkS-tk| accented

"baladii", which is a more folksy version of the basic Middle Eastern "maqsuum", is characterized

by the familiar two DUMs that lead the phrase. It is probably more properly called "maSmuudii

saghiir" ("small maSmuudii") since it has the "maSmuudii" accent and phrase but is played in 4

beats rather than 8. Some say that to play it with the traditional "feel" the accents (after the first)

should lag slightly. The rhythm is generally known as "baladii" (beledi, baladi, balady) among the

American belly dance community. The word "baladii" means "of the country" or "old fashion" and,

I've heard, implies (in Egypt) a bit of a "hick-ness" or folk-ness. This rhythm is very typical (to the

point of overuse) for modern belly dance, but the double-DUMs tend to drown out melodic

accompaniment -- therefore when playing with a subtle melodic instrument that cannot easily be

heard, a simpler version of "maqsuum" is usually preferred. "baladii" is usually played more slowly

that a 4/4 "maqsuum".

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baladii 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D-D-__T-D-__T-__| basic formD-D-tkT-D-tkT-tk| filledD-D-t-S-D-t-S-tk| "Egyptian Classical"

An evenly filled version of a rhythm (such as the last baladii variation above) is often called a"walking" rhythm due to its even stride.

walking maqsuum:es=maqsuum móvil:fr=maqsoum marchant 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D-T-k-T-D-k-T---|D-T-k-T-D-k-T-tk| with the bridge

The couple of beats you are finding near the end of some of these variations are known as a

"bridge" or "chain" -- they are not basic to the rhythm, but are often played as a pick up into thenext measure.

"sayyidii" (saidii, saiidii) is another rhythm of the maqsuum family. A sayyidii is made by doubling

the middle DUM. It has a different flavor of fill and accent, is popular in upper Egypt (remember

"upper" Egypt is in the south). It is similar to baladii, usually played fast, upbeat and powerfully. It

is traditionally used for the Tahtib (a man's ritual "stick dance") as well as belly dance (especially

the cane dance -- which is partially a parody of the man's version). I've also heard this rhythm called

"Ghawazee" since these dance forms, and a particular style of belly dance using this form of

rhythm, are popular among the Egyptian Ghawazee. This form may also be called "baladii

maqluub".

Note that, although the rhythm theoretically has a DUM at the beginning, after the initial cycle of

the rhythm that beat it is often alternatively played as a TEK. This tends to drag the second TEK of

the rhythm earlier and emphasize the double-DUM part.

sayyidii 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D-T-__D-D-__T-__|D-T-tkD-D-tkT-tk|

T-T-tkD-D-tkT-tk| after 1st measureD-tk-kD-D-tkT-tk| syncopated at the beginningDkS-kkDDD-tkS-tk| syncopated with 3 DUMs

Yet another variation of a maqsum with different accent, Sombati is used during taaqasiim or for

vocal accompaniment.

sombati 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D--T--T-D-__T-__|D-kT-kT-D-kkT-tk|

D-kT-kT-D-DkT-tk| like double-time cifitelliD-__T-T-D-__T-__| used to have this version here from someplace but I think thesyncopation is wrong


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D---__T---__T---D---D---T---____|D-tkt-T-tkD-T-tkD---D---Tktkt---|

Often rhythms are combined like this, or have versions that are half or twice as long. The basic

maqsuum played half as quickly is known as "maSmuudii".

The Masmoudi (I've reverted to the common transliteration) rhythm is characteristically a joining of

two 4-beat phrases. Sometimes it is called "Masmoudi kabiir(big)" to differentiate it from a 4-beat

rhythm (Masmoudi saghiir). Often the first phrase has 2 leading beats. One of these versions is

sometimes called "warring masmoudi" -- supposedly it sounds like a man and woman arguing. A 3

leading beat version is called "walking masmoudi" -- the even stride making it particularly suited

for marching. Masmoudi's are fairly common in belly dance music -- historically they are also used

in muwashashat -- they are particularly percussion-intense and make a quite convenient and

recognizable rhythm in which a dancer can accent a dance.

This, as I said, is at its core the same rhythm as maqsum but it is filled as an 8 rather than a four and

played more slowly. Generally speaking Masmoudi's sound big (kabiir) and the maqsums quick and

nimble (khafiif).

There is some evidence that the masmoudi rhythms were used in early muwashahat music and have

a more art-music basis than the maqsum which is currently found in a lot of folk songs.

