Mexico

This article is about the country in North America. Forother uses, see Mexico (disambiguation).

Mexico ( i/ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México [ˈmexiko]), of-ficially the United Mexican States (Spanish: EstadosUnidos Mexicanos, listen ),[9][10][11][12] is a federal re-public in North America. It is bordered on the northby the United States; on the south and west by the Pa-cific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, andthe Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mex-ico.[13] Covering almost two million square kilometres(over 760,000 sq mi),[12] Mexico is the fifth largest coun-try in the Americas by total area and the 13th largest in-dependent nation in the world. With an estimated popu-lation of over 120 million,[14] it is the eleventh most pop-ulous and the most populous Spanish-speaking country inthe world and the second most populous country in LatinAmerica. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-onestates and a Federal District, its capital and largest city.In pre-Columbian Mexico many Mesoamerican culturesmatured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec,the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya andthe Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521,the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the terri-tory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, which was ad-ministered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This terri-tory would eventually become Mexico following recog-nition of the colony’s independence in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic in-stability, the Mexican-American War that led to theterritorial cession to the United States, the Pastry War,the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, two empires and adomestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Rev-olution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgationof the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the coun-try’s current political system. In March 1938, through theMexican oil expropriation private U.S. and Anglo-Dutchoil companies were nationalized to create the state-ownedPemex oil company.Mexico has one of the world’s largest economies, it isthe tenth largest oil producer in the world, the largestsilver producer in the world and is considered both aregional power and middle power.[15][16][17][18] In ad-dition, Mexico was the first Latin American mem-ber of the Organisation for Economic Co-operationand Development OECD (since 1994), and consid-ered an upper-middle income country by the WorldBank.[19] Mexico is considered a newly industrializedcountry[20][21][22][23] and an emerging power.[24] It has the

fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largestGDP by purchasing power parity. The economy of Mex-ico is strongly linked to those of its North AmericanFree Trade Agreement (NAFTA) partners, especially theUnited States.[25][26] Mexico ranks sixth in the world andfirst in the Americas by number of UNESCOWorld Her-itage Sites with 32,[27][28][29] and in 2010 was the tenthmost visited country in the world with 22.5 million in-ternational arrivals per year.[30] According to GoldmanSachs, by 2050 Mexico could become the world’s fifthlargest economy.[31] PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) es-timated in January 2013 that by 2050 Mexico couldbe the world’s seventh largest economy.[32] Mexico hasmembership in prominent institutions such as the UN, theWTO, the G20 and the Uniting for Consensus.

1 Etymology

Main article: Name of MexicoMēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the

Image of Mexico-Tenochtitlan from the Codex Mendoza

Aztec Empire, namely,[33] the Valley of Mexico, and itspeople, theMexica, and surrounding territories which be-came the future State of Mexico as a division of NewSpain prior to independence (compare Latium). It is gen-

1

2 2 HISTORY

erally considered to be a toponym for the valley whichbecame the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Al-liance as a result, or vice versa. After New Spain wonindependence from Spain, it was decided that the newcountry would be named after its capital, Mexico City,which was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexicacapital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan.Traditionally, its name was thought to come fromNahuatltetl [ˈtetɬ] (“rock”) and nōchtli [ˈnoːtʃtɬi] ("prickly pear")and is often thought to mean “Among the prickly pears[growing among] rocks”. However, one attestation in thelate 16th-century manuscript known as “the Bancroft di-alogues” suggests the second vowel was short, so that thetrue etymology remains uncertain.[34]

The suffix -co is the Nahuatl locative, making the worda place name. Beyond that, the etymology is uncer-tain. It has been suggested that it is derived from Mextlior Mēxihtli, a secret name for the god of war and pa-tron of the Mexicas, Huitzilopochtli, in which case Mēx-ihco means “Place where Huitzilopochtli lives”.[35] An-other hypothesis[36] suggests that Mēxihco derives from aportmanteau of the Nahuatl words for “Moon” (Mētztli)and navel (xīctli). This meaning (“Place at the Centerof the Moon”) might then refer to Tenochtitlan’s posi-tion in the middle of Lake Texcoco. The system of in-terconnected lakes, of which Texcoco formed the cen-ter, had the form of a rabbit, which the Mesoamericanspareidolically associated with the Moon. Still another hy-pothesis suggests that it is derived from Mēctli, the god-dess of maguey.[36]

The name of the city-state was transliterated to Spanishas México with the phonetic value of the letter 'x' in Me-dieval Spanish, which represented the voiceless postalve-olar fricative [ʃ]. This sound, as well as the voicedpostalveolar fricative [ʒ], represented by a 'j', evolvedinto a voiceless velar fricative [x] during the 16th cen-tury. This led to the use of the variant Méjico in manypublications in Spanish, most notably in Spain, whereasin Mexico and most other Spanish–speaking countriesMéxico was the preferred spelling. In recent years theReal Academia Española, which regulates the Spanishlanguage, determined that both variants are acceptable inSpanish but that the normative recommended spelling isMéxico.[37] The majority of publications in all Spanish-speaking countries now adhere to the new norm, eventhough the alternative variant is still occasionally used. InEnglish, the 'x' in Mexico represents neither the originalnor the current sound, but the consonant cluster [ks].The official name of the country has changed as theform of government has changed. On three occasions(1325–1521, 1821–1823, and 1863–1867). The coun-try was known as Imperio Mexicano (Mexican Empire).All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857 and 1917,the current constitution) used the name Estados UnidosMexicanos[38]—or the variant Estados-Unidos Mexica-nos,[39] all of which have been translated as “UnitedMex-

ican States”. The phrase República Mexicana, “MexicanRepublic”, was used in the 1836 Constitutional Laws.[40]On November 22, 2012, president Felipe Calderón sentto the Mexican Congress a piece of legislation to changethe country’s name officially to simplyMexico. To go intoeffect, the bill would need to be passed by both houses ofCongress, as well as a majority of Mexico’s 31 State leg-islatures. As this legislation was proposed just a weekbefore Calderón turned power over to Enrique Peña Ni-eto, Calderón’s critics saw this as a symbolic gesture.[41]

2 History

Main article: History of Mexico

Chichen Itza

Cuauhxicalli in the shape of an eagle, from the Templo Mayor

2.1 Ancient cultures

Main article: Pre-Columbian Mexico

The earliest human remains in Mexico are chips ofstone tools found near campfire remains in the Valleyof Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 yearsago.[42] Mexico is the site of the domestication of maize

2.2 Spanish conquest (1519) 3

and beans which caused a transition from paleo-Indianhunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages begin-ning around 5000 BCE.[43]

In the subsequent formative eras, maize cultivation andcultural traits such as a complex mythological and reli-gious complex, a vigesimal numeric system, were dif-fused from the Mexican cultures to the rest of theMesoamerican culture area[44] In this period villagesbegan to become socially stratified and develop intochiefdoms, and large ceremonial centers developed.[45]

Among the earliest complex civilizations in Mexico wasthe Olmec culture which flourished on the Gulf Coastfrom around 1500 BCE. Olmec cultural traits diffusedthroughMexico into other formative-era cultures in Chia-pas, Oaxaca and the Valley of Mexico. The formative pe-riod saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic tra-ditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes.[46]

In the subsequent pre-classical period, the Maya andZapotec civilizations developed complex centers atCalakmul and Monte Albán respectively. During this pe-riod the first trueMesoamerican writing systems were de-veloped in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures, andthe Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height inthe Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script.[47]

In CentralMexico, the height of the classic period saw theascendancy of Teotihuacan, which formed a military andcommercial empire whose political influence stretchedsouth into the Maya area as well as north. Teotihuacan,with a population of more than 150,000 people, had someof the largest pyramidal structures in the pre-ColumbianAmericas.[48] After the collapse of Teotihuacán around600 CE, competition ensued between several importantpolitical centers in central Mexico such as Xochicalcoand Cholula. At this time, during the Epi-Classic, Nahuapeoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from theNorth, and became politically and culturally dominantin central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages.

2.1.1 Post-classic period (700–1519 AD)

During the early post-classic Central Mexico was dom-inated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec andthe lowland Maya area had important centers at ChichénItzá and Mayapán. Towards the end of the post-Classicperiod, the Mexica.Alexander von Humboldt originated the modern usageof "Aztec" as a collective term applied to all the peo-ple linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to theMexica state and Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān, the Triple Alliance.In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H.Prescott, it was adopted by most of the world, including19th century Mexican scholars who saw it as a way to dis-tinguish present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexi-cans. This usage has been the subject of debate in more

A view from the Tlatelolcomarkets intoMexico-Tenochtitlan, oneof the largest cities in the world at the time.

recent years.[49]

The Aztec empire was an informal or hegemonic empirebecause it did not exert supreme authority over the con-quered lands; it merely expected tributes to be paid. Itwas also a discontinuous empire because not all domi-nated territories were connected; for example, the south-ern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in directcontact with the center. The hegemonic nature of theAztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally localrulers were restored to their positions once their city-statewas conquered and the Aztecs did not interfere in localaffairs, as long as the tribute payments were made.[50]

The Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empirecovering most of central Mexico.[51] The Aztecs werenoted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale.Along with this practice of delayed death, the killing ofenemies on the battlefield was avoided; making their war-ring casualty rate far lower than their Spanish counter-parts whose principal objective was immediate slaugh-ter during battle.[52] This distinct Mesoamerican culturaltradition ended with the Spanish conquest in the 16thcentury, and over the next centuries Mexican indige-nous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colo-nial rule.[53]

2.2 Spanish conquest (1519)

Further information: Spanish conquest of MexicoThe Spanish first heard of Mexico during the Juan deGrijalva expedition of 1518, the natives kept “repeat-ing: Colua, Colua, and Mexico, Mexico, but we did notknow what Colua or Mexico meant”, until encounteringMontezuma’s Governor at the mouth of the Rio de lasBanderas.[54]:33–36 The Spanish conquest of the AztecEmpire began in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés ar-rived at the port in Veracruz with ca. 500 conquistadores,and later moved on to the Aztec capital. On his search forgold and other riches, Cortés decided to invade and con-quer the Aztec empire.[55]

4 2 HISTORY

Hernán Cortés and La Malinche meet Moctezuma II.

Storming of the Teocalli by Cortez and his troops. EmanuelLeutze. Painting, 1848

The massacre in the Great Temple was a key incident inthe Spanish conquest of Mexico which occurred on May20, 1520.The ruler of the Aztec empire upon the arrival of theSpaniards was Moctezuma II, who was later killed; hissuccessor and brother Cuitláhuac took control of theAztec empire, but was among the first to fall from thesmallpox epidemic a short time later.[56] Unintention-ally introduced by Spanish conquerors, smallpox ravagedMesoamerica in the 1520s, killing more than 3 millionAztecs.[57] Other sources, however, mentioned that thedeath toll of the Aztecs might have reached up to 15million (out of a population of less than 30 million).[58]Severely weakened, the Aztec empire was easily defeatedby Cortés and his forces on his second return.[59]

Smallpox was a devastating and selective disease—it gen-erally killed Aztecs but not Spaniards, who as Europeanshad already been exposed to it for centuries and weretherefore much more immune to it.[60] The deaths causedby smallpox are believed to have triggered a rapid growthof Christianity in Mexico and the Americas. At first,

the Aztecs believed the epidemic was a punishment froman angry god, but they later accepted their fate and nolonger resisted the Spanish rule.[61] Many of the surviv-ing Aztecs blamed the cause of smallpox to the superior-ity of the Christian god, which resulted in the acceptanceof Catholicism and yielding to the Spanish rule through-out Mexico.[62]

The territory became part of the Spanish Empire underthe name of New Spain. Mexico City was systematicallyrebuilt by Cortés following the Fall of Tenochtitlan in1521. Much of the identity, traditions and architectureof Mexico were created during the colonial period.[63]

2.3 Colonial period (1519–1821)

The capture of Tenochtitlan marked the beginning of a300-year-long colonial period, during which Mexico wasknown as "New Spain".

2.3.1 Period of the conquest (1521–1650)

Contrary to a widespread misconception, Spain did notconquer all of the Aztec Empire when Cortes tookTenochtitlan. It required another two centuries to com-plete the conquest: rebellions broke out within the oldEmpire and wars continued with other native peoples.After the fall of Tenochtitlan, it took decades of spo-radic warfare to subdue the rest of Mesoamerica. Partic-ularly fierce was the Chichimeca War (1576–1606) andthe Tepehuán Revolt (1616–1620) in the north.Economics. The Council of Indies and the mendicantestablishments, which arose in Mesoamerica as early as1524, labored to generate capital for the crown of Spainand convert the Indian populations to Catholicism. Dur-ing this period and the following Colonial periods thesponsorship of mendicant friars and a process of re-ligious syncretism combined the Pre-Hispanic cultureswith Spanish socio-religious tradition.

Equestrian statue of Charles IV in Mexico City, the king was themaximum authority of the Viceroyalty of New Spain

2.3 Colonial period (1519–1821) 5

The resulting hodgepodge of culture was a plurieth-nic State that relied on the "repartimiento", a systemof peasant “Republic of Indians” labor that carried outany necessary work. Thus, the existing feudal systemof pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican culture was replaced bythe encomienda feudal-style system of Spain, probablyadapted to the pre-Hispanic tradition. This in turn was fi-nally replaced by a debt-based inscription of labor that ledto widespread revitalization movements and promptedthe revolution that ended colonial New Spain.Evolution of the Race. During the three centuries of colo-nial rule, less than 700,000 Spaniards, most of themmen,settled in Mexico. The settlers intermarried with indige-nous women, fathering the mixed race (mestizo) descen-dents who today constitute the majority of Mexico’s pop-ulation.

