Methods of Research Chapter 4. Research at Paradigm Level
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Transcript of Methods of Research Chapter 4. Research at Paradigm Level
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Prof. ir . Panchito M. Labay
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Based on Process orApproachQualitative Research—
relies on qualitative data or
descriptive data that cannot
be reduced to numericalterms.
Quantitative Research—relies primarily on
numerical data as the basis
of analysis.Mixed Method Research—
a process that involve the
mixing or combination of
the two approaches.
“We hate numbers andestimates, we like realities!”
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Aspect Aspect QuantitativeQuantitative QualitativeQualitative
GeneralGeneralDescriptionDescription
acts have ob!ective reality.acts have ob!ective reality."acts are !ust around # ready to"acts are !ust around # ready tobe perceived by the researcher$be perceived by the researcher$
acts are social constructs.acts are social constructs."acts are constructed by the"acts are constructed by theresearcher$researcher$
%ariables &so'eti'es li'ited( are%ariables &so'eti'es li'ited( areidentified # relationships areidentified # relationships arederivedderived
%ariables are co'plex)%ariables are co'plex)inter*oven # difficult tointer*oven # difficult to'easure'easure
+tic &researcher is an ,outsider-+tic &researcher is an ,outsider-to have ob!ective results(to have ob!ective results(
+'ic &researcher is an ,insider-+'ic &researcher is an ,insider-*ith sub!ective results(*ith sub!ective results(
ProcessProcess o predicto predict o postdicto postdict
Deductive/be0ins *ithDeductive/be0ins *ith
hypotheses # theorieshypotheses # theories
1nductive/arrives at hypotheses1nductive/arrives at hypotheses
# theories# theories
2ee3s consensus2ee3s consensus 2ee3s pluralis') co'plexity2ee3s pluralis') co'plexity
Applies e'piricis'/scientificApplies e'piricis'/scientific'ethod throu0h experi'entation'ethod throu0h experi'entation
Applies a ,naturalistic- 'ode/asApplies a ,naturalistic- 'ode/asthe process 0oesthe process 0oes
Researcher-s roleResearcher-s role Detached # i'partialDetached # i'partial 1nvolved # partial1nvolved # partial4b!ective portrayal4b!ective portrayal 2ub!ective understandin02ub!ective understandin0
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AspectAspect QuantitativeQuantitative QualitativeQualitative
ocusocus Narrow angle lens (deals withNarrow angle lens (deals withlimited variables, which in realitylimited variables, which in realitynot really occurring)not really occurring)
Wide & deep angle lens (dealsWide & deep angle lens (dealswith complex variables, whichwith complex variables, whichare naturalistic examining theare naturalistic examining thebreath & the depth of thebreath & the depth of thephenomenaphenomena
5ature of data5ature of data Variables, numericalVariables, numerical Words, images, meanings,Words, images, meanings,
categoriescategories
Methods of dataMethods of datacollectioncollection
Collect uantitative data based onCollect uantitative data based onmeasurementmeasurement
Collect ualitative data basedCollect ualitative data basedon in!depth interviews,on in!depth interviews,ethnography, field notes" #heethnography, field notes" #heresearcher is the primeresearcher is the primeinstrument"instrument"
DataData analysisanalysis $dentify statistical relationships$dentify statistical relationships %oo for patterns, themes and%oo for patterns, themes andholistic featuresholistic features
Results # finalResults # finalreportsreports
'tatistical report (correlations,'tatistical report (correlations,statistical significance, etc")"statistical significance, etc")"eneralised findingseneralised findings
Narrative report with contextualNarrative report with contextualdescriptive and directdescriptive and directuotations" articularisticuotations" articularistic
findingsfindings
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Quantitative Mixed Qualitative
Scientificmethod
Deductive or ‘top-down’. The
researcher testshypothesis & theorywith data
Deductive &inductive
Inductive or ‘bottom-up’.The researcher
generates newhypothesis & groundedtheory from collecteddata during thefieldwork
View ofhuman
behaviour
ehaviour is regular& predictable
ehaviour issomewhat
predictable
ehaviour is fluid!dynamic! situational!