The Masmouda are one of the three main groups of Berbers in Morocco. They live west of the Rif

and Grand and Middle Atlas in Morocco. "Masmouda" may also be used to refer to the region.

maSmuudii 8/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-|

D---D---____T---D---____T---T---|D---D---tktkT-tkD-tktkt-TktkT-tk|D---D---D---T---D---____T---T---|

A maqsuum played as a 2 beat rhythm is called "falaahii". It is usually very fast and often evenly

filled. It is a common folk version used for dance ("falaah" is another word for country-folk or

peasant). It is common in upper Egypt. It is usually played about twice as fast as a maqsum and

therefore is often considered a 2 beat rhythm -- played more slowly (as a 4) it is the "walking

maqsuum" discussed above.

falaahii 2/4

1-+-2-+-|Dk-kD-k-|DtktDktk|DgkgDkgk|

Ayyuub is similar. It is a common and fairly simple 2/4 rhythm. It is played in areas of the Middle

East from Turkey through to Egypt. It is used in a slow form for a tribal north African (Egyptian)

trance dance known as the Zar (the rhythm is sometimes called "Zar") -- toward the west (Morocco)

these same sorts of trance dances are generally done to a 6 beat rhythm. Ayyuub is also quite

common at a faster (or much faster) pace in belly dance music and music for folk line dances. Some

say that Ayyuub is supposed to sound like a camel walking. Bayou is a rhythm with the same time

pattern but has a double DUM and is usually played more slowly -- it is often used in belly dance

drum solos.

ayyuub 2/4


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1-+-2-+-|D--kD-T-|D-kkD-S-|DktkDtkt|

bayou 2/41-+-2-+-|

D--DD-T-|D-kDD-S-|

If you exchange the fundamental DUMs and TEKs in ayyuub you have another rhythm: karAtshi

(Karatchi). Karatchi is a fast 2/4. Note that the second DUM somehow comes out less accented than

the other accented beats. It is used in modern Egyptian music and sometimes alternated with similar

rhythms as a part of a song. Hossam Ramzy says of Karatchi: "From the word 'Karatchi' you can

tell that the next rhythm is not Egyptian. it's also very unusual because it starts with a TAK, which

is the treble beat rather than the DOM, which is the bass beat. However it is widely used in

Egyptian music and North African music."

karAtshi 2/4

1-+-2-+-|T--kT-D-|TktkT-D-|

Here are a couple of other simple 2 and 4 beat rhythms. "vox" or "foks" (could it be "fox", and

named after the "foxtrot"?) is very simple 2 (essentially a march -- probably inspired by western

music) often accented in sets of 4 or 8. Used in modern Egyptian compositions. Used by Egyptian

composer Mohamed Abdel Wahab.

foks/vox 2/4

1-+-2-+-|D---T-K-|

"Jerk" is a Modern Nubian rhythm inspired by a dance of the same name. (Similar to Samba?) In

Egyptian songs (e.g. Fi Yom Wi Leyla) I've heard the double-Dums very close together -- although

someone told me that Souhail Kaspar (a Lebonese teacher in California) taught them the less

syncopated (second) version below.

jerk/jaark/sherk 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D---T---DD--T---|

D-kkT-tkDDtkT-tk|D---T---D-D-T---|D-tkG-tkDkDkG-tk|

Conga Masri is another simple rhythm that seems particularly popular among the South American

belly dance crowd:

conga masri/congo masri 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D---T---D-T-----|D-tkT-tkD-T---tk|

Bolero and a very similar rhythm, Rhumba, are used in many places in the Middle East. Bolero is

usually played more slowly and often with a sort of triplet near the beginning -- it is used to


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accompany songs like "Erev Shel Shoshanim" and "Miserlu". Rhumba is often played almost twice

as fast (Rihlat El Ghawzia by Hossam Shaker). Although fundamentally these are 3-3-2 rhythms

(like malfuf/waaHida saghiira) -- the feeling is rather different. This family of rhythms (it's

ancestors) and variations were probably brought to Spain by Middle Eastern musicians (and

gypsies?), adopted into Latin music and probably re-introduced in various ways into modern Middle

Eastern tunes.

bolero 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-|D---t3kkT---k---T---k---D---k---|D---k-k-T---k-k-T-k-T-k-D---T---|

rumbaa/rhumba 2/41-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D---____T---D---|D-tkt-K-T-K-D-k-|

"zaffah" is a rhythm used in the Egyptian wedding processional. Its basic nature is that of a march.It is used in the wedding processional itself and also sometimes for belly dances that are reminiscent

of these events. (Note that the related "candelabra dance" is usually done to a more up-beat 2 or 4

beat rhythm -- e.g. Saidi). It may also be called "Murrabba Jaza'ira".

zaffah 4/4 (or 8/4)

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D-tkt-t-D-t-t---|D-tkt-t-D-t-t-tt|D-tkt-t-D-t-D---|D-D-D-t-tktkt-t-| Hossam Ramzy's "Big Zaffa"

Q: OK, I've got that. What's next? ( Middle Eastern rhythm theory and more rhythms )

Now that we've discussed a few rhythms, let's back up a bit.