2.3.2 The colonial period (1650–1821)

Portrait of Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, oil on canvas, 1772.

During this period, Mexico was part of the much largerViceroyalty of New Spain, which included Cuba, PuertoRico, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, Florida,the southwestern United States and the Philippines. Spainduring the 16th century focused its energies on areas withdense populations that had produced Pre-Columbian civ-ilizations, since these areas could provide the settlers witha disciplined labor force and a population to catechize.Territories populated by nomadic peoples were harder toconquer, and though the Spanish did explore a good partof North America, seeking the fabled "El Dorado", theymade no concerted effort to settle the northern desert re-

gions in what is now the United States until the end of the16th century (Santa Fe, 1598).Colonial law with Spanish roots but original native fea-tures were introduced, creating a hierarchy between localjurisdiction (the Cabildos) and the Crown's, whereby up-per administrative offices were closed to the natives, eventhose of pure Spanish blood. Administration was basedon the racial separation of the population among “Re-publics” of Spaniards, Indians and Mestizos, autonomousand directly dependent on the king himself.From an economic point of view, New Spain was ad-ministered principally for the benefit of the Empire andits military and defensive efforts (Mexico provided morethan half of the Empire’s taxes and supported the admin-istration of all North and Central America). Competi-tion with Spain was discouraged to the extent that activ-ities like cultivation of grapes and olives, introduced byCortez himself, was banned out of fear that these cropswould compete with Spain's.In order to protect Mexico from the attacks of En-glish, French and Dutch pirates, as well as the Crown’srevenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade—Veracruz on the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacific.The pirates attacked, plundered and ravaged several citieslike Campeche (1557), Veracruz (1568) and Alvarado(1667).Education was encouraged by the Crown from the verybeginning, and Mexico boasts the first primary school(Texcoco, 1523), first university (1551) and the firstprinting house (1524) of the Americas. Indigenous lan-guages were studied mainly by the religious orders duringthe first centuries, and became official languages in theso-called Republic of Indians, only to be outlawed andignored after independence by the prevailing Spanish-speaking creoles.Mexico produced important cultural achievements duringthe colonial period, like the literature of Sor Juana Inésde la Cruz and Ruiz de Alarcón, as well as cathedrals,civil monuments, forts and colonial cities such as Puebla,Mexico City, Querétaro, Zacatecas and others, today partof Unesco’s World Heritage.The syncretism between indigenous and Spanish culturesin New Spain gave birth to many of today’s Mexicancultural traits like tequila (first distilled in the 16th cen-tury), mariachi (18th), jarabe (17th), charros (17th) andMexican cuisine – a mixture of European and indigenousingredients and techniques.

2.3.3 Independence from Spain (1821)

Main article: Mexican War of IndependenceOn September 16, 1810, a “loyalist revolt” against theruling Junta was declared by priest Miguel Hidalgo y Cos-tilla, in the small town of Dolores, Guanajuato.[64] Thefirst insurgent group was formed by Hidalgo, the Span-

6 2 HISTORY

The Territorial evolution of Mexico after independence, notinglosses to the US (red, white and orange), Chiapas annexed fromGuatemala (blue), the annexation of the Republic of Yucatan(red) and the secession of Central America (purple)

ish viceregal army captain Ignacio Allende, the militiacaptain Juan Aldama and “La Corregidora” Josefa Ortizde Domínguez. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers werecaptured and executed by firing squad in Chihuahua, onJuly 31, 1811. Following his death, the leadership was as-sumed by priest José María Morelos, who occupied keysouthern cities.In 1813 the Congress of Chilpancingo was convened and,on November 6, signed the "Solemn Act of the Decla-ration of Independence of Northern America". Moreloswas captured and executed on December 22, 1815.In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse,but in 1820 Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent an armyunder the criollo general Agustín de Iturbide against thetroops of Vicente Guerrero. Instead, Iturbide approachedGuerrero to join forces, and on August 24, 1821 rep-resentatives of the Spanish Crown and Iturbide signedthe "Treaty of Córdoba" and the "Declaration of Inde-pendence of the Mexican Empire", which recognized theindependence of Mexico under the terms of the "Plan ofIguala".

2.4 Birth of Mexico (1821)

2.4.1 Territorial losses and Juárez reforms (1821-1876)

Agustín de Iturbide immediately proclaimed himself em-peror of the First Mexican Empire. A revolt against himin 1823 established the UnitedMexican States. In 1824, aRepublican Constitution was drafted and Guadalupe Vic-toria became the first president of the newly born country.In 1829 president Guerrero abolished slavery.[65] The firstdecades of the post-independence period were marked by

Emperor Agustin I

President Benito Juárez

economic instability, which led to the PastryWar in 1836,and a constant strife between liberales, supporters of a

2.5 Mexican Revolution (1910–1929) 7

federal form of government, and conservadores, propos-als of a hierarchical form of government.General Antonio López de Santa Anna, a centralist andtwo-time dictator, approved the Siete Leyes in 1836,a radical amendment that institutionalized the central-ized form of government. When he suspended the1824 Constitution, civil war spread across the country,and three new governments declared independence: theRepublic of Texas, the Republic of the Rio Grande andthe Republic of Yucatán.Texas successfully achieved independence and joined theUnited States. A border dispute led to the Mexican-American War, which began in 1846 and lasted for twoyears; the War was settled via the Treaty of GuadalupeHidalgo, which forced Mexico to give up over half of itsland to the U.S., including Alta California, New Mexico,and the disputed parts of Texas. A much smaller transferof territory in what is today southern Arizona and south-western New Mexico — the Gadsden Purchase — oc-curred in 1854.[66] The CasteWar of Yucatán, theMayanuprising that began in 1847,[67] was one of the most suc-cessful modern Native American revolts.[68] Maya rebels,or Cruzob,[69] maintained relatively independent enclavesuntil the 1930s.Dissatisfaction with Santa Anna’s return to power led tothe liberal "Plan of Ayutla", initiating an era known asLa Reforma, after which a new Constitution was draftedin 1857 that established a secular state, federalism as theform of government, and several freedoms. As the con-servadores refused to recognize it, the ReformWar beganin 1858, during which both groups had their own gov-ernments. The war ended in 1861 with victory by theLiberals, led by the Amerindian president Benito Juárez.In the 1860s Mexico underwent a military occupation byFrance, which established the Second Mexican Empireunder the rule of the HabsburgArchduke FerdinandMax-imilian of Austria with support from the Roman Catholicclergy and the conservadores, who later switched sidesand joined the liberales. Maximilian surrendered, wastried on June 14 and was executed on June 19, 1867.

2.4.2 Porfiriato (1876–1910)

Porfirio Díaz, a republican general during the French in-tervention, ruled Mexico from 1876 to 1880 and thenfrom 1884 to 1911 in five consecutive reelections, periodknown as the Porfiriato, characterized by remarkable eco-nomic achievements, investments in the arts and sciences,but also of economic inequality and political repression.

2.5 Mexican Revolution (1910–1929)

Further information: Mexican RevolutionPresident Díaz announced in 1908 that he would retirein 1911, resulting in the development of new coalitions.But then he ran for reelection anyway and in a show of

Francisco I. Madero with Emiliano Zapata, in Cuernavaca dur-ing the Mexican Revolution.

U.S. support, Díaz and William Howard Taft planneda summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Mex-ico, for October 16, 1909, an historic first meeting be-tween a Mexican and a U.S. president and also the firsttime an American president would cross the border intoMexico.[70] Both sides agreed that the disputed Chamizalstrip connecting El Paso to Ciudad Juárez would be con-sidered neutral territory with no flags present during thesummit, but the meeting focused attention on this terri-tory and resulted in assassination threats and other serioussecurity concerns.[70]

On the day of the summit, Frederick Russell Burnham,the celebrated scout, and Private C.R. Moore, a TexasRanger, discovered a man holding a concealed palm pis-tol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce build-ing along the procession route, and they disarmed the as-sassin within only a few feet of Díaz and Taft.[70] Bothpresidents were unharmed and the summit was held.[70]Díaz was re-elected in 1910, but alleged electoral fraudforced him into exile in France and sparked the 1910Mexican Revolution, initially led by Francisco I. Madero.Madero was elected president but overthrown and mur-dered in a coup d'état two years later directed by conser-vative general Victoriano Huerta. That event re-ignitedthe civil war, involving figures such as Francisco Villaand Emiliano Zapata, who formed their own forces. Athird force, the constitutional army led by VenustianoCarranza managed to bring an end to the war, and rad-ically amended the 1857 Constitution to include many ofthe social premises and demands of the revolutionariesinto what was eventually called the 1917 Constitution. Itis estimated that the war killed 900,000 of the 1910 pop-ulation of 15 million.[71][72]

Assassinated in 1920, Carranza was succeeded by an-other revolutionary hero, Álvaro Obregón, who in turnwas succeeded by Plutarco Elías Calles. Obregón was re-elected in 1928 but assassinated before he could assumepower. Although this period is usually referred to as theMexican Revolution, it might also be termed a civil warsince president Díaz (1909) narrowly escaped assassina-

8 2 HISTORY

tion and presidents Francisco I. Madero (1913), Venus-tiano Carranza (1920), Álvaro Obregón (1928), and for-mer revolutionary leaders Emiliano Zapata (1919) andPancho Villa (1923) all were assassinated during this pe-riod.

2.5.1 One-party rule (1929–2000)

In 1929, Calles founded the National Revolutionary Party(PNR), later renamed the Institutional RevolutionaryParty (PRI), and started a period known as theMaximato,which ended with the election of Lázaro Cárdenas, whoimplemented many economic and social reforms. Thisincluded the Mexican oil expropriation in March 1938,which nationalized the U.S. and Anglo-Dutch oil com-pany known as the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company.This movement would result in the creation of the state-owned Mexican oil company known as Pemex. Thissparked a diplomatic crisis with the countries whose cit-izens had lost businesses by Cárdenas’ radical measure,but since then the company has played an important rolein the economic development of Mexico.

Students in a burned bus during the protests of 1968.

Between 1940 and 1980, Mexico remained a poorcountry but experienced substantial economic growththat some historians call the "Mexican miracle".[73] Al-though the economy continued to flourish, social in-equality remained a factor of discontent. Moreover, thePRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at timesoppressive[74] (see the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre,[75]which claimed the life of around 30–800 protesters).[76]

Electoral reforms and high oil prices followed the admin-istration of Luis Echeverría,[77][78] mismanagement ofthese revenues led to inflation and exacerbated the 1982Crisis. That year, oil prices plunged, interest rates soared,and the government defaulted on its debt. PresidentMiguel de la Madrid resorted to currency devaluationswhich in turn sparked inflation.In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in PRI’s monopolis-tic position. In Baja California, Ernesto Ruffo Appel waselected as governor. In 1988, alleged electoral fraud pre-vented the leftist candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas fromwinning the national presidential elections, giving Carlos

Salinas de Gortari the presidency and leading to massiveprotests in Mexico City.[79]

NAFTA signing ceremony, October 1992. From left to right:(standing) president Carlos Salinas de Gortari, president GeorgeH.W. Bush (U.S.) and prime minister BrianMulroney (Canada);(seated) Jaime Serra Puche, Carla Hills (U.S.) and Michael Wil-son (Canada)

Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reformswhich fixed the exchange rate, controlled inflation andculminated with the signing of the North American FreeTrade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into effect onJanuary 1, 1994. The same day, the Zapatista Armyof National Liberation (EZLN) started a two-week-longarmed rebellion against the federal government, and hascontinued as a non-violent opposition movement againstneoliberalism and globalization.

2.5.2 End of one-party rule (2000–present)

In December 1994, a month after Salinas was succeededby Ernesto Zedillo, theMexican economy collapsed, witha rapid rescue package authorized by the U.S. President,Bill Clinton, and major macroeconomic reforms startedby President Zedillo, the economy rapidly recovered andgrowth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999.[80]

In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential electionto Vicente Fox of the opposition National Action Party(PAN). In the 2006 presidential election, Felipe Calderónfrom the PAN was declared the winner, with a very nar-row margin over leftist politician Andrés Manuel LópezObrador of the Party of the Democratic Revolution(PRD). López Obrador, however, contested the electionand pledged to create an “alternative government”.[81]

After twelve years, in 2012, the PRI won the Presidencyagain with the election of Enrique Peña Nieto, the gov-ernor of the State of Mexico from 2005-2011. However,he won with only a plurality of about 38%, and did nothave a legislative majority.[82]

3.1 Climate 9

3 Geography

Main article: Geography of MexicoMexico is located between latitudes 14° and 33°N, and

A topographic map of Mexico.

longitudes 86° and 119°W in the southern portion ofNorth America. Almost all of Mexico lies in the NorthAmerican Plate, with small parts of the Baja Californiapeninsula on the Pacific and Cocos Plates. Geophysically,some geographers include the territory east of the Isthmusof Tehuantepec (around 12% of the total) within CentralAmerica.[83] Geopolitically, however, Mexico is entirelyconsidered part of North America, along with Canadaand the United States.[84]

Citlatepetl is the tallest mountain in Mexico at 18,491 feet abovesea level.