conte"tual & personal
Researchobjectives
Description!e"planation &prediction
#ultiple ob$ectives %"ploration! description& discovery
Focus arrow angle lens!
testing specifichypothesis
#ulti-lens focus 'ide & deep angle lens
focus! e"amining thebreadth & depth ofphenomena to learnmore
Nature ofobserva-tion
(tudy behaviourunder controlledconditions
(tudy behaviourunder more thanone conte"t orcondition
(tudy behaviour innatural environments.(tudy the conte"t inwhich behaviour occurs
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Nature of
reality
)b$ective *different ob-
servers agree on what
is observed
+ommonsense
realism and
pragmatic view of
world *what works
is what is real &
true,
(ub$ective! personal &
socially constructed
Nature of
data
ariables #i"ture of variables!
images & words
'ords! images &
categories
Manner ofcollecting
data
uantitative based onmeasurement! scales!
ratings! etc.
#i"ture of/ualitative &
/uantitative
ualitative based on in-depth interviews!
participant-observation
approach! field notes!
narratives! etc. Theresearcher is the primary
instrument *data collector,.
ata
analysis
(tatistical relation
between variables
measured
#i"ture of
/ualitative &
/uantitative
0ook for forms! patterns!
themes & holistic features
Results 1eneralised findings +orroborated
findings may
generalise
2articularistic findings.
3epresent the 4insider’s
point of view5 or emic
Form of
final re!ort
(tatistical *reporting
the correlations!comparisons! etc. of
the statisticalsignificance of findings,
%clectic & pragmatic arrative with conte"tual
description
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Polit et. al.) &6778( at 'ethodolo0ical level9uantitative research is 0enerally associated *ith
the philosophical traditions of positivis' and
9ualitative research) 'ost co''only allied *ith
post/positivist and post/'odernist philosophies.
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heories
:ypotheses
4bservations;
Data
Patterns
D e d u c t i on
1 n d u c t i on
Post/'odernists
Qualitative Research
2y'bolic 1nteractionist
Positivists
Quantitative Research
e'inist
Mixed 'ethod
he Research
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Based on DisciplineMonodisciplinary esearch primarily based on the
discipline of the mainresearcher.
Multidisciplinary esearchteamof researchers are engaged ina particular problem butanalyses are along theirrespective line ofspecialisation.
1nterdisciplinary Research—tea'of researchers ; scientists thatsolved a particular proble' byinte0ratin0 or lin3in0 theirfindin0s holistically despitethe differences in their fieldsof speciali=ation—they co'e
up *ith a unified results.Participatory Researcha team of researchers involved the"wisdom# or knowledge of thelocal people, based from theidea that they are moreknowledgeable about theirarea than the "outsiders#.
$eeking the "wisdom# of the tribe people is the
emerging form of research known as "participatory
research.
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han3 you) because *e
have !ust finished >hapters
? # @
or the inte0ration of all concepts) 1*ant you to choose three ite's fro'
the activity you did in >hapter 6 and
discuss on ho* you *ill conduct
research on the' follo*in0 the
philosophies of positivis') post/
positivis') post/'odernis') fe'inis'
and sy'bolic interpretivis'.
1s it 0ettin0 tou0h 1 hope not
1 3no* that you *ill 'a3e it. 2o) pleasefor each selected ite' li'it your
discussions in C77 *ords) do it
substantially usin0 Arial 88 as your
font.
Good luc3 any*ay
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* help the researcher to refine
and specify his or herresearch point of vie* or
philosophical underpinnin0s* enable the researcher to
evaluate different 'ethodolo/
0ies and 'ethods to avoid
inappropriate use and
unnecessary *or3 by
identifyin0 the li'itations of
particular approaches at an
early sta0e* help the researcher to becreative and innovative in
either selection or adaptation
of 'ethods that *ere
previously outside his or her
experience.