So far I presented these rhythms in a very western way -- as evenly divided "measures" of notes.

Historically and traditionally (even now in some folk music traditions) this sense of meter or

measure is much less important. As I mentioned the ancient Greeks, for instance, had only a sense

of stringing numbers of longer or shorter beats together. Repeating cycles were because of the song,

not because there was a particular standard length of measure. The Arabic tradition follows to someextent, as does the modern Balkan music.

Sometimes interpreting a folk rhythm in our modern western musical context is a challenge...

Modern Middle Eastern and Greek musicians tend to approximate the western method of breaking

down rhythms down by measures. The number of beats per measure (whether played or not) is

important. Measures are made up of groups of 2 or 3 beats (or more) -- usually the first beat of these

groups is the important one (that is the one accented or played more fundamentally than the others).

Historically the repeating pattern was probably stressed and the sense of a fixed measure was

probably weaker. Certainly it is still true in much modern music that the western notation does not

capture the subtle timing and syncopation that might be important in a rhythm.


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Recall the version of waaHida that has what we thought was a strange accent pattern -- leaving out

the accent right in the middle of the cycle.

waaHida saghiira 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D---__T-____T---|

More traditionally this rhythm would be broken into segments of 2s and 3s. It would be 3+3+2 in

this case:

D---__T-____T---|1-2-3 1-2-3 1-2 |

3 + 3 + 2

You might see it written indicating the segment breaks:D---__:T-____:T---|

There are a number of rhythms of this form where 8 beats are divided 3+3+2 to be found in the

music of the Middle East and Mediterranean. The Macedonian gypsy (Romany) version is called"cocek" (CHO-CHEK) and has a spacey swing to it. In other areas of Greece these rhythms are used

to accompany many songs and line dances and tend to be known as "syrto" (which is the name of a

particular line dance, and also is used to describe the style of music). Syrto's tend to rock back-and-

forth on alternating measures changing accent slightly (or dramatically) and sometimes are far from

"straight" -- being pulled back sometimes to almost a 7-beat.

In the gulf region (Saudi Arabia) this type of rhythm is called "sa`udI" (Saudi) or "khaliijii" and is

played more slowly and less filled with DUMs on both 1 and 3. It is sometimes played

polyrhythmically with other 8-beat rhythms e.g. "karaatshii" (Karatshi) -- polyrhythm being an

oddity in Middle Eastern music. Apparently this is a fairly modern musical trend influenced by

workers imported from other countries (especially from continental Africa) to support the oil

economy.

In Egypt and Lebanon this rhythm is called "malfuuf" or "laf" and is more filled and often accented

-- most often with a DUM only on 1. "malfuuf" is used to accompany line dances and also used in

more modern, popular music.

Western musicians would count many of these rhythms a 2, since the music tends to swing in and

out finding accents on the first beat and then on "everything else".

cocek 4/4=3+3+2

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D---t-T---t-T-k-|

malfuuf 2/4=3+3+21-+-2-+-|D--T--T-|DkkTkkTk|D-kT-kT-|

sa`udI 2/4=3+3+21-+-2-+-|D--D--T-|D-kD-kTk|

syrto 4/4=3+3+21-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D---k-D---k-T-k-|


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D---k-T---k-T-k-|

"Muwashshat" is a form of spoken/sung Arabic poetry.

Ali Jihad Racy and Jack Logan, Ph.D. in Arab Music : "Moorish Spain also witnessed the

development of a literary-musical form that utilized romantic subject matter and featured strophictexts with refrains, in contrast to the classical Arabic qasidah, which followed a continuous flow of

lines or of couplets using a single poetical meter and a single rhyme ending. The muwashshah form,

which was utilized by major poets, also emerged as a musical form and survived as such in North

African cities and in the Levant, an area covering what is known historically as greater Syria and

Palestine. In this area, the muwashshah genre became popular in Aleppo, Syria."

The rhythms below, dawr hindii, muHajjar, murabbà, samaa'ii darij, samaa'ii thaqiil,as well as

maSmuudii, are used in muwashshat.