Mexico’s total area is 1,972,550 km2 (761,606 sq mi),making it the world’s 14th largest country by total area,and includes approximately 6,000 km2 (2,317 sq mi)of islands in the Pacific Ocean (including the remoteGuadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands), Gulf ofMexico, Caribbean, and Gulf of California. From its far-thest land points, Mexico is a little over 2,000 mi (3,219km) in length.On its north, Mexico shares a 3,141 km (1,952mi) borderwith the United States. The meandering Río Bravo delNorte (known as the Rio Grande in the United States)defines the border from Ciudad Juárez east to the Gulf ofMexico. A series of natural and artificial markers delin-eate the United States-Mexican border west from Ciudad

Juárez to the Pacific Ocean. On its south, Mexico sharesan 871 km (541 mi) border with Guatemala and a 251km (156 mi) border with Belize.Mexico is crossed from north to south by two moun-tain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and SierraMadre Occidental, which are the extension of the RockyMountains from northern North America. From east towest at the center, the country is crossed by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt also known as the Sierra Nevada.A fourth mountain range, the Sierra Madre del Sur, runsfrom Michoacán to Oaxaca.[85]

As such, the majority of the Mexican central and north-ern territories are located at high altitudes, and the highestelevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt:Pico de Orizaba (5,700 m or 18,701 ft), Popocatepetl(5,462 m or 17,920 ft) and Iztaccihuatl (5,286 m or17,343 ft) and the Nevado de Toluca (4,577 m or 15,016ft). Three major urban agglomerations are located in thevalleys between these four elevations: Toluca, GreaterMexico City and Puebla.[85]

3.1 Climate

Main article: Climate of MexicoThe Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into

El Puente de Dios (The Bridge of God) in Tamasopo, SLP.

temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the twenty-fourth parallel experiences cooler temperatures duringthe winter months. South of the twenty-fourth paral-lel, temperatures are fairly constant year round and varysolely as a function of elevation. This gives Mexico oneof the world’s most diverse weather systems.Areas south of the 24th parallel with elevations up to1,000 m (3,281 ft) (the southern parts of both coastalplains as well as the Yucatán Peninsula), have a yearlyme-dian temperature between 24 to 28 °C (75.2 to 82.4 °F).Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, withonly a 5 °C (9 °F) difference between winter and sum-mer median temperatures. Both Mexican coasts, exceptfor the south coast of the Bay of Campeche and northern

10 4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Baja, are also vulnerable to serious hurricanes during thesummer and fall. Although low-lying areas north of the24th parallel are hot and humid during the summer, theygenerally have lower yearly temperature averages (from20 to 24 °C or 68.0 to 75.2 °F) because of more moder-ate conditions during the winter.Many large cities in Mexico are located in the Valleyof Mexico or in adjacent valleys with altitudes gener-ally above 2,000 m (6,562 ft). This gives them a year-round temperate climate with yearly temperature aver-ages (from 16 to 18 °C or 60.8 to 64.4 °F) and cool night-time temperatures throughout the year.Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dryclimate with sporadic rainfall while parts of the tropicallowlands in the south average more than 2,000 mm (78.7in) of annual precipitation. For example, many cities inthe north likeMonterrey, Hermosillo, andMexicali expe-rience temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) or more in sum-mer. In the Sonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 °C(122 °F) or more.In 2012, Mexico passed a comprehensive climate changebill, a first in the developing world, that has set a goalfor the country to generate 35% of its energy from cleanenergy sources by 2024, and to cut emissions by 50% by2050, from the level found in 2000.[86][87]

3.2 Biodiversity

The jaguar, a native mammal of Mexico

Mexico is one of the 18 megadiverse countries of theworld. With over 200,000 different species, Mexico ishome of 10–12% of the world’s biodiversity.[88] Mex-ico ranks first in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 knownspecies, second in mammals with 438 species, fourth inamphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with26,000 different species.[89] Mexico is also consideredthe second country in the world in ecosystems and fourthin overall species.[90] Approximately 2,500 species areprotected by Mexican legislations.[90]

In 2002, Mexico had the second fastest rate of defor-estation in the world, second only to Brazil.[91] The gov-ernment has taken another initiative in the late 1990s to

The golden eagle, the national symbol of Mexico

broaden the people’s knowledge, interest and use of thecountry’s esteemed biodiversity, through the ComisiónNacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversi-dad.In Mexico, 170,000 square kilometres (65,637 sq mi)are considered “Protected Natural Areas.” These in-clude 34 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67national parks, 4 natural monuments (protected in per-petuity for their aesthetic, scientific or historical value),26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natu-ral resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrologi-cal basins and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich indiverse species).[88]

The discovery of the Americas brought to the rest ofthe world many widely used food crops and edibleplants. Some of Mexico’s native culinary ingredientsinclude: chocolate, avocado, tomato, maize, vanilla,guava, chayote, epazote, camote, jícama, nopal, zucchini,tejocote, huitlacoche, sapote, mamey sapote, many vari-eties of beans, and an even greater variety of chiles, suchas the habanero and the jalapeño. Most of these namescome from indigenous languages like Nahuatl.Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been afrequent site of bioprospecting by international researchbodies.[92] The first highly successful instance being thediscovery in 1947 of the tuber "Barbasco" (Dioscoreacomposita) which has a high content of diosgenin, rev-olutionizing the production of synthetic hormones in the1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the inventionof combined oral contraceptive pills.[93]

4 Government and politics

4.2 Politics 11

4.1 Government

Main article: Federal government of MexicoThe United Mexican States are a federation whose

Enrique Peña Nieto, President of Mexico.

government is representative, democratic and republicanbased on a presidential system according to the 1917Constitution. The constitution establishes three levels ofgovernment: the federal Union, the state governmentsand the municipal governments. According to the con-stitution, all constituent states of the federation musthave a republican form of government composed of threebranches: the executive, represented by a governor andan appointed cabinet, the legislative branch constitutedby a unicameral congress and the judiciary, which willinclude called state Supreme Court of Justice. They alsohave their own civil and judicial codes.The legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union,composed of the Senate of the Republic and the Chamberof Deputies. The Congress makes federal law, de-clares war, imposes taxes, approves the national bud-get and international treaties, and ratifies diplomaticappointments.[94]

The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, areelected by a system of parallel voting that includes plural-ity and proportional representation.[95] The Chamber ofDeputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected byplurality vote in single-member districts (the federal elec-toral districts) and 200 are elected by proportional repre-sentation with closed party lists[96] for which the countryis divided into five electoral constituencies.[97] The Sen-ate is made up of 128 senators. Of these, 64 senators(two for each state and two for the Federal District) areelected by plurality vote in pairs; 32 senators are the firstminority or first-runner up (one for each state and one forthe Federal District), and 32 are elected by proportionalrepresentation from national closed party lists.[96]

The executive is the President of the United MexicanStates, who is the head of state and government, as well as

the commander-in-chief of the Mexican military forces.The President also appoints the Cabinet and other offi-cers. The President is responsible for executing and en-forcing the law, and has the power to veto bills.[98]

Site of the Supreme Court of Justice

The highest organ of the judicial branch of government isthe Supreme Court of Justice, the national supreme court,which has eleven judges appointed by the President andapproved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justiceinterprets laws and judges cases of federal competency.Other institutions of the judiciary are the Federal Elec-toral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals,and the Council of the Federal Judiciary.[99]

4.2 Politics

Main article: Politics of Mexico

Three parties have historically been the dominant partiesin Mexican politics: the National Action Party: a right-wing conservative party founded in 1939 and belonging tothe Christian Democrat Organization of America;[100] theInstitutional Revolutionary Party, a center-left party andmember of Socialist International[101] that was founded in1929 to unite all the factions of the Mexican Revolutionand held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politicssince then; the Party of theDemocratic Revolution: a left-wing party,[102] founded in 1989 as the successor of thecoalition of socialists and liberal parties.

4.3 Law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in MexicoPublic security is enacted at the three levels of govern-ment, each of which has different prerogatives and re-sponsibilities. Local and state police departments areprimarily in charge of law enforcement, whereas theMexican Federal Police are in charge of specialized du-ties. All levels report to the Secretaría de SeguridadPública (Secretary of Public Security). The General At-

12 4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Federal Police headquarters in Mexico City

torney’s Office (Procuraduría General de la República,PGR) is the executive power's agency in charge of investi-gating and prosecuting crimes at the federal level, mainlythose related to drug and arms trafficking,[103] espionage,and bank robberies.[104] The PGR operates the FederalInvestigations Agency (Agencia Federal de Investigación,AFI) an investigative and preventive agency.[105]

While the government generally respects the humanrights of its citizens, serious abuses of power have beenreported in security operations in the southern part of thecountry and in indigenous communities and poor urbanneighborhoods.[106] The National Human Rights Com-mission has had little impact in reversing this trend, en-gaging mostly in documentation but failing to use its pow-ers to issue public condemnations to the officials whoignore its recommendations.[107] By law, all defendantshave the rights that assure them fair trials and humantreatment; however, the system is overburdened and over-whelmed with several problems.[106]

Despite the efforts of the authorities to fight crime andfraud, most Mexicans have low confidence in the policeor the judicial system, and therefore, few crimes are actu-

ally reported by the citizens.[106] The Global Integrity In-dex which measures the existence and effectiveness of na-tional anti-corruption mechanisms rated Mexico 31st be-hind Kenya, Thailand, and Russia.[108] In 2008, presidentCalderón proposed a major reform of the judicial sys-tem, which was approved by the Congress of the Union,which included oral trials, the presumption of innocencefor defendants, the authority of local police to investigatecrime—until then a prerogative of special police units—and several other changes intended to speed up trials.[109]

4.3.1 Crime

Main articles: Crime in Mexico and Mexican Drug War

According to an OECD study in 2012, 15% of Mexicansreport having been a victim of crime in the past year,a figure which among OECD countries is only higher inSouth Africa.[110] In 2010Mexico’s homicide rate was 18per 100,000 inhabitants;[111] the world average is 6.9 per100,000 inhabitants.[112] Drug-traffic and narco-relatedactivities are a major concern in Mexico.[113] Mexico’sdrug war has left over 60,000 dead and perhaps another20,000 missing.[114] The Mexican drug cartels have asmany as 100,000 members.[115] The Mexican govern-ment’s National Geography and Statistics Institute esti-mated that there were 41, 563 crimes per 100,000 resi-dents in 2012.[116]

President Felipe Calderón made abating organized crimeone of the top priorities of his administration by deploy-ing military personnel to cities where drug cartels oper-ate. This move was criticized by the opposition partiesand the National Human Rights Commission for escalat-ing the violence, but its effects have been positively eval-uated by the US State Department’s Bureau for Interna-tional Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs as havingobtained “unprecedented results” with “many importantsuccesses”.[117]

Since President Felipe Calderón launched a crackdownagainst cartels in 2006, more than 28,000 alleged crim-inals have been killed.[118][119] Of the total drug-relatedviolence 4% are innocent people,[120] mostly by-passersand people trapped in between shootings; 90% accountsfor criminals and 6% for military personnel and policeofficers.[120] In October 2007, President Calderón and USpresident George W. Bush announced the Mérida Initia-tive, a plan of law enforcement cooperation between thetwo countries.[121]

4.4 Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Mexico

The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by thePresident of Mexico[122] and managed through the

4.5 Military 13

Prime Minister Stephen Harper, and Presidents Barack Obamaand Felipe Calderón at the 2009 North American Leaders’ Sum-mit in Guadalajara

Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[123] The principles of theforeign policy are constitutionally recognized in theArticle 89, Section 10, which include: respect forinternational law and legal equality of states, theirsovereignty and independence, non-intervention in thedomestic affairs of other countries, peaceful resolution ofconflicts, and promotion of collective security through ac-tive participation in international organizations.[122] Sincethe 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucialcomplement to these principles.[124]

Mexico is one of the founding members of severalinternational organizations, most notably the UnitedNations,[125] the Organization of American States,[126]the Organization of Ibero-American States,[127] theOPANAL[128] and the Rio Group.[129] In 2008, Mex-ico contributed over 40 million dollars to the United Na-tions regular budget.[130] In addition, it was the only LatinAmerican member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development since it joined in 1994 untilChile gained full membership in 2010.[131][132]

Mexico is considered a regional power[133][134] hence itspresence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 andthe G-20. In addition, since the 1990s Mexico has soughta reform of the United Nations Security Council and itsworking methods[135] with the support of Canada, Italy,Pakistan and other nine countries, which form a groupinformally called the Coffee Club.[136]

After the War of Independence, the relations of Mex-ico were focused primarily on the United States, itsnorthern neighbor, largest trading partner,[137] and themost powerful actor in hemispheric and world affairs.[138]Mexico supported the Cuban government since its estab-lishment in the early 1960s,[139] the Sandinista revolutionin Nicaragua during the late 1970s,[140] and leftist rev-olutionary groups in El Salvador during the 1980s.[141]Felipe Calderón's administration put a greater emphasison relations with Latin America and the Caribbean.[142]

4.5 Military

Main article: Mexican Armed ForcesThe Mexican Armed Forces have two branches:

A Mexican Navy Eurocopter.

the Mexican Army (which includes the Mexican AirForce), and the Mexican Navy. The Mexican ArmedForces maintain significant infrastructure, including fa-cilities for design, research, and testing of weapons,vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems andelectronics;[143][144] military industry manufacturing cen-ters for building such systems, and advanced naval dock-yards that build heavy military vessels and advanced mis-sile technologies.[145]

In recent years, Mexico has improved its training tech-niques, military command and information structures andhas taken steps to becoming more self-reliant in sup-plying its military by designing as well as manufactur-ing its own arms,[146] missiles,[144] aircraft,[147] vehicles,heavy weaponry, electronics,[143] defense systems,[143]armor, heavy military industrial equipment and heavynaval vessels.[148] Since the 1990s, when the militaryescalated its role in the war on drugs, increasing im-portance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveil-lance platforms, aircraft, helicopters, digital war-fightingtechnologies,[143] urban warfare equipment and rapidtroop transport.[149]

Mexico has the capabilities to manufacture nuclearweapons, but abandoned this possibility with the Treatyof Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to only use its nuclear