%ts me when % was assigned to do a research work
in &ohn 'opkins (niversity with my (gandan
classmate.
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here are three 'a!or philoso/
phical schools that affect theconduct of doin0 researchE
P4211%12 &cornerstone of
traditional science(—stresses thatscience as "knowledge# is
ascertained by empiricalobservations ) experimentations. %t
has an ob*ectivist view that "facts# or
"realities# are not the results of
human cognition or thinking or
created in one#s mind. +hey are
external to the observer and areimposed on the observer#s
consciousness from without.
%t prefers measurement and
replicability and making generali
sations rather than specificobservations.
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1t follo*s the scientific 'ethodE
Proble'
heory
:ypothesis
+xperi'entationData 0atherin0
Provin0
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>hallen0es to the positivist ; scientific ;ob!ectivist vie*sE
8. ruth or reality is a social construct&sub!ectivis'() created by hu'an bein0s# the ob!ects of thou0ht are 'erely*ords &no'inalis'( produced by thelan0ua0e *e spea3 &a narrative)discourse) etc.(.
6. Realities are co'plex) *hich cannot bereduced to 'easurable ,si'plevariables- and therefore inappropriate toco'e up *ith 0eneral 0overnin0 theory.Lo0ocentris' is not true—there is nosuch absolute truth.
?. +xperi'ents conducted in laboratoriesare beco'in0 redundant) because onecannot really capture the essence of thenatural *orld. hou0h positivist is0uided by rationality) but rationalityitself is a product of social fabrications.
@. Positivis' is a he0e'onic idea thatsuppresses other for's of 3no*led0es.
$uperman is a creative social construct,
which presumed can be made in the
laboratories through the science of cloning
or genetics engineering!
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* scientific fraud is extre'ely
*idespread) even in 'ostindustrialised countries.
* biased and sub!ective nature of
scientists as hu'an bein0s
* 'aterial need for 0lory and honour)0ainin0 'ore 0rants and pressure to
publish outputs
* doin0 the experi'entation over and
over a0ain to 0et the ,desired- results
* the nature of so'e researchers that
there is ,no presti0e in re/doin0 other
researcher-s experi'ents. herefore
the ris3 of doin0 fraudulent *or3 is
very little.
History reveals that greatscientists like Ptolemy,Galileo, Newton, Daltonand Mendell all tamperedsome of their researchdata
!ource" !utherland, #$%$
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Post/positivist believes that pure
e'piricis') e.0.) derivin0 3no*led0eonly throu0h observation and
'easure'ent) is not enou0h. hus) post/
positivis' is built on the concept of
critical realism) that there is a real world
out there independent of our perception
of it.
1t posits that "data are not inherently
quantitative and cannot be bits and
pieces of almost anything $.
he metaphysical as being beyond thescope of science, it was increasingly
accepted by postpositivists that
althou0h a real *orld driven by natural
causes exists) it is i'possible for
hu'ans to truly perceive it *ith theiri' erfect sensor and 'ental ca acit .
-instein is not only a positivist but also
a postpositivist ) postmodernist
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he post/positivist approaches
assu'e that reality is multiple,sub*ective) and mentally
constructed by individuals. he
use of flexible and 'ultiple
'ethods is desirable as a *ay of
studyin0 a s'all sa'ple in depth
over ti'e that can establish
*arranted assertability as
opposed to absolute truth. he
researcher interacts *ith those
bein0 researched) and findin0s
are the outco'e of thisinteractive process *ith a focus
on
"ntipo# is a cultural practice during /enten
$eason, which is a good sub*ect for research
following the postpositivist mode of inquiry.
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Letourneau and Allen &8FFF( state that post/positivist
approaches ,0ive *ay- to both 9ualitative and
9uantitative 'ethods or trian0ulation 'ethods. his isdescribed as critical 'ultiplis' &Guba and Lincoln
8FF(. >ritical i'plies that) as in positivis') the need for
ri0our) precision) lo0ical reasonin0 and attention to
evidence is re9uired) but unli3e positivis') this is notconfined to *hat can be physically observed.