The samaa'ii (from an Arabic root "sma", which means to listen -- particularly to music) is a

Turkish form of classic music (some say "old aristocratic Turk music") that has a certain structureof 10 beat sections and usually ends with a faster set of 6 beat measures. I have also heard "dawr

hindii" called "sheelto" (I don't know whether this is correct as I've also heard a similar 6 beat

rhythm referred to as sheelto). These rhythms tend to be found more in art music rather than folk

music of the Middle East. I've seen Egyptians refer to dawr hindii as "andalus" (e.g. Amar Andalus

by Mokhtar Al Said).

muHajjar 14/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-0-+-1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D---D---D---____T---____D---____________T---____T---____| 4+2+4+4

D---D---D---____T---____D---____T---____T---____T---T---|D-tkD-tkD-tkt_k_T-tkt_k_D-tkt_k_T-tkt_k_T-tkt_k_T---T---| al-maSrii 2+4+4+2+2

murabbà 13/4=3+4+2+2+21-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-0-+-1-+-2-+-3-+-|D---T---T---D---__T---__T---T---____T---T---D---____|D---T-tkt-k-D-tkT-k-t-k-T-k-T-tkt-k-T-tkT-k-D-tkt-k-|

samaaìi ath-thaqiil (or Aghr aqSaaq samaaìi) 10/41-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-0-+-|D-______T-__k-______D-__D-__T-______T-__|D-__t-k-T-k-S-__t-k-D-__D-__S-__t-k-T-k-|

samaaìi darij (or darj) 6/8 or 3/41-+-2-+-3-+-|D-T-T-D-T-__|

D-TkT-D-T-__|D---T-T-T-__|

"darj" generally refers to a 6 beat rhythm -- it can have many forms depending on where you are. 6s

tend to be a little straighter (non-syncopated) in Persia or can swing or syncopate heavily in places

like the Mahgreb. Sometimes, though, it refers to a rhythm in an even multiple of 2 time (4 or 8) -- I

think this is due to the fact that it is hard to distinguish a 6 beat rhythm from a 2 beat rhythm that is

filled in a syncopated way.

darj 6/8

1-+-2-+-3-+-|

D-ktk-D-T---|D-D-__T-T-__| Algeria


14/24

"Dawr" is used in Arab, Persian, and Turkish music lingo; it refers to a scale or rhythmic cycle that

returns to its starting point. "Dawr Hindi" is first documented in "Ma'refat-e 'elm-e musiqi" an

anonymous work from about the 17th century (probably Persian).

dawr hindii/"Andalus" 7/8

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-|D---T---T---D-------T-------| 3+4D---T-k-T-k-D---t-k-T---t-k-| filled

Rhythms that make use of segments(feet) of 3 are known as "aqsaaq" -- it means "broken" or

"limping". This type of rhythm is still part of a lot of traditional Middle Eastern music. The term

"aqsaaq" is used by Turkish musicians (and others) to describe a wide variety of rhythms counted in

groups of 2s and 3s that are not even. Aqsaq rhythms do not necessarily well fit our western

traditions of ratioed measures -- playing correctly is more about fitting the phrasing and timing of

the song than some mathematical structure.

Several of the rhythms mentioned have been aqsaaq rhythms, including "samaa'ii thaqiil"; here are

some more rhythms:

Karsilama means "face-to-face" in Turkish. This 9 beat rhythm is a popular belly dance beat, and is

also used in Turkish and Greek folk songs (e.g. "Rompi Rompi", "Mastika") and modern Turkish

"jazz". The rhythm is grouped as 2+2+2+3 or can be counted in two uneven groups of 3 (slow-then-

fast) 1 2 3 123. This 9-beat aqsaaq rhythm is so popular it is sometimes simple called "aqsaaq".

karsilama 9/8=2+2+2+3

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-|D-__T-__D-__T-T-t-|D-kkT-kkD-kkT-T-t-|D-tkT-tkD-tkTkT-t-|

Some Turkish songs are grouped 2+2+3+2, (e.g. Dere Giliyor Dere) but a very similar pattern is

used with only a slight change of emphasis. The 7th eighth-note in this case is a pickup/chain/bridge

into the important accent on 8 (rather than on the 7). Usually this difference can be heard in the

melody.

karsilama-variation 9/8=2+2+2+3

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-|

D-__T-__D-__T-t-k-| 2+2+2+3 variation of aboveD-__T-__D-__t-T-k-| 2+2+3+2 compare!