14 5 ECONOMY

technology for peaceful purposes.[150] In 1970, Mexico’snational institute for nuclear research successfully refinedweapons grade uranium[151] which is used in the man-ufacture of nuclear weapons but in April 2010, Mexicoagreed to turn over its weapons grade uranium to theUnited States.[152][153]

Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in internationalconflicts,[154] with the exception of World War II. How-ever, in recent years some political parties have proposedan amendment of the Constitution in order to allow theMexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate withthe United Nations in peacekeeping missions, or to pro-vide military help to countries that officially ask for it.[155]

4.6 Administrative divisions

Main article: Political divisions of Mexico

The United Mexican States are a federation of 31 freeand sovereign states, which form a union that exercises adegree of jurisdiction over the Federal District and otherterritories.Each state has its own constitution, congress, and a ju-diciary, and its citizens elect by direct voting a governorfor a six-year term, and representatives to their respectiveunicameral state congresses for three-year terms.[156]

The Federal District is a special political division that be-longs to the federation as a whole and not to a particularstate, and as such, has more limited local rule than thenation’s states.[157]

The states are divided into municipalities, the smallest ad-ministrative political entity in the country, governed bya mayor or municipal president (presidente municipal),elected by its residents by plurality.[158]

Gulf ofMexicoPacificOceanCentralAmerica

United StatesFederalDistrictAGBaja

CaliforniaBaja

CaliforniaSur

CampecheChiapasChihuahuaCoahuilaColimaDurangoGuanajuatoGuerreroHD

JaliscoEM

MichoacánMO

NayaritNuevoLeónOaxacaPBQU

QuintanaRooSLPSinaloaSonoraTabasco

TamaulipasTL

VeracruzYucatánZacatecas

5 Economy

Main article: Economy of MexicoMexico has the 15th largest nominal GDP and the 11thlargest by purchasing power parity. GDP annual averagegrowth for the period of 1995–2002 was 5.1%.[78] Mex-ico’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing powerparity (PPP) was estimated at US $2.2602 trillion in2015, and $1.3673 trillion in nominal exchange rates.[159]Mexico’s GDP in PPP per capita was US $18,714.05.The World Bank reported in 2009 that the country’s

15

A proportional representation of Mexico’s exports.

The GDP per capita of Mexican States in USD, 2012.

Paseo de la Reforma, the CBD of Mexico City.

Gross National Income in market exchange rates wasthe second highest in Latin America, after Brazil at US$1,830.392 billion,[160] which lead to the highest incomeper capita in the region at $14,400.[161] Mexico is nowfirmly established as an upper middle-income country.After the slowdown of 2001 the country has recoveredand has grown 4.2, 3.0 and 4.8 percent in 2004, 2005and 2006,[162] even though it is considered to be wellbelow Mexico’s potential growth.[163] Furthermore, afterthe 2008-2009 recession, the economy grew an averageof 3.32 percent per year from 2010 to 2014.

From the late 1990s onwards, the majority of the popu-lation has been part of the growing middle class.[164] Butfrom 2004 to 2008 the portion of the population who re-ceived less than half of the median income has risen from17% to 21% and the absolute levels of poverty rose from2006 to 2010, with a rise in persons living in extremeor moderate poverty rising from 35 to 46% (52 millionpersons).[110][165] This is also reflected by the fact that in-fant mortality in Mexico is three times higher than theaverage among OECD nations, and the literacy levels arein the median range of OECD nations. Nevertheless, ac-cording to Goldman Sachs, by 2050 Mexico will have the5th largest economy in the world.[166]

Among the OECD countries, Mexico has the secondhighest degree of economic disparity between the ex-tremely poor and extremely rich, after Chile – althoughit has been falling over the last decade, being only one offew countries in which this is the case.[167] The bottomten percent in the income hierarchy disposes of 1.36%of the country’s resources, whereas the upper ten percentdispose of almost 36%. OECD also notes that Mexico’sbudgeted expenses for poverty alleviation and social de-velopment is only about a third of the OECD average –both in absolute and relative numbers.[110]

According to a 2008 UN report the average income in atypical urbanized area of Mexico was $26,654, while theaverage income in rural areas just miles away was only$8,403.[168] Dailyminimumwages are set annually by lawand determined by zone; $67.29 Mexican pesos ($5.13USD) in Zone A and $63.77Mexican pesos ($4.86 USD)in Zone B.[169]

A tablet PC and touch screen computer / television made by Mex-ican Meebox.

The electronics industry of Mexico has grown enor-mously within the last decade. Mexico has the sixthlargest electronics industry in the world after China,United States, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Mex-ico is the second largest exporter of electronics to theUnited States where it exported $71.4 billion worth ofelectronics in 2011.[170] The Mexican electronics indus-try is dominated by the manufacture and OEM designof televisions, displays, computers, mobile phones, cir-cuit boards, semiconductors, electronic appliances, com-munications equipment and LCD modules. The Mex-

16 5 ECONOMY

ican electronics industry grew 20% between 2010 and2011, up from its constant growth rate of 17% between2003 and 2009.[170] Currently electronics represent 30%of Mexico’s exports.[170]

Mexico produces the most automobiles of any NorthAmerican nation.[171] The industry produces technologi-cally complex components and engages in some researchand development activities.[172] The “Big Three” (GeneralMotors, Ford and Chrysler) have been operating in Mex-ico since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and Nissan builttheir plants in the 1960s.[173] In Puebla alone, 70 indus-trial part-makers cluster around Volkswagen.[172] In the2010s expansion of the sector was surging. In 2014 alone,more than $10 billion in investment was committed. KiaMotors in August 2014 announced plans for a $1 bil-lion factory in Nuevo León. At the time Mercedes-Benzand Nissan were already building a $1.4 billion plant nearPuebla, while BMW was planning a $1-billion assemblyplant in San Luis Potosí. Additionally, Audi began build-ing a $1.3 billion factory near Puebla in 2013.[174]

The domestic car industry is represented by DINA S.A.,which has built buses and trucks since 1962,[175] and thenewMastretta company that builds the high-performanceMastretta MXT sports car.[176] In 2006, trade with theUnited States and Canada accounted for almost 50% ofMexico’s exports and 45% of its imports.[12] During thefirst three quarters of 2010, the United States had a $46.0billion trade deficit with Mexico.[177] In August 2010Mexico surpassed France to became the 9th largest holderof US debt.[178] The commercial and financial depen-dence on the US is a cause for concern.[179]

The remittances from Mexican citizens working in theUnited States account for 0.2% of Mexico’s GDP[180]which was equal to US$20 billion per year in 2004 andis the tenth largest source of foreign income after oil, in-dustrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavyindustry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and fi-nancial services.[181] According to Mexico’s central bank,remittances in 2008 amounted to $25bn.[182]

Major players in the broadcasting industry are Televisa,the largest Spanish media company in the Spanish-speaking world,[183] and TV Azteca.

5.1 Communications

Main article: Telecommunications in Mexico

The telecommunications industry is mostly dominated byTelmex (Teléfonos de México), privatized in 1990. By2006, Telmex had expanded its operations to Colom-bia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay and theUnited States. Other players in the domestic industry areAxtel andMaxcom. Because of Mexican orography, pro-viding a landline telephone service at remote mountain-ous areas is expensive, and the penetration of line-phones

per capita is low compared to other Latin American coun-tries, at 40 percent; however, 82% of Mexicans over theage of 14 own a mobile phone. Mobile telephony has theadvantage of reaching all areas at a lower cost, and thetotal number of mobile lines is almost two times that oflandlines, with an estimation of 63 million lines.[184] Thetelecommunication industry is regulated by the govern-ment through Cofetel (Comisión Federal de Telecomuni-caciones).The Mexican satellite system is domestic and operates120 earth stations. There is also extensive microwaveradio relay network and considerable use of fiber-opticand coaxial cable.[184] Mexican satellites are operated bySatélites Mexicanos (Satmex), a private company, leaderin Latin America and servicing both North and SouthAmerica.[185] It offers broadcast, telephone and telecom-munication services to 37 countries in the Americas, fromCanada to Argentina. Through business partnerships Sat-mex provides high-speed connectivity to ISPs and DigitalBroadcast Services.[186] Satmex maintains its own satel-lite fleet with most of the fleet being designed and built inMexico.The use of radio, television, and Internet in Mexicois prevalent.[187] There are approximately 1,410 radiobroadcast stations and 236 television stations (excludingrepeaters).[184]Major players in the broadcasting industryare Televisa—the largest media company in the Spanish-speaking world[183]—and TV Azteca.

5.2 Energy

See also: Electricity sector in MexicoEnergy production in Mexico is managed by state-ownedcompanies: the Federal Commission of Electricity andPemex.Pemex, the public company in charge of exploration, ex-traction, transportation and marketing of crude oil andnatural gas, as well as the refining and distribution ofpetroleum products and petrochemicals, is one of thelargest companies in the world by revenue, making US$86 billion in sales a year.[188][189][190] Mexico is thesixth-largest oil producer in the world, with 3.7 millionbarrels per day.[191] In 1980 oil exports accounted for61.6% of total exports; by 2000 it was only 7.3%.[172]

The largest hydro plant in Mexico is the 2,400 MWManuel Moreno Torres Dam in Chicoasén, Chiapas, inthe Grijalva River. This is the world’s fourth most pro-ductive hydroelectric plant.[192]

Mexico is the country with the world’s third largest so-lar potential.[193] The country’s gross solar potential isestimated at 5kWh/m2 daily, which corresponds to 50times national electricity generation.[194] Currently, thereis over 1million squaremeters of solar thermal panels[195]installed in Mexico, while in 2005, there were 115,000square meters of solar PV (photo-voltaic). It is expected

5.4 Tourism 17

A Pemex oil platform.

that in 2012 there will be 1,8 million square meters ofinstalled solar thermal panels.[195]

The project named SEGH-CFE 1, located in Puerto Lib-ertad, Sonora, Northwest of Mexico, will have capacityof 46.8 MW from an array of 187,200 solar panels whencomplete in 2013.[196] All of the electricity will be solddirectly to the CFE and absorbed into the utility’s trans-mission system for distribution throughout their existingnetwork. At an installed capacity of 46.8 MWp, whencomplete in 2013, the project will be the first utility scaleproject of its kind in Mexico and the largest solar projectof any kind in Latin America.

5.3 Science and technology

Main article: History of science and technology in Mex-icoThe National Autonomous University of Mexico was of-ficially established in 1910,[197] and the university be-come one of the most important institutes of higherlearning in Mexico.[198] UNAM provides world classeducation in science, medicine, and engineering.[199]Many scientific institutes and new institutes of higherlearning, such as National Polytechnic Institute (foundedin 1936),[200] were established during the first half ofthe 20th century. Most of the new research instituteswere created within UNAM. Twelve institutes were inte-grated into UNAM from 1929 to 1973.[201] In 1959, theMexican Academy of Sciences was created to coordinatescientific efforts between academics.

The Large Millimeter Telescope

In 1995, the Mexican chemist Mario J. Molina sharedthe Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Paul J. Crutzen and F.Sherwood Rowland for their work in atmospheric chem-istry, particularly concerning the formation and decom-position of ozone.[202] Molina, an alumnus of UNAM,became the first Mexican citizen to win the Nobel Prizein science.[203]

In recent years, the largest scientific project being devel-oped in Mexico was the construction of the Large Mil-limeter Telescope (Gran Telescopio Milimétrico, GMT),the world’s largest and most sensitive single-aperture tele-scope in its frequency range.[204] It was designed to ob-serve regions of space obscured by stellar dust.

5.4 Tourism

Main article: Tourism in MexicoMexico has been traditionally among the most visitedcountries in the world according to the World TourismOrganization and it is the most visited country in theAmericas, after the United States. The most notableattractions are the Meso-American ruins, cultural festi-vals, colonial cities, nature reserves and the beach resorts.The nation’s temperate climate and unique culture – afusion of the European and the Meso-American – makeMexico an attractive destination. The peak tourism sea-sons in the country are during December and the mid-Summer, with brief surges during the week before Easterand Spring break, whenmany of the beach resort sites be-come popular destinations for college students from the

18 5 ECONOMY

The Chapultepec Castle is one of the most popular tourist desti-nations in Mexico

United States.Mexico has the 23rd highest income from tourism in theworld, and the highest in Latin America.[205] The vastmajority of tourists come to Mexico from the UnitedStates and Canada followed by Europe and Asia. Asmaller number also come from other Latin Americancountries.[206] In the 2011 Travel and Tourism Compet-itiveness Index report, Mexico was ranked 43rd in theworld, which was 4th in the Americas .[207]

The coastlines of Mexico harbor many stretches ofbeaches that are frequented by sun bathers and other vis-itors. On the Yucatán peninsula, one of the most popu-lar beach destinations is the resort town of Cancún, es-pecially among university students during spring break.Just offshore is the beach island of Isla Mujeres, and tothe east is the Isla Holbox. To the south of Cancun isthe coastal strip called Riviera Maya which includes thebeach town of Playa del Carmen and the ecological parksof Xcaret and Xel-Há. A day trip to the south of Cancúnis the historic port of Tulum. In addition to its beaches,the town of Tulum is notable for its cliff-side Mayan ru-ins.

El Tajín is one of the largest and most important cities of theClassic era of Mesoamerica

On the Pacific coast is the notable tourist destination ofAcapulco. Once the destination for the rich and famous,

the beaches have become crowded and the shores are nowhome to many multi-story hotels and vendors. Acapulcois home to renowned cliff divers: trained divers who leapfrom the side of a vertical cliff into the surf below.At the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula isthe resort town of Cabo San Lucas, a town noted for itsbeaches and marlin fishing.[208] Further north along theSea of Cortés is the Bahía de La Concepción, anotherbeach town known for its sports fishing. Closer to theUnited States border is the weekend draw of San Felipe,Baja California.