Multiplis' refers to the fact that research can 0enerally
be approached fro' several perspectives. Multiple
perspectives can be used to define research 0oals) tochoose research 9uestions) 'ethods and analyses) and
to interpret results &>oo3 8FC(.
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1t follo*s the inductive 'ethodE
Proble'
>ontextualisin01ntrospection
heoryield*or3 ;
Data 0atherin0
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P42/M4D+R512—questions the
belief in reason ) rationality of the positivist. %t argues that "reality# is a
social construct in the form of words
language, stories, narratives, discourses,
etc.
%t favours observation from the inside in
favour of "vision#, in which the researcher
and the observed are not clearly
distinguished. +hus, the researcher is the
"prime instrument#.
%t prefers an introspective, sub*ective
interpretation.
%t dissolves the boundaries between
disciplines, since "realities# can be drawn
from different angles 0relativism )
methodological pluralism1. 2reativity will
grow if this will not be put inside the"black box#.
3rokeback 4ountain speaks about reality!
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Questions to the post/'odernist
vie*sE
8. Rise of ,3no*led0e anarchy-) a
disorder *orld of explainin0 a
social) natural) physical) etc.
pheno'ena. Re!ects 'eta/ and
0rand narratives of the *orld andreinforces our sensitivity to
differences.
6. he rules of lo0ic are nothin0) but
all social construct that are
prescribed for *ays of thin3in0.?. 1t is a counter he0e'onic concept
to positivis' that de'ystifies the
rhetorical acceptance of 'odern
science.+he problem of traditional science in solving some of
our present problems gives rise to postpositivist and postmodernist points of view.
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2HMB4L1> 15+RA>14512
—follows the postmodernist
view#, both in theory and practice,but is more concerned on
explaining society in terms of its
overall structure.
%t believes that we are living in a
"semiotic world#, whereinsymbols and communication
0linguistic ) gestural1 are created
and given with "meanings# )
identities in all our daily
interactions with our
environments.
%t upholds the cause ) effect
analysis to describe social reality
from within, like in interpreting
the views, feelings and actions of
those involved in a givensituation or lifestyle.
We live in a world of words, languages, signs andstructures which we give them identities and meanings.
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+M1512—follows "tradi
tional science#, both intheory and practice but
should be fair to women.
%t is an emerging philoso
phical school guided by
feminist theory. %t is reallynot a method, but a
perspective that recog
nises diversity, open to
cross discipline, so as to
avoid the "marginalisation#
of women.
Women need not be confined only in
household chores, but must also a part
of social change
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he scientific ethos of research prevails
as of today and still survives due to
the follo*in0 idealsE
Iniversalis'. 1deas and bodies of
3no*led0e 'ust be evaluated on thebasis of 'erit that it established.
>o''unalis'. Jno*led0e is not
3no*led0e if it is not shared) because
the search for 3no*led0e is a hu'an
act for public use.23epticis'. 4ne-s *or3 'ust be
scrutini=ed and challen0ed. 2cientific
authority 'ust be appraised and
reappraised re0ularly.
+'piricis'. 4bservations of the natural
and social *orlds are based on facts
that can be apprehended by hu'an-s
senses.
1'partiality. 2cientists 'ust have a
sense of i'partiality and open/
'indedness.
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han3 you) because *e have !ust
finished >hapter ?
I4R MARJ+D A>1%1H
or the inte0ration of all concepts) please do the follo*in0 activitiesE
8. 1n the internet &***.0oo0le.co'( ) search for t*o published
research papers that applied the concepts of a positivist) a post/
'odernist or a fe'inist.
6. 1n no 'ore than C77 *ords describe their peculiarities.
Date of sub'issionE
http://www.google.com/http://www.google.com/