Curcuna (JOOR-joon-nuh -- the Turkish "C" is a sound like an english "j" or "ch") is an Armenian

rhythm (I've also heard it in Afgani tunes -- often times nearly straightened to a 6). It is a 10 rhythm

being grouped 3+2+2+3. When played it can almost sound like ayyuub (a 2) with just a bit more

space in it -- or like a 6 beat rhythm. It is not even -- it has a bit of syncopation which is hard todescribe. If you think of it long-short-short-long you'll probably get it. Be careful not to "straighten

it out" into a 2 or a 6. I have sometimes heard the rhythm called "Nubar" -- probably because it is

used for the song "Nubar Nubar". Arabic speaking non-Armenians probably call it "jurjina" which

if you are Egyptian probably comes out "gurgina".

curcuna 10/8

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-|


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D-__T-k-__D-__T-____| 2+3+2+3D---__T---D---T---__| 5+5

There are basically two ways used to form a simple 7-beat rhythm: either 2+2+3 or 3+2+2. I already

mentioned "dawr hindii" which is a 3+2+2. In Greece and Turkey the 223's are generally known as

"laz" or "laz bar" and the 322's as "kalamantiano" (Kalamata is a port in south Greece). Both forms

are used for various folk line dances and songs.

laz 7/8=2+2+3

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-|D---T---T-----|D-k-D-k-D-k-k-|

kalamantiano 7/8=3+2+21-+-2-+-3-+-4-|D-t-t-D-t-D-t-|D-----T---T---|D-ktk-D-k-S-k-|D-tkt-D-tkT-t-|

Another Greek rhythm is called "zeybek" and is used in "zeymbekiko" music.

Zembekiko is a popular (traditional) Greek solo dance for men -- I have heard it described as "a guydancing around a glass of ouzo on the floor looking like he's rolling dice" (this description is

perhaps "tourist-ish").

Samra sent me a description from a Greek folk dance teacher: ...Zembekiko was born from

Rembetika and came out of the war periods (20's - 40's). It was a way for people to express their

pain - the songs then were all about hardship, poverty, loss, etc. (Now they are mostly songs about

love songs - usually loss in love). The dance is traditionally done solo, usually with a hunched stance and often with a smoke in one hand and a drink in the other, representing the sorrow they

feel and the fact that they're drowning it in drink.

It's an improvised dance. There are no set steps, it's a set style. Big leg kicks, lots of swaying, often

low to the ground, arms outstretched and in a hunched stance, head bowed and eyes to the ground.

Generally known as 'the drunk man's dance' among Greek people, but according to Mary this is

erroneous. It comes from the history of Zembekiko (see above), but of course one does not need to

be drunk to do it. ... It's not an ancient dance like other folk dances. It's like the blues of Greek

dancing.

Apparently the Zeymbekiko is somewhat older than that -- Mantos Garlofis mentions more about itin his letter to me.

This is a 9-beat rhythm with a completely different feel than the Karsilama we discussed previously.

It is grouped 4+4+1 and is usually much slower that the 9 of Karsilama -- perhaps it sounds more

like 8 very spacey measures of 2 or 4 beats plus a half measure. As written here it is fundamentally

two measures of a 4 beat phrase (similar to the basic waHiidaa) followed by a single beat --

however, in practice it is much more important that the beats match the music being played. The

"extra beat" can be used by a good dancer to add particularly noticeable accents to a dance

arrangement.

Examine the second variation below (which a Greek correspondent tells me is typical of the modernform), notice that it is similar to 2 repeats of a maqsum rhythm plus 1 extra beat.

http://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htm#zeybekhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htm#zeybekhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htm#zeybekhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htm#zeybekhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htm#zeybekhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htm#zeybek


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zeymbekiko/zeybek 9/4=4+4+1

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-|D---t-k-D---t-k-D---t-k-D---t---t---|D-t---k-D---t---D-t---k-D---t---t---|

Another family of Greek rhythms is the Tsamikos. They are approximately a 3 or 6-beat rhythm and

are not "even"; they feel "slow-quick-quick". It is important to match the rhythm of the music --

perhaps sometimes they sound like "long 2s" or "short 7s".

tsamiko 6/8 or 3/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|D-----k-T---k---T---k---| maybe thisD-----k--T--k--T--k-----| or maybe like this

For more information about these rhythms and a bunch of other Greek rhythms look at a letter that

Manthos Garlofis wrote me about Greek rhythms.

Further east, the music of the Mahgreb (Morocco, Tunisia) and Andalusia have been greatlyaffected by Arabic influences. Modern Spain still has remnants of Arabic influences despite a

reaction to purge as much Moorish culture from the region as possible after the Moors were driven

from the country. The flamenco rhythm tradition partially grew upon roots of Arabic tradition and

the nuba is still considered primarily "Andalusian" although it is also a part of the traditional

classical music of most of north Africa.