5.5 Transportation

Main article: Transportation in MexicoThe roadway network inMexico is extensive and all areas

Baluarte Bridge is the longest cable-stayed bridge in Latin Amer-ica, the highest cable-stayed bridge in the world and the highestbridge in the Americas.

in the country are covered by it.[209] The roadway networkinMexico has an extent of 366,095 km (227,481mi),[210]of which 116,802 km (72,577 mi) are paved,[210] mak-ing it the largest paved-roadway network in Latin Amer-ica.[211] Of these, 10,474 km (6,508 mi) are multi-laneexpressways: 9,544 km (5,930 mi) are four-lane high-ways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.[210]

Mexico was one of the first Latin American countries topromote railway development,[106] and the network cov-ers 30,952 km (19,233 mi).[187] The Secretary of Com-munications and Transport of Mexico proposed a high-speed rail link that will transport its passengers fromMexico City to Guadalajara, Jalisco.[212][213] The train,which will travel at 300 kilometers per hour,[214] will al-low passengers to travel from Mexico City to Guadala-jara in just 2 hours.[214] The whole project was projectedto cost 240 billion pesos, or about 25 billion US$[212]and is being paid for jointly by the Mexican governmentand the local private sector including the wealthiest manin the world, Mexico’s billionaire business tycoon CarlosSlim.[215] The government of the state of Yucatán is alsofunding the construction of a high speed line connectingthe cities of Cozumel to Mérida and Chichen Itza and

6.1 Mestizo 19

Cancún.[216]

Mexico has 233 airports with paved runways; of these, 35carry 97% of the passenger traffic.[187] The Mexico CityInternational Airport remains the largest in Latin Amer-ica and the 44th largest in the world[217] transporting 21million passengers a year.[218]

6 Demographics

Main article: Demographics of MexicoThe recently conducted 2010 Census[221] showed a

Mexico’s population (1961-2003).

population of 112,336,538, making it the most popu-lous Spanish-speaking country in the world.[222] Between2005 and 2010, the Mexican population grew at an aver-age of 1.70% per year, up from 1.16% per year between2000 and 2005.Mexico is ethnically diverse; the various indigenous peo-ples and European immigrants are united under a singlenational identity.[223] The core part of Mexican nationalidentity is formed on the basis of a synthesis of Europeanculture with Indigenous cultures in a process known asmestizaje, alluding to the mixed biological origins of themajority of Mexicans.[223][224] Mexican politicians andreformers such as José Vasconcelos and Manuel Gamiowere instrumental in building a Mexican national identityon the concept of mestizaje.[225]

Since the mestizo identity promoted by the governmentis more of a cultural identity than a biological one it hasachieved a strong influence in the country, with a goodnumber of biologically white people identifying with it,leading to being considered mestizos in Mexico’s demo-graphic investigations and censuses due the ethnic crite-ria having its base on cultural traits rather than biologi-cal ones.[226] A similar situation occurs regarding the dis-tinctions between indigenous peoples andmestizos: whilethe term mestizo is sometimes used in English with themeaning of a person with mixed indigenous and Euro-pean blood, this usage does not conform to the Mexicansocial reality where a person of pure indigenous geneticheritage would be considered Mestizo either by reject-ing his indigenous culture or by not speaking an indige-

nous language,[227] and a person with a very low percent-age of indigenous genetic heritage would be consideredfully indigenous either by speaking an indigenous lan-guage or by identifying with a particular indigenous cul-tural heritage.[228][229][230]

The term mestizo itself, albeit often used in literatureabout Mexican social identities, carries a variety of socio-cultural, economic, racial and biological meanings. Forthis reason it has been deemed too imprecise to be usedfor ethnic classification and has been abandoned in Mex-ican censuses.[106][231]

The category of indígena (indigenous) can be definednarrowly according to linguistic criteria including onlyspeakers of one of Mexico’s 62 indigenous languages orpeople who self-identify as having an indigenous culturalbackground. According to the National Commission forthe Development of Indigenous Peoples, in 2005 therewere 10.1 million Mexicans who spoke an indigenouslanguage and claimed indigenous heritage, representing9.8% of the total population.[232] Another source, the2010 census, found that 14.86% of the population self-identified as indigenous.[233]

Mexico is home to the largest number of U.S. citizensabroad (estimated at one million in 1999).[234] The Ar-gentine community is considered to be the second-largestforeign community in the country (estimated somewherebetween 30,000 and 150,000).[235][236] Mexico also hasa large Lebanese community, now numbering around400,000.[237] In October 2008, Mexico agreed to de-port Cubans using the country as an entry point to theUS.[238] Large numbers of Central American migrantswho have crossed Guatemala’s western border into Mex-ico are deported every year.[239][240] Small numbers ofillegal immigrants come from Ecuador, Cuba, China,South Africa, and Pakistan.[241] Mexico is the largestsource of immigration to the United States.[242] 11.6 mil-lion Americans listed their ancestry as Mexican as of2014.[243]

6.1 Mestizo

A large majority of Mexicans have been classified as“Mestizos”, meaning in modern Mexican usage that theyidentify fully neither with any indigenous culture nor witha particular non-Mexican heritage, but rather identifyas having cultural traits and heritage incorporating el-ements from indigenous and European traditions. Bythe deliberate efforts of post-revolutionary governmentsthe “Mestizo identity” was constructed as the base ofthe modern Mexican national identity, through a processof cultural synthesis referred to as mestizaje. Mexicanpoliticians and reformers such as José Vasconcelos andManuel Gamio were instrumental in building a Mexi-can national identity on the concept of mestizaje.[244][245]Cultural policies in early post-revolutionary Mexico werepaternalistic towards the indigenous people, with efforts

20 6 DEMOGRAPHICS

President Porfirio Diaz was of Mestizo descent

designed to “help” indigenous peoples achieve the samelevel of progress as the rest of society, eventually assimi-lating indigenous peoples completely to Mestizo Mexicanculture, working toward the goal of eventually solving the“Indian problem” by transforming indigenous communi-ties into mestizo communities.[246]

In terms of the “average” Mexican Mestizo, INMEGENfound the following: for Nuclear DNA, 1.2% Asian con-tribution, 3.3% African, 40.2% European and 55.3%'American' (indigenous); for Mitochondrial DNA, 3.3%African, 5.7% Euoropean and 91% American; for theY Chromosome, 2% Asian, 5% African, 60% Euro-pean and 33% American. The mtDNA (inherited frommother) and Y Chromosome (inherited if male) resultslends some credence to the belief that the Mexican Mes-tizo is the result of the male Conquistador and the femalenative. However, the Mexican Mestizo population canbetter be described as resulting from relations betweenmestizos rather than continued procreation between un-mixed racial groups.The term “Mestizo” is not in wide use in Mexican so-ciety today and has been dropped as a category in pop-ulation censuses; it is, however, still used in social andcultural studies when referring to the non-indigenous partof the Mexican population. The word has somewhat pe-jorative connotations and most of the Mexican citizenswho would be defined as mestizos in the sociological lit-erature would probably self-identify primarily as Mexi-cans. In the Yucatán peninsula the word Mestizo is evenused about Maya-speaking populations living in tradi-tional communities, because during the caste war of the

late 19th century those Maya who did not join the rebel-lion were classified as mestizos.[247] In Chiapas the word“Ladino” is used instead of mestizo.[248]

6.2 Indigenous peoples

Main article: Indigenous peoples of MexicoAccording to the National Commission for the Develop-

Two young Mixtec people dancing a jarabe.

ment of Indigenous Peoples (Comisión Nacional para elDesarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, or CDI in Spanish)and the INEGI (official census institute), there are 15.7million indigenous people in Mexico,[249] of many differ-ent ethnic groups,[232] which constitute 14.9% of the pop-ulation in the country. The number of indigenous Mexi-cans is judged using the political criteria found in the 2ndarticle of the Mexican constitution. The Mexican cen-sus does not report racial-ethnicity but only the cultural-ethnicity of indigenous communities that preserve theirindigenous languages, traditions, beliefs, and cultures.The absolute indigenous population is growing, but at aslower rate than the rest of the population so that the per-centage of indigenous peoples is nonetheless falling.[250]

In 2011 a large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexi-can Americans revealed 85 to 90% ofmtDNA lineages ofNative American origin, with the remainder having Eu-ropean (5–7%) or African ancestry (3–5%). Thus the ob-served frequency of Native American mtDNA in Mexi-can/Mexican Americans is higher than was expected onthe basis of autosomal estimates of Native American ad-mixture for these populations i.e. ~ 30–46%[251]

The category of “indigena” (indigenous) can be definednarrowly according to linguistic criteria including onlypersons that speak one of Mexico’s 62 indigenous lan-guages, this is the categorization used by the NationalMexican Institute of Statistics. It can also be definedbroadly to include all persons who selfidentify as havingan indigenous cultural background, whether or not theyspeak the language of the indigenous group they iden-tify with. This means that the percentage of the Mexi-can population defined as “indigenous” varies accordingto the definition applied, cultural activists have referred

6.3 Mexicans of European descent 21

to the usage of the narrow definition of the term for cen-sus purposes as “statistical genocide”.[252][253]

The majority of the indigenous population is concen-trated in the central and southern states. These states aregenerally the least developed, and the majority of the in-digenous population live in rural areas. Some indigenouscommunities have a degree of autonomy under the legis-lation of “usos y costumbres”, which allows them to reg-ulate some internal issues under customary law.According to the CDI, the states with the greatest pro-portion of indigenous residents are:[254] Yucatán, at 59%,Quintana Roo 39% and Campeche 27%, chiefly Maya;Oaxaca with 48% of the population, the most numerousgroups being the Mixtec and Zapotec peoples; Chiapasat 28%, the majority being Tzeltal and Tzotzil Maya;Hidalgo 24%, the majority being Otomi; Puebla 19%,and Guerrero 17%, mostly Nahua people and the statesof San Luis Potosí and Veracruz both home to a popu-lation that is 15% indigenous, mostly from the Totonac,Nahua and Teenek (Huastec) groups.[255]

All of the indices of social development for the indige-nous population are considerably lower than the nationalaverage. In all states indigenous people have higherinfant mortality, in some states almost double of the non-indigenous populations. Literacy rates are also muchlower, with 27% of indigenous children between 6 and 14being illiterate compared to a national average of 12%.The indigenous population participate in the workforcelonger than the national average, starting earlier and con-tinuing longer. However, 55% of the indigenous popu-lation receive less than a minimum salary, compared to20% for the national average. Many practice subsistenceagriculture and receive no salaries. Indigenous peoplealso have less access to health care and a lower qualityof housing.[255]

6.3 Mexicans of European descent

Main article: Mexicans of European descentEuropean Mexicans are Mexican citizens of Europeandescent.[256] Despite that Mexico does not have a racialcensus, estimations from different international organi-zations regarding the number of this ethnic group withinthe country’s population range from 9% according to TheWorld Factbook, to as high as 20% (approximately one-fifth) according to Encyclopædia Britannica. Anothergroup inMexico, the "mestizos", also include people withvarying amounts of European ancestry, with some hav-ing a European admixture higher than 90%.[257] Althoughit must be considered that the criteria to define mestizomight be different from study to study, and that in Mex-ico a good number of white people has been historicallyclassified as mestizos, because the Mexican governmentdefines ethnicity on cultural standards as opposed to racialones.[258]

Genetic studies inMexico show a varying degree of Euro-

Girls from Zapopan, in the state of Jalisco. fair-skinned Mexi-cans are colloquially known as 'güeros’ (fem. güeras)

pean admixture in Mestizos. Genetic variation is largelybased upon where in the country an individual is from.This is true because Native Mexicans are concentratedin the South and Central part of the country, whilst the“white” population is concentrated in the north.[259][260]).In another study, Mexico’s National Institute of GenomicMedicine issued a report on a genomic study of mesti-zos from the states of Guerrero, Sonora, Veracruz, Yu-catán, Zacatecas, and Guanajuato. The study found thatthe Mestizo population of these Mexican states were onaverage 55% of indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8%of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asianancestry. The study also noted that whereas Mestizo indi-viduals from the southern state of Guerrero showed on av-erage 66% of indigenous ancestry, those from the north-ern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European an-cestry. The study found that there was an increase in in-digenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southernstates in Mexico, while the indigenous ancestry declinedas one traveled to the Northern states in the country, suchas Sonora.Europeans began arriving in Mexico with the Spanishconquest of the Aztec Empire, with the descendents ofthe conquistadors, along with new arrivals from Spainformed an elite but were a small minority of the popu-lation. Most white immigrants however intermixed withthe Mestizo and indigenous populations.[261]

While most of European migration into Mexico wasSpanish during the colonial period, in the 19th and 20thcenturies European and European derived populationsfrom North and South America did immigrate to thecountry. However, at its height, the total immigrantpopulation in Mexico never exceeded ten percent of thetotal.[256] Many of these immigrants came with moneyto invest and/or ties to allow them to become prominentin business and other aspects of Mexican society. How-ever, due to government restrictions many of them leftthe country in the early 20th century.Mexico’s northern regions have the greatest European

22 6 DEMOGRAPHICS

population and admixture. In the northwest, the major-ity of the relatively small indigenous communities remainisolated from the rest of the population, and as for thenortheast, the indigenous population was eliminated byearly European andMestizo settlers, becoming the regionwith the highest proportion of whites during the Spanishcolonial period. However, recent immigrants from south-ern Mexico have been changing, to some degree, its de-mographic trends.[262] According to the last racial cen-sus Mexico took, which was in 1921,[220] there were nostates in Mexico that had a majority “white” population,and in virtually every state in the north Mestizos werethe largest population group.[220] The only state where“whites” outnumbered Mestizos was Sonora, in which“whites” composed 41.85% of the population, and Mes-tizos 40.38%.[220]

6.4 Population genetics

An 18th-century casta painting show an indigenous woman withher Spanish husband and their Mestizo child.