Here are some rhythms that are traditionally used in this form of Andalusian musical presentationknown as "nubaat". Each section of a nuba contains some number of songs that share one of these

rhythms and are played without break (or sometimes with a brief taaqasiim). BasiiT sort of has the

feel of a bolero or rhumba, but in 6. I suspect that they are related somewhere in the distant past in

the blending of Arabic tradition. Quddaam, although written as a 3 often comes out (at least insongs I've heard) sounding like a 2 or a 4 -- especially when it gets fast (and it does). This may be

the effect of a "modernization" of Andalusian music.

basiiT 6/4 or 12/8

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|D-_TD-T-T-TkT-TkT-____T-|D-k-D-tkT-k-t-k-D-k-t-k-|

bTaa'iHii 8/4 or 8/81-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|

D-_D-TDTD-T-DD-T| MoroccoD-_T__T-__D-T-__| Tunisia

qayIm wa niSf 8/4 or 8/81-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D-D-T-_T-_T-T-__|TkTkDtTktkDkDkt-| 3+2+3 Touma writes it this way (rotated?)

quddaam 3/4 or 6/81-+-2-+-3-+-|D-D-_TD-_T-_|D-tkt-t-D-t-| ToumaD--kt-k-D--t|

inSiraaf 5/81-+-2-+-3-|

D-T-__D-__| 1st barDDT-__T-__| 2nd barT-T-D-_D-T|

http://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htmhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htmhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htmhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htmhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htmhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/garlofis/garlofis.htm


17/24

khlaS or makhlaS 3/81-+-2-|D-tT-_|D-D-TT| Algeria

"sha'bia" is a Moroccan polyrhythm (unusual in Middle Eastern music -- and hardly a polyrhythm

by the standards of continental African rhythm) played on at least two drums. The 6 beat rhythm is

supposed to represent "heart" and the 12 "lung".

sha'bia 6/8x2 and 12/8

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|T-K-T-K-D-K-T-K-T-K-D-K-| 6 part (heart)G---D---K-G---K-D-------| 12 part (lung)

This is a bit "unnatural sounding" to the western ear since the most specific accent is not at the start

of the measure. Although even some Moroccan music seems to rotate it so that the "one" is on a

DUM.

Here is another version (according to Hassan Erraji and Salah Dawson-Miller):

sha'bia 6/8x2 and 12/8

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|T-t-t-T-D-t-T-t-t-T-D-t-| 6 part (darabuka - heart)____t---D-----t---t-D---| 12 part (bendir - lung)

Persia

Apparently Persian music has lost a lot of the more varied rhythmic modes that are mentioned in

historical works written during the height of the Persian and Arabic empires. Today most (fixed-

rhythm) Persian rhythmic modes are fairly simple 2s, 4s, 6s, or 8s. In Persia there is still a (fading)

classical tradition for music and song that has no western sense of fixed measure but is based on a

loose poetic meter.

Modern (and probably much older) Persian music focuses a lot on melodic and rhythmicimprovisation -- primarily on the stringed "tar". A tar is a skin covered string instrument similar to

(and probably the ancestor of) the oud. The Persian version of the globet shaped drum is called a

"Zarb", "Tombak", "Dombak" -- it is one of the most subtle and interesting Middle Eastern

percussion instruments -- it is probably fairly modern as it starts to appear in artistic representationsof musicians in the 19th century. Zarbists make a wide variety of sounds using complex finger

technique on the head of the drum and also by tapping and scraping rings on the corrugated side of

the drum -- playing along with the stringed instruments during fixed measure sections -- and also

improvising drum solos.

The instrument has become popular in recent years due to a few revolutionary players in the middle

part of the 20th century, including the esteemed Hosain Tehrani. For more information on the

tombak, tombak players, and Iranian music check out The Tombak Network.

Awfar is one of the five fundamental patterns documented in a 17th century Persian work. I don't

know if it describes the rhythm as modernly notated:

awfar 19/8=6+4+2+7

http://www.tombak.co.uk/http://www.tombak.co.uk/http://www.tombak.co.uk/http://www.tombak.co.uk/


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1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-0-|D---D-------T---T---D---D-T---T-------|D---D-------T---T---D---D-T---D-------|

Mukhammas is a form of five line Persian verse. Presumably this rhythm accompanies a vocal or

musical form of this poetry.

mukhammas 16/4=7+3+2+4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-0-+-1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+|D---____D---____D---__T---__|T---T---____|T---T---|D---____________|

Persia / Sufi

Check out Peyman's comments on rhythms used on the daf (frame drum) in Persian Sufi music at

this site http://rhythmweb.com/frame/sufi_daf.htm.

Of course the rhythms can also be played on other instruments. Many of these rhythms are rathersyncopated in practice. It's very difficult to get the nuance or "feel" of the rhythm just by reading

the musical notation or by listening to an perfectly counted MIDI sample (there are some live

samples at the site above).

Daem 4

1-+-|D-tt|

Garyan 141-+-2-+-3-+-4-|

D-_D-t-t-_D-t-|Haddadi 81-+-2-+-|D-Dtt_tt|

HalGerten 161-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D-ttD-t-T-ttD-t-|

HayAllah 81-+-2-+-|D-Dtt-T-|

HayAllahAllah 101-+-2-+-3-|

D-kT-D-T--|Maddahi 121-+-2-+-3-+-|D-D-TtD-T---|

Saghghezi 121-+-2-+-3-+-|DttDt-TttDt-|

ZekrEDovvom 161-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D-ttD-ttD---T-T-|

The Balkans

http://rhythmweb.com/frame/sufi_daf.htmhttp://rhythmweb.com/frame/sufi_daf.htmhttp://rhythmweb.com/frame/sufi_daf.htmhttp://rhythmweb.com/frame/sufi_daf.htm


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21/24

beat rhythm. Here is some notation I found on the web for a

dance:http://www.sacredcircles.com/THEDANCE/HTML/DANCEPAG/NEDAVODA.HTM

neda voda 11/8

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-|D-tkt-tkD-tkt-tkD-D---|

Yemen

Yemen has a strong academic music tradition. In a sort of cultural conservatism they have retained

much of the early Arabic music influences based on poetic meter. Here are some rhythms from

Yemen that are traditional.

das'a kabIr 11/8

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-|D---T-----T-----T-----|

das'a mutawassit/medium das'a:es=das'a mutawassit/medio das'a:fr=das'a mutawassit/das'a moyen

7/81-+-2-+-3-+-4-|D-T---D---T---|

das'a saghIr/fast or split das'a:es=das'a saghIr/rápido o dividido:fr=das'a saghIr/rapide ou divisé 7/81-+-2-+-3-+-4-|D-----T---T---|

Darb al-wasta/medium wasta:es=Darb al-wasta/medio wasta:fr=Darb al-wasta/wasta moyen 4/41-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|

D---T-T---T-T---|D---T-T---T-D---|

Darb as-sarI'/fast wasta:es=Darb as-sarI'/rápido wasta:fr=Darb as-sarI'/wasta rapide 4/41-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D---T-D---T-T---|

Adoni might be considered a wasta:

"adoni" 4/4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|D---K---K-D-D-K-|

Q: So where are more rhythms? Rhythm Collection

I notice there is a tendency for beginning drummers to want to quickly "collect" as many rhythms as

they can. (Hey, I did it too.) Let me point out that it is not the number of rhythms you can play, it's

more about being able to communicate clearly with the vocabulary you have. Some of the "best"

Middle Eastern drummers usually play only a couple of rhythms. Most songs are to basic rhythms

of 2, 4, 6 or 8. The art of Middle Eastern drumming is in doing the most with what you have --

playing perfectly and precisely -- ornamenting the rhythm appropriately -- making all of the sounds

that your instrument can make pleasingly.

Okay, that said: There is a list of rhythms here:

http://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhylist.html

http://www.sacredcircles.com/THEDANCE/HTML/DANCEPAG/NEDAVODA.HTMhttp://www.sacredcircles.com/THEDANCE/HTML/DANCEPAG/NEDAVODA.HTMhttp://www.sacredcircles.com/THEDANCE/HTML/DANCEPAG/NEDAVODA.HTMhttp://www.sacredcircles.com/THEDANCE/HTML/DANCEPAG/NEDAVODA.HTM


22/24

Q: What's the earliest documented rhythm?A Brief Analysis of Historical Sources

Here is a page with some historical artistic representations of various Middle Eastern drums.

Here is a page with notes for a class I taught on documenting rhythmic modes in pre-1600 Middle

Eastern music.

One of the earliest surviving sources on Middle Eastern music theory is the "Kitab al-Aghani"

(Book of Songs) by "Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan"; it was written in the early 10th century --

unfortunately the technical sections on music and rhythm theory are completely in decipherable.

In the 13th century, SafI-al-DIn wrote two books, apparently about 50 years apart: the "Kitaab al-

adwaar" and "Risaala al-sharafiyya". These texts contain a great deal of technical information on

musical theory and are practically the only such sources available until much later in history. He is

apparently the first to use the term "dawr" to refer to the rhythmic cycle and the first to discuss it inany depth.

In "Kitaab al-adwaar" chapter 13 is devoted to rhythmic modes. SafI-al-DIn lists eight rhythmic

modes with variations. The "Risaala" also mentions seven of the same rhythms and adds another.