A 2012 study published by the Journal of Human Genet-ics found the ancestry of the Mexican mestizo popula-tion to be predominately European (65%), followed byNative American (31%) and African (4%). The Euro-pean ancestry was prevalent in the north and west (66.7–95%) and Native American ancestry increased in the cen-ter and southeast (37–50%), the African ancestry waslow and relatively homogeneous (0–8.8%).[259] The statesthat participated in this study were Aguascalientes, Chi-apas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Oaxaca,Sinaloa, Veracruz and Yucatan.[263]

The largest amount of chromosomes found were identi-fied as belonging to the haplogroups from Western Eu-rope, East Europe and Euroasia, Siberia and the Ameri-cas and Northern Europe with relatively smaller traces ofhaplogroups from Central Asia, South-east Asia, South-central Asia, Western Asia, The Caucasus, North Africa,Near East, East Asia, North-east Asia, South-west Asiaand The Middle East.[264]

A study by the National Institute of Genomic Medicine,Mexico reported that Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96%

European, 31.05% “Asian” (Amerindian), and 10.03%African. Sonora shows the highest European contribution(70.63%) and Guerrero the lowest (51.98%) which alsohas the highest Asian contribution (37.17%). Africancontribution ranges from 2.8% in Sonora to 11.13% inVeracruz. 80% of the Mexican population was classedas mestizo (defined as “being racially mixed in somedegree”).[265]

In May 2009, Mexico’s National Institute of GenomicMedicine issued a report on a genomic study of 300 mes-tizos from the states of Guerrero, Sonora, Veracruz, Yu-catán, Zacatecas, and Guanajuato. The study found thatthe Mestizo population of these Mexican states were onaverage 55% of indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8%of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asianancestry.[266]

The study also noted that whereas Mestizo individualsfrom the southern state of Guerrero showed on aver-age 66% of indigenous ancestry, those from the north-ern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European an-cestry. The study found that there was an increase in in-digenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southernstates in Mexico, while the indigenous ancestry declinedas one traveled to the Northern states in the country, suchas Sonora.[266]

6.5 Languages

Main article: Languages of MexicoThe country has the largest Spanish-speaking popula-

A map showing the distribution of speakers of Mexico’s main in-digenous languages

tion in the world with almost a third of all Spanish nativespeakers.[222][267]

Mexico is home to a large number of indigenous lan-guages, spoken by some 5.4% of the population – 1.2% ofthe population are monolingual speakers of an indigenouslanguage.[268] The indigenous languages with most speak-ers are Nahuatl, spoken by approximately 1.45 millionpeople,[269] Yukatek Maya spoken by some 750,000 peo-ple and the Mixtec[270] and Zapotec languages[271] eachspoken by more than 400,000 people.

6.8 Women 23

The National Institute of Indigenous Languages INALIrecognizes 68 linguistic groups and some 364 differentspecific varieties of indigenous languages.[272] Since thepromulgation of the Law of Indigenous Linguistic Rightsin 2003, these languages have had status as national lan-guages, with equal validity with Spanish in all the areasand contexts in which they are spoken.[273]

In addition to the indigenous languages, other minoritylanguages are spoken by immigrant populations, such asthe 80,000 German-speaking Mennonites in Mexico,[274]and 5,000 the Chipilo dialect of the Venetian languagespoken in Chipilo, Puebla.

6.6 Urban areas

Main article: Metropolitan areas of MexicoThe top 10 urban areas in Mexico.

The Mexico City metropolitan area is home to over 20 millionpeople.

6.7 Religion

See also: Religion in Mexico

The 2010 census by the Instituto Nacional de Estadísticay Geografía (National Institute of Statistics and Geogra-phy) gave Roman Catholicism as the main religion, with83% of the population, while 10% (10,924,103) belongto other Christian denominations, including Evangelicals(5%); Pentecostals (1.6%); other Protestant or Reformed(0.7%); Jehovah’s Witnesses (1.4%); Seventh-day Ad-ventists (0.6%); and members of The Church of JesusChrist of Latter-day Saints (0.3%).[275] 172,891 (or lessthan 0.2% of the total) belonged to other, non-Christianreligions; 4.7% declared having no religion; 2.7% wereunspecified.[275]

The 92,924,489[275] Catholics ofMexico constitute in ab-solute terms the second largest Catholic community inthe world, after Brazil's.[276] 47% percent of them attendchurch services weekly.[277] The feast day of Our Lady of

Guadalupe, the patron saint of Mexico, is celebrated onDecember 12 and is regarded by many Mexicans as themost important religious holiday of their country.[278]

The 2010 census reported 314,932 members of TheChurch of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,[275] thoughthe church in 2009 claimed to have over one million reg-istered members.[279] About 25% of registered membersattend a weekly sacrament service although this can fluc-tuate up and down.[280]

The presence of Jews in Mexico dates back to 1521,when Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs, accompaniedby several Conversos.[281] According to the 2010 census,there are 67,476 Jews in Mexico.[275] Islam in Mexico ispracticed by a small population in the city of Torreón,Coahuila, and there are an estimated 300 Muslims in theSan Cristóbal de las Casas area in Chiapas.[282][283] Inthe 2010 census 18,185 Mexicans reported belonging toan Eastern religion,[275] a category which includes a tinyBuddhist population.

6.8 Women

Further information: Women in Mexico

Until the twentieth century, Mexico was an overwhelm-ingly rural country, with rural women’s status definedwithin the context of the family and local community.With urbanization beginning in the sixteenth century, fol-lowing the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, citieshave provided economic and social opportunities not pos-sible within rural villages. Roman Catholicism in Mexicohas shaped societal attitudes about women’s social role,emphasizing the role of women as nurturers of the family,with theVirginMary as amodel. Marianismo has been anideal, with women’s role as being within the family underthe authority of men. In the twentieth century, Mexicanwomen made great strides toward towards a more equallegal and social status. In 1953 women in Mexico weregranted the vote in national elections.Mexican women face discrimination and at times harass-ment from the machismo population. Although womenin Mexico are making big advancements they are facedwith the traditional expectations of being the head ofthe household. Researcher Margarita Valdés noted thatwhile there are few inequalities enforced by law or policyin Mexico, there are gender inequalities perpetuated bysocial structures and Mexican cultural expectations thatlimit the capabilities of Mexican women.[284]

As of 2014, Mexico has the 16th highest rate of homi-cides committed against women in the world.[285] Theprevalence of domestic violence against women in Mex-ican marital relationships varies at between 30 and 60percent of relationships.[286] According to a 1997 study,domestic abuse in Mexican culture “is embedded in gen-der and marital relations fostered in Mexican women’s

24 7 CULTURE

dependence on their spouses for subsistence and for self-esteem, sustained by ideologies of romantic love, by fam-ily structure and residential arrangements.”[287]

7 Culture

Main article: Culture of MexicoMexican culture reflects the complexity of the country’s

Frida Kahlo with Diego Rivera in 1932.

history through the blending of indigenous cultures andthe culture of Spain, imparted during Spain’s 300-yearcolonization of Mexico. Exogenous cultural elementshave been incorporated into Mexican culture as time haspassed.The Porfirian era (el Porfiriato), in the last quarter of the19th century and the first decade of the 20th century,was marked by economic progress and peace. After fourdecades of civil unrest and war, Mexico saw the devel-opment of philosophy and the arts, promoted by Presi-dent Díaz himself. Since that time, as accentuated dur-ing the Mexican Revolution, cultural identity has had itsfoundation in the mestizaje, of which the indigenous (i.e.Amerindian) element is the core. In light of the variousethnicities that formed the Mexican people, José Vascon-celos in his publication La Raza Cósmica (The CosmicRace) (1925) defined Mexico to be the melting pot of allraces (thus extending the definition of the mestizo) notonly biologically but culturally as well.[288]

7.1 Literature

Main articles: Mexican literature and Mesoamericanliterature

Mexican literature has its antecedents in the literaturesof the indigenous settlements of Mesoamerica. The mostwell known prehispanic poet is Nezahualcoyotl. Mod-ern Mexican literature was influenced by the concepts ofthe Spanish colonialization ofMesoamerica. Outstandingcolonial writers and poets include Juan Ruiz de Alarcónand Juana Inés de la Cruz.Other writers include Alfonso Reyes, José Joaquín Fer-nández de Lizardi, Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, CarlosFuentes, Octavio Paz (Nobel Laureate), Renato Leduc,Carlos Monsiváis, Elena Poniatowska, Mariano Azuela(“Los de abajo”) and Juan Rulfo (“Pedro Páramo”).Bruno Traven wrote “Canasta de cuentos mexicanos”(Mexican tales basket), “El tesoro de la Sierra Madre”(Treasure of the Sierra Madre).

7.2 Visual arts

See also: Mexican artPost-revolutionary art in Mexico had its expression in

The Palace of Fine Arts in Mexico City.

the works of renowned artists such as David AlfaroSiqueiros, Federico Cantú Garza, Frida Kahlo, JuanO'Gorman, José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, andRufino Tamayo. Diego Rivera, the most well-known fig-ure of Mexican muralism, painted the Man at the Cross-roads at the Rockefeller Center in New York City, ahuge mural that was destroyed the next year because ofthe inclusion of a portrait of Russian communist leaderLenin.[289] Some of Rivera’s murals are displayed at theMexican National Palace and the Palace of Fine Arts.Mesoamerican architecture is mostly noted for its pyra-mids which are the largest such structures outside of An-cient Egypt. Spanish Colonial architecture is marked bythe contrast between the simple, solid construction de-

7.5 Music 25

manded by the new environment and the Baroque orna-mentation exported from Spain. Mexico, as the centerof New Spain has some of the most renowned buildingsbuilt in this style.

7.3 Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Mexico

Mexican films from the Golden Age in the 1940s and1950s are the greatest examples of Latin American cin-ema, with a huge industry comparable to the Hollywoodof those years. Mexican films were exported and exhib-ited in all of Latin America and Europe. Maria Cande-laria (1944) by Emilio Fernández, was one of the firstfilms awarded a Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festivalin 1946, the first time the event was held after World WarII. The famous Spanish-born director Luis Buñuel real-ized in Mexico, between 1947 to 1965 some of him mas-ter pieces like Los Olvidados (1949), Viridiana (1961)and El angel exterminador (1963). Famous actors andactresses from this period include María Félix, Pedro In-fante, Dolores del Río, Jorge Negrete and the comedianCantinflas.More recently, films such as Como agua para choco-late (1992), Cronos (1993), Y tu mamá también (2001),and Pan’s Labyrinth (2006) have been successful increating universal stories about contemporary subjects,and were internationally recognised, as in the presti-gious Cannes Film Festival. Mexican directors AlejandroGonzález Iñárritu (Amores perros, Babel), AlfonsoCuarón (Children of Men, Harry Potter and the Prisonerof Azkaban), Guillermo del Toro, Carlos Carrera (TheCrime of Father Amaro), and screenwriter GuillermoAr-riaga are some of the most known present-day film mak-ers.

7.4 Media

Further information: Mexican television and List ofnewspapers in Mexico

Two of the major television networks based in Mex-ico are Televisa and TV Azteca. Televisa is also thelargest producer of Spanish-language content in the worldand also the world’s largest Spanish-language medianetwork.[290] Grupo Multimedios is another media con-glomerate with Spanish-language broadcasting in Mex-ico, Spain, and the United States. The telenovelas arevery traditional in Mexico and are translated to many lan-guages and seen all over the world with renowned nameslike Verónica Castro, Lucía Méndez, Lucero, and Thalía.

7.5 Music

Main article: Music of MexicoMexican society enjoys a vast array of music genres,

Mariachi at the Festival del Mariachi, Charrería y Tequila in SanJuan de los Lagos, Mexico.

showing the diversity of Mexican culture. Traditionalmusic includes mariachi, banda, norteño, ranchera andcorridos; on an everyday basis most Mexicans listen tocontemporary music such as pop, rock, etc. in both En-glish and Spanish. Mexico has the largest media industryin Latin America, producing Mexican artists who are fa-mous in Central and South America and parts of Europe,especially Spain.Some well-known Mexican singers are Thalía, LyndaThomas, Luis Miguel, Juan Gabriel, Alejandro Fernán-dez, Julieta Venegas, Jose Jose and Paulina Rubio. Mex-ican singers of traditional music are: Lila Downs, SusanaHarp, Jaramar, GEO Meneses and Alejandra Robles.Popular groups are Café Tacuba, Caifanes, Molotov andManá, among others. Since the early years of the 2000s(decade), Mexican rock has seen widespread growth bothdomestically and internationally.According to the Sistema Nacional de Fomento Musical,there are between 120 and 140 youth orchestras affiliatedto this federal agency from all federal states. Some states,through their state agencies in charge of culture and thearts—Ministry or Secretary or Institute or Council ofCulture, or in some cases the Secretary of Education orthe State University—sponsor the activities of a profes-sional symphony orchestra or philharmonic crchestra soall citizens can have access to this artistic expression fromthe field of classical music. Mexico City is the most in-tense hub of this activity, hosting 12 professional orches-tras sponsored by different agencies such as the NationalInstitute of FineArts, the Secretary of Culture of the Fed-eral District, The National University, the National Poly-technic Institute, a Delegación Política (Coyoacán) andprivate ventures.