The way he describes the rhythms is in terms of segments (feet) of long and short syllables. He

notes that some beats may optionally be played, presumably at the discretion of the musician, and

others are fixed. There is little or no evidence about how these rhythms were applied specifically to

percussion instruments.

In "Kitaab" he gives a "basis" for each rhythm (al-aSl) but this was probably based on his own formof analysis rather than common practice since it seems of limited use and he later seems to

deprecate the notion in "Risaala". Notice the variations mentioned between the two works have very

different basic cycle lengths. For the cycles that are even-divisions or multiples of each other one

might imagine that the short rhythm is simply stretched by a factor of two to fill the space. There

are many cases where his rhythm notations for song examples don't add up. Part of this seems to be

the habit of not specifically mentioning the length of a note when it is a repeated note of the same

tone as the previous. This makes it nearly impossible to reconstruct his examples with any

(rhythmic) accuracy and leads one to suspect we may not be able to interpret any of the modes with

certainty.

Here are the rhythmic modes he mentions (pay no attention to the distribution of notes versus rests -- it was not Safi-al-Din's -- I've had to make it at least plausible to render in modern notation):

al-thaqiil al-awwal 16/8=3+3+4+2+4

1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|Tt_Tt_Ttt_T_Ttt_|______T-____T___| al_aSl (the basis)________T___T___| al-aSl (the basis)

al-thaqiil al-thaanii 16/8=3+3+2+3+3+21-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|Tt_Tt_T_Tt_TT_T_|

T---________T___| al-aSl (the basis)al-thaqiil al-thaanii 8/81-+-2-+-|Tt_Tt_Tt|

http://www.khafif.com/rhy/his.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/his.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/his.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/his.html


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khafiif al-thaqiil 16/8=2+2+2+2+2+2+2+21-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|T_TtT_TtT_TtT_Tt|

khafiif al-thaqiil 2/4=2+21-+-|T_Tt|

Ttt_| Risaala al-sharafiyyathaqiil al-ramal 20/8=4+4+2+2+2+2+2+2+41-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|Ttt_Ttt_T_T_T_T_T_T_Ttt_|T-________________T-____| al-aSl

al-ramal 12/81-+-2-+-3-+-|T_T_T_T_Ttt_| Safii al_Diin Kitaab al-adwaar;T_T_Ttt_Ttt_| Safii al-Diin; Kitaab al-adwaar; also Risaala al-sharafiyyaT-______T___| al-aSl; Safii al-Diin Kitaab al-adwaar;T_Ttt_T_Ttt_| Risaala al-sharafiyyaTtt_T_Ttt_T_| Risaala al-sharafiyya

khafiif al-ramal 10/8=2+3+2+31-+-2-+-3-|T_Tt_T_Tt_|T______T__| al-aSl

khafiif al-ramal 12/8=2+4+2+41-+-2-+-3-+-|T_Ttt_T_Ttt_| Risaala al-sharafiyya version

khafiif al-ramal 6/8=2+41-+-2-|T_Ttt_|

muDaa`af al-ramal 24/81-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|Ttt_T_Ttt_T_Ttt_T_Ttt_T_|

T-________________T-____| al-aSlal-hazaj 12/8=4+3+3+21-+-2-+-3-+-|Ttt_Tt_Tt_T_|T-______T-__|

al-hazaj 6/8=4+21-+-2-|Ttt_T_|T-__T_| al-aSlTt_Tt_| Risaala al-sharafiyya version

al-faakhitii 20/81-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-|

T-__T_T-__T-__T_T-__|T_T-__T-__T_T-__T-__|T_Ttt_Ttt_T_Ttt_Ttt_| Risaala al-sharafiyya version

al-faakhitii 28/81-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-|T_T-__T-__T-__T_T-__T-__T-__| Risaala al-sharafiyya variation in 28T_Ttt_Ttt_Ttt_T_Ttt_Ttt_Ttt_| Risaala al-sharafiyya variation in 28

Q: Where else can I read about Middle Eastern rhythm history? ( Bibliography )

Check the bibliography of my notes for a class I taught on documenting rhythmic modes in pre-

1600 Middle Eastern music.

Here's a bibliography from the Encyclopedia Britannica.

http://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/1/0,5716,109491+2+106442,00.htmlhttp://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/1/0,5716,109491+2+106442,00.htmlhttp://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/1/0,5716,109491+2+106442,00.htmlhttp://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/1/0,5716,109491+2+106442,00.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.htmlhttp://www.khafif.com/rhy/rhyhist.html


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Middle Eastern Rhythms

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