26 7 CULTURE

7.6 Cuisine

Main article: Mexican cuisineMexican cuisine is known for its intense and varied fla-

Tacos, Mexico’s most well known national dish.

vors, colorful decoration, and variety of spices. Most oftoday’s Mexican food is based on pre-Columbian tradi-tions, including Aztec and Maya, combined with culinarytrends introduced by Spanish colonists.The conquistadores eventually combined their importeddiet of rice, beef, pork, chicken, wine, garlic and onionswith the native pre-Columbian food, including maize,tomato, vanilla, avocado, guava, papaya, pineapple, chilipepper, beans, squash, sweet potato, peanut, and turkey.Mexican food varies by region, because of local climateand geography and ethnic differences among the indige-nous inhabitants and because these different populationswere influenced by the Spaniards in varying degrees. Thenorth of Mexico is known for its beef, goat and ostrichproduction and meat dishes, in particular the well-knownArrachera cut.Central Mexico’s cuisine is largely made up of influencesfrom the rest of the country, but also has its authentics,such as barbacoa, pozole, menudo, tamales, and carnitas.Southeastern Mexico, on the other hand, is known for itsspicy vegetable and chicken-based dishes. The cuisine ofSoutheastern Mexico also has quite a bit of Caribbeaninfluence, given its geographical location. Veal is com-mon in the Yucatan. Seafood is commonly prepared inthe states that border the Pacific Ocean or the Gulf ofMexico, the latter having a famous reputation for its fishdishes, in particular à la veracruzana.In modern times, other cuisines of the world have becomevery popular in Mexico, thus adopting a Mexican fusion.For example, sushi in Mexico is often made with a vari-ety of sauces based on mango or tamarind, and very oftenserved with serrano-chili-blended soy sauce, or comple-mented with vinegar, habanero and chipotle peppers

The most internationally recognized dishes includechocolate, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, burritos,tamales and mole among others. Regional dishes in-clude mole poblano, chiles en nogada and chalupas fromPuebla; cabrito and machaca from Monterrey, cochinitapibil from Yucatán, Tlayudas from Oaxaca, as well asbarbacoa, chilaquiles, milanesas, and many others.

7.7 Sports

Main article: Sport in MexicoMexico City hosted the XIX Olympic Games in 1968,

The Estadio Azteca (Aztec Stadium), the sixth largest stadium inthe world.

making it the first Latin American city to do so.[291] Thecountry has also hosted the FIFA World Cup twice, in1970 and 1986.[292]

Mexico’s most popular sport is association football (soc-cer). It is commonly believed that football was intro-duced in Mexico by Cornish miners at the end of the19th century. By 1902 a five-team league had emergedwith a strong British influence.[293][294]Mexico’s top clubsare América with 12 championships, Guadalajara with11, and Toluca with 10.[295] Antonio Carbajal was thefirst player to appear in five World Cups,[296] and HugoSánchez was named best CONCACAF player of the 20thcentury by IFFHS.[297]

The Mexican professional baseball league is named theLiga Mexicana de Beisbol. While usually not as strongas the United States, the Caribbean countries and Japan,Mexico has nonetheless achieved several internationalbaseball titles. Mexico has had several players signedby Major League teams, the most famous of them beingDodgers pitcher Fernando Valenzuela.In 2013, Mexico’s basketball team won the AmericasBasketball Championship and qualified for the 2014 Bas-ketball World Cup where it reached the playoffs. Becauseof these achievements the country earned the hostingrights for the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship.[298]

Bullfighting is a popular sport in the country, and almost

27

all large cities have bullrings. Plaza México in Mex-ico City, is the largest bullring in the world, which seats55,000 people. Professional wrestling (or Lucha libre inSpanish) is a major crowd draw with national promotionssuch as AAA, LLL, CMLL and others.Mexico is an international power in professional box-ing (at the amateur level, several Olympic boxing medalshave also been won by Mexico). Vicente Saldivar, RubénOlivares, Salvador Sánchez, Julio César Chávez, RicardoLopez and Erik Morales are but a few Mexican fighterswho have been ranked among the best of all time.[299]

Notable Mexican athletes include golfer Lorena Ochoa,who was ranked first in the LPGAworld rankings prior toher retirement,[300] AnaGuevara, former world championof the 400metres (1,300 ft) and Olympic subchampion inAthens 2004, and Fernando Platas, a numerous Olympicmedal winning diver.

8 Health

Main article: Health care in Mexico

Since the early 1990s, Mexico entered a transitional stagein the health of its population and some indicators suchas mortality patterns are identical to those found in highlydeveloped countries like Germany or Japan.[301]Mexico’smedical infrastructure is highly rated for the most partand is usually excellent in major cities,[302][303] but ru-ral communities still lack equipment for advanced med-ical procedures, forcing patients in those locations totravel to the closest urban areas to get specialized med-ical care.[106] Social determinants of health can be usedto evaluate the state of health in Mexico.State-funded institutions such as Mexican Social SecurityInstitute (IMSS) and the Institute for Social Security andServices for State Workers (ISSSTE) play a major role inhealth and social security. Private health services are alsovery important and account for 13% of all medical unitsin the country.[304]

Medical training is done mostly at public universitieswith much specializations done in vocational or intern-ship settings. Some public universities in Mexico, suchas the University of Guadalajara, have signed agreementswith the U.S. to receive and train American students inMedicine. Health care costs in private institutions andprescription drugs in Mexico are on average lower thanthat of its North American economic partners.[302]

9 Education

Main article: Education in MexicoIn 2004, the literacy rate was at 97%[305] for youth underthe age of 14 and 91% for people over 15,[306] placing

The National Autonomous University of Mexico.

Mexico at the 24th place in the world rank according toUNESCO.[307]

The National Autonomous University of Mexico ranks190th place in the Top 200 World University Rankingpublished by The Times Higher Education Supplementin 2009.[308] Private business schools also stand out in in-ternational rankings. IPADE and EGADE, the businessschools of Universidad Panamericana and of MonterreyInstitute of Technology and Higher Education respec-tively, were ranked in the top 10 in a survey conductedby The Wall Street Journal among recruiters outside theUnited States.[309]

10 See also• Index of Mexico-related articles

• Outline of Mexico

• Visa policy of Mexico

• Mexico – Wikipedia book

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[249] Defined as persons who live in a household where an in-digenous language is spoken by one of the adult familymembers, and or people who self identified as indigenous(“Criteria del hogar: De esta manera, se establece, quelos hogares indígenas son aquellos en donde el jefe y/oel cónyuge y/o padre o madre del jefe y/o suegro o sue-gra del jefe hablan una lengua indígena y también aquel-los que declararon pertenecer a un grupo indígena.”)ANDpersons who speak an indigenous language but who donot live in such a household (Por lo antes mencionado, laComisión Nacional Para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indí-genas de México (CDI) considera población indígena (PI)a todas las personas que forman parte de un hogar indí-gena, donde el jefe(a) del hogar, su cónyuge y/o alguno delos ascendientes (madre o padre, madrastra o padrastro,abuelo(a), bisabuelo(a), tatarabuelo(a), suegro(a)) declaroser hablante de lengua indígena. Además, también incluyea personas que declararon hablar alguna lengua indígenay que no forman parte de estos hogares )

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35

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12 Bibliography• Camp, Roderic A. Politics in Mexico: Democratic

Consolidation Or Decline? (Oxford UniversityPress, 2014)

• Davis, Diane. Urban leviathan: Mexico City in thetwentieth century (Temple University Press, 2010)

• Domínguez, Jorge I (2004). “The Scholarly Study ofMexican Politics”. Mexican Studies / Estudios Mexi-canos 20 (2): 377–410.

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• Krauze, Enrique (1998). Mexico: Biography ofPower: A history of Modern Mexico 1810–1996.New York: Harper Perennial. p. 896. ISBN 0-06-092917-0.

• Meyer, Michael C.; Beezley, William H., eds.(2000). The Oxford History of Mexico. Oxford Uni-versity Press. p. 736. ISBN 0-19-511228-8.

• Levy, Santiago. Good intentions, bad outcomes:Social policy, informality, and economic growth inMexico (Brookings Institution Press, 2010)

• Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and SusanM. Deeds. The Course of Mexican History (7th ed.Oxford U.P., 2002) online edition

• Russell, Philip (2010). The history of Mexico: frompre-conquest to present. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-87237-9. Retrieved July 9, 2010.

• Tannenbaum, Frank. Mexico: the struggle for peaceand bread (2013)

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• Werner, Michael S. ed. Concise Encyclopediaof Mexico (2001) 850pp; a selection of unre-vised articles

13 External links• The Presidency of Mexico

• Mexico Tourism Official Website | VisitMexico

• Mexico entry at The World Factbook

• Mexico from UCB Libraries GovPubs

• Mexico at DMOZ

• Mexico from the BBC News

• Mexico at Encyclopædia Britannica

• Wikimedia Atlas of Mexico

• Mexico travel guide from Wikivoyage

• Key Development Forecasts for Mexico fromInternational Futures

• Mexico by World Painters.

38 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text• Mexico Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico?oldid=678972631 Contributors: Derek Ross, Brion VIBBER, Mav, The Anome,Koyaanis Qatsi, Jeronimo, Malcolm Farmer, -- April, Mark Ryan, Ed Poor, Jagged, Andre Engels, Scipius, Youssefsan, Danny, Fcueto,Christian List, PierreAbbat, SJK, SimonP, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Drbug, Ellmist, Zoe, Jaknouse, Montrealais, Olivier, Leandrod, Jose Icaza,AntonioMartin, Edward, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, TMC, Fred Bauder, DopefishJustin, Liftarn, Mic, Ixfd64, Sannse, Shoaler, Delir-ium, Geoffrey~enwiki, Moelarry, Ee79, Gaz~enwiki, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, Angela, An-drewa, DropDeadGorgias, Александър, Poor Yorick, Andres, Jiang, Evercat, TonyClarke, Cherkash, John K, Mxn, BRG, Mulad, Feed-mecereal, Emperorbma, Crissov, Timwi, Nohat, Andrevan, RickK, Daniel Quinlan, Fuzheado, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Wik,Roadmr, Haukurth, Markhurd, Vancouverguy, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Wenteng, Megafonico~enwiki, Furrykef, Grendelkhan, Mor-wen, Humors, Nv8200pa, Dogface, Joy, Fvw, AaronSw, Raul654, AnonMoos, Bcorr, Johnleemk, Flockmeal, Finlay McWalter, Pollina-tor, UninvitedCompany, Francs2000, Hjr, JorgeGG, She Who Must Be Obeyed, Flosch, Kulkuri, Denelson83, Jni, Fito, Chuunen Baka,Bearcat, Branddobbe, Nufy8, Robbot, Vardion, Palnu, Astronautics~enwiki, ChrisO~enwiki, Moriori, RedWolf, Moncrief, Nyh, Alten-mann, Yelyos, Romanm, Naddy, Modulatum, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Blanka~enwiki, Hemanshu, SchmuckyTheCat, KellyCoinGuy,Meelar, Gidonb, Diderot, Jondel, Hadal, Saforrest, Lupo, Ruiz~enwiki, Cyrius, Nanahuatzin, Davidcannon, Alan Liefting, Craig Butz,Mikezeta, Centrx, Giftlite, Dbenbenn, Christopher Parham, MPF, Phil5329, Harp, Andrewphelps, Nichalp, Fudoreaper, Cobaltbluetony,Tom harrison, Lupin, HangingCurve, IRelayer, Zigger, Average Earthman, Everyking, No Guru, Curps, Alison, Varlaam, Wolfe, Can-tus, Rick Block, Niteowlneils, Leonard G., Abracadabra~enwiki, H-2-O, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Guanaco, Iota, Mboverload, Siroxo, Nodeue, Allstar86, Solipsist, Gzornenplatz, Avala, Chameleon, Bobblewik, Wiki Wikardo, Golbez, Btphelps, Gadfium, Geni, Mike R, Knutux,Jpkoester1, Quadell, Antandrus, Beland, Aisling73, Kaldari, PDH, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Mzajac, DragonflySixtyseven, 7fex5q2ek, Secfan, Al-Andalus, Kevin B12, Icairns, Sam Hocevar, Allissonn, Atemperman, JeffreyN, Aaron Einstein, Asbestos, Creidieki, Neutrality, Joyous!,Oknazevad, Jcw69, Wyllium, Paradoxian, Syvanen, Kevyn, Demiurge, Zondor, Adashiel, Avatar, Grunt, Agurza, Mike Rosoft, D6, Dbaron,Freakofnurture, Wfaulk, DanielCD, RedWordSmith, EugeneZelenko, Madewokherd, Diagonalfish, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Ag-nistus, Guanabot, Themusicking, Supercoop, Jaedza, Vsmith, Smyth, Jordancpeterson, Aris Katsaris, Ericamick, Jillant, Eric Shalov, IvanBajlo, Xezbeth, Mjpieters, Samboy, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, Bo Lindbergh, SpookyMulder, WegianWarrior, SamEV, Bender235,ESkog, FrankCostanza, Mashford, Danakil, Brian0918, CanisRufus, Zscout370, Sfahey, El C, Szyslak, Zenohockey, Bletch, Kwamik-agami, Phil websurfer@yahoo.com, Mwanner, QuartierLatin1968, Irrªtiºnal, Aude, Shanes, Juppiter, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Cacophony,Bookofjude, Jpgordon, Dannown, CDN99, Guettarda, Bastique, Bobo192, Valentino, Iamunknown, Func, Ludger1961, Walkiped, Bro-kenSegue, Dpaajones, Foobaz, Captain Blood~enwiki, Pokrajac, Giraffedata, Jerryseinfeld, Cheung1303, TheProject, Darwinek, PeterisP,WikiLeon, B0at, Mixcoatl, Sam Korn, Ral315, Solid Reign, Supersexyspacemonkey, Mdd, Ranveig, Vizcarra, Jumbuck, Danski14, Bobrulz, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Mo0, Elpincha, Walter Görlitz, Buaidh, Halsteadk, Mr Adequate, Andrewpmk, Ronline, AzaToth, Yamla,Lectonar, Calton, MarkGallagher, SlimVirgin, Lightdarkness, Kel-nage, Walkerma, Stromboli2, Garfield226, Dark Shikari, Jvano~enwiki,Cdc, CJ, Doug Quaid, Mrholybrain, Malo, Bart133, Marianocecowski, Abstrakt, BanyanTree, ReyBrujo, Garzo, Leoadec, Dtcdthingy,Evil Monkey, RJII, Harej, Jon Cates, CloudNine, 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Wales, RobyWayne, Threner,KFP, OrbitOne, Abögarp, EronMain, McDogm, Cannywizard, Gurubrahma, Cpcheung, Broken Segue, JonathanFreed, Idaltu, Toi, Vic-tor12, Butros, CJLL Wright, Chobot, Jersey Devil, Sherool, Can-mex, Evilphoenix, Mhking, 334a, Bgwhite, Cactus.man, Digitalme,Gwernol, E Pluribus Anthony, Dúnadan, Joseph11h, Flcelloguy, Peter Grey, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid,Spacepotato, RobotE, Sceptre, Blightsoot, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Mnewmanqc, RussBot, Tetzcatlipoca, Jeffhoy, Crazytales, Kauffner, Fabar-tus, Red Slash, Jumbo Snails, Anonymous editor, Conscious, Splash, Codehead, Pigman, Vladislaus Draculea, Fabricationary, Stephenb,Chamdarae, Lord Voldemort, C777, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Aquiles, RadioKirk, Gram123, EngineerScotty, MosheA,PaulGarner, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Nahallac Silverwinds, Shreshth91, Fizan, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Wiki alf, BigCow, Bachrach44,Msikma, BGManofID, Aeusoes1, Betus~enwiki, Ptcamn, Deskana, Jaxl, Johann Wolfgang, Rjensen, Ashwinr, Howcheng, Robchurch,Adrian Malacoda, R’son-W, Lexicon, Hzenilc, Retired username, Renata3, Gunmetal, Anetode, CaliforniaAliBaba, Boadrummer, Mj-chonoles, PhilipC, Rockero, Misza13, Nick C, Petufo, Tony1, Bucketsofg, Syrthiss, Aaron Schulz, Lockesdonkey, BOT-Superzerocool,Idkman, Tegarden, DeadEyeArrow, Moreau36, Psy guy, Bota47, Wheelybrook, Qrfqr, Private Butcher, MacMog, Trainra, Wolfling,DomenicDenicola, Maunus, Martinwilke1980, Aozeba, Threeonezero, Nlu, David Underdown, Niebieskipolak, Wknight94, Ms2ger, Jen-naHaze, Ak13, Searchme, Jkelly, Kmusser, FF2010, Mike Serfas, Twelvethirteen, Sharris0512, Deville, Zzuuzz, Uberlemur, Bayerischer-mann, Barryob, Nikkimaria, Theda, Jwissick, Aburda, Assyria 90, Fang Aili, Pedron, Toddgee, Buffalob07, Esprit15d, BorgQueen, Black-Velvet, GraemeL, Rlove, Joysofpi, JoanneB, Alias Flood, Fredcipriano, Smurrayinchester, Andyluciano~enwiki, Scoutersig, Kevin, Emc2,JLaTondre, Jaranda, Chris93, Whouk, Che829, Stuhacking, Kungfuadam, Ief, RG2, Some guy, Siegfried Waldgrave, GrinBot~enwiki, As-terion, Roke, Madhu4125, Jeff Silvers, Amberrock, Flamma, DVDRW, Theroachman, Brentt, Nodoubt9203, robot, Sardanaphalus,Sassisch, Amalthea, SmackBot, Lavintzin, Amcbride, YellowMonkey, Rotarypot, Beatdown, HWSager, Ragusan, Thierry Caro, Jamott,Smitz, David Kernow, Bobet, Benjaminb, Dovo, Reedy, GOMEC005, Tarret, GrandfatherJoe, Rmcdou1, KnowledgeOfSelf, Goodfoun-dation23, David.Mestel, Pgk, Dropmeoff, Darkstar1st, Rrius, Holon67, WilyD, Jacek Kendysz, Davewild, Clpo13, 2 Dope, Milesnfowler,Nickst, Busterblew, Grey Shadow, EncycloPetey, Renesis, Eskimbot, Beardoc, Lagringa, Mdd4696, CullenGift, ColdFusion~enwiki, Fry-master, Arniep, The Ronin, Wakuran, Aivazovsky, Hbackman, TheFourthWay, Nscheffey, Runner Bean, MelancholieBot, ADominus,Bryan Nguyen, Sebesta, Commander Keane bot, Xaosflux, Yamaguchi , Peter Isotalo, Sloman, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Beta-command, Polaron, Darknshadow, Cs-wolves, ERcheck, Hraefen, Dangel, Qtoktok, Wigren, Jake Larsen, Chris the speller, Master Jay,

14.1 Text 39

Ciacchi, Keegan, JonRidinger, LinguistAtLarge, SlimJim, Gspbeetle, Rochester Mafia, Dumbledores Soul, Persian Poet Gal, Ian13, Nbez,Atomsprengja, Delfeye, Chris5977, SB Johnny, Mamsaac, HartzR, Supadupa, MalafayaBot, Kemet, A1437053, BrendelSignature, MosheConstantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Marsonline, JoeBlogsDord, Akanemoto, Bazonka, Haydentomas, TreyHollandIsBack, Ikiroid, Nbarth,JONJONAUG, Robth, Kbailey1, TomYates, Zak.l, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Terraguy, El Chompiras, Tarikash, VirtualSteve,Zachorious, Dr. Dan, Craiglen, Rama’s Arrow, Pcstico, Zsinj, Derekt75, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jahiegel, Jorvik, HoodedMan,Njál, Alphathon, Zleitzen, Atropos, OrphanBot, Afdsfdsafdsa, Nixeagle, OOODDD, MJCdetroit, Tipplerunkus Gonga, Avb, Mimmo46,JonHarder, Folksong, EOZyo, Triphook, TheKMan, Australia boy, TonySt, Tim Sailor, Wes!, Rsm99833, Andy120290, Backspace, Zvar,Bolivian Unicyclist, Edivorce, Jjjsixsix, NombreAqui, SundarBot, Madman2001, JSmith9579, Rarelibra, 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LeCour, Mayan.resorts, Pablo818, Demonflame5, Anietor, BrianPearson, Flatterworld, Student7, Smithr690, Arsony, Miskwito, Konegistiger, Blah0401, KylieTastic, Kidlittle, Lrdjimmy9, Corriebertus,Msnolanisawesome, 5441156tyler, Austinsexybeast, The Great Joseph, Jjhcap99, SOy OSKuRiToHeh, XxJayZ894xX, Isaac.dt, 2eet2eet,Treisijs, GreenHydrogen27, Ramerix, Diegou, Joaquín Martínez Rosado, Gtg204y, Heronick, Bonadea, T3hedge, RVJ, MartinBotIII,Mediacenterentertainment, Skitwikipedia, Andy Marchbanks, Homo logos, Shikyo3, Bully25, Dcloues, Idioma-bot, Highfields, Nobane,Xnuala, Albertogaona, GodofWiki, Chaos forge5, Jmcdon10, Vranak, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Diegoaac, CWii, ABF, Racjsingamac53,SWBJACMK, Mrsmith93309, Kelapstick, Famcrespo, Jeff G., Butwhatdoiknow, Vrac, AlnoktaBOT, Surebuddywhat00, DaRaeMan, Bel-low, Nascar fanmx, Philip Trueman, Rkt2312, Mkcmkc, Rhaluska, Zarcusian, TXiKiBoT, JorgeAranda, Dawidbernard, Dedicated to learn,Jdcaust, Alabasterclam, Cena313, Corticopia, Knock-kneed, Fcb981, Ann Stouter, Jmklooster, Quizimodo, James Baraldi, Jr., Hnikolaus,Qxz, VicenteGomez, Una Smith, Seraphim, Dendodge, Devilzadvokat, JhsBot, Loginblarg, Rob 5000x1, C.Kent87, DyceBot, Supertask,Cleopatra selene, Linkjge, ^demonBot2, Raymondwinn, Bentley4, Wikiperuvian, Lego.knex dude, Malpasan, Seamus48485353, Ted-paul, Miteymite27, Darrman (usurped), CHorner2819, TheHorus, StarIV, Sodicadl, Uannis~enwiki, Fatchick69, InternetHero, HomicidalKing, Squidflute, Synthebot, Scitim, N1ck854, Jaguarlaser, Enviroboy, Jacker28, Prayspot, Johndoe890, Steele09, K.d.stauffer, Jellery,

40 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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14.2 Images 41

Julietdeltalima, TexanAzteca, Alakzi, SandKitty256, Tepehuan, MoreTomorrow, Aldiazmo, SantiagoFrancoRamos, Ivan Perez Garcia 8,KasparBot, Mr.Bob.298, TheRealSingapore, HipHopVisionary, Supersnack, Robert92107, Joshwond, Jdude5 and Anonymous: 1749

14.2 Images• File:2012_Mexico_Products_Export_Treemap.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/2012_Mexico_Products_Export_Treemap.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gordon.silvermanaz

• File:Azteca_entrance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Azteca_entrance.jpg License: CC BY 2.0Contributors: estadio azteca Original artist: Ramsés Reyes from México DF, México

• File:BenitoJuarez.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/BenitoJuarez.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Biblioteca_Central_de_la_UNAM_.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Biblioteca_Central_de_la_UNAM_.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/roblesr/4625415384 Original artist: Roberto Robles

• File:Carnitas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Carnitas.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: origi-nally posted to Flickr as carnitas Original artist: Mike McCune

• File:Castillo_de_Chapultepec.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Castillo_de_Chapultepec.jpg Li-cense: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/lion05/4998444375/sizes/o/in/faves-83466550@N06/ Original artist:lion05

• File:Ciudad.de.Mexico.City.Distrito.Federal.DF.Paseo.Reforma.Skyline.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Ciudad.de.Mexico.City.Distrito.Federal.DF.Paseo.Reforma.Skyline.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:http://www.flickr.com/photos/99299995@N02/9355469268/ Original artist: Alejandro Islas Photograph AC

• File:Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from File:Mexico coat of arms.png by Alex Covarrubias Original artist:

• Vectorisation by Alex Covarrubias• File:CodexMendoza01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/CodexMendoza01.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: English Wikipedia Original artist: Unknown

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Cortez_&_La_Malinche.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/Exhibits/nativeamericans/lg25_1.html Bancroft Library Original artist:unknown Tlaxcalan artists

• File:Decrease2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Decrease2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:Own work Original artist: Sarang

• File:Division_politica_mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Division_politica_mexico.svg Li-cense: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: El bart089

• File:El_Castillo_Stitch_2008_Edit_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/El_Castillo_Stitch_2008_Edit_2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fcb981

• File:El_Tajín,_Nischenpyramdie.fcm.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/El_Taj%C3%ADn%2C_Nischenpyramide.fcm.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: Photograph: Frank C. Müller, Baden-Baden

• File:El_caballito_de_Tolsa_a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/El_caballito_de_Tolsa_a.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Emperor_Agustin_I_kroningsportret.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Emperor_Agustin_I_kroningsportret.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Wikipedia [1] Original artist: Unknown

• File:Enrique_Peña_Nieto_-_World_Economic_Forum_on_Latin_America_2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Enrique_Pe%C3%B1a_Nieto_-_World_Economic_Forum_on_Latin_America_2010.jpg License: CC BY-SA2.0 Contributors: Copyright originally posted to Flickr as Enrique Peña Nieto - World Economic Forum on Latin America 2010. Photo byEdgar Alberto Domínguez Cataño. Original artist: World Economic Forum

• File:Estudiantes_sobre_cammión_quemado_(A68).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Estudiantes_sobre_cammi%C3%B3n_quemado_%28A68%29.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: my personal archiveOriginal artist: Marcel·lí Perelló

• File:FederalPoliceDF.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/FederalPoliceDF.jpg License: CCBY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: ImFromCuliacan

• File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domainContributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006

• File:Frida_Kahlo_Diego_Rivera_1932.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Frida_Kahlo_Diego_Rivera_1932.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carl Van Vechten photograph collection (Library of Congress), reproductionnumber LC-USZ62-42516 DLC (b&w film copy neg.). Original artist: Carl Van Vechten

• File:GTM_imagen.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/GTM_imagen.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Luyten

• File:GoldenEagle-Nova.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/GoldenEagle-Nova.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: en.wikipedia Original artist: J. Glover (AUTiger). Please attribute to J. Glover - Atlanta, Georgia in usage outsideof Wikimedia Foundation Projects.

42 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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• File:MEX_orthographic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/MEX_orthographic.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work with Natural Earth Data Original artist: Addicted04

• File:Madero_en_Cuernavaca.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Madero_en_Cuernavaca.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Transferred from es.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Ruiz at SpanishWikipedia

• File:Map_of_the_languages_of_Mexico.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Map_of_the_languages_of_Mexico.png License: CC0 Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mapa_de_lenguas_de_M%C3%A9xico_%2B_100_000.png Original artist: The original uploader was User:Yavidaxiu

• File:MariachiFestivalSanJuanLagos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/MariachiFestivalSanJuanLagos.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AlejandroLinaresGarcia

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