RESEARCH

ARMANDO L. PAMA

Etymology (Wikipedia)

As per the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, the word research is derived from the Middle French "recerche", which means "to go about seeking",

the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier" a

compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning

'search'.

The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.

Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any

systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or

existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories,

using a scientific method (Wikipedia).

Research is “the continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown.” It is always an attempt to widen one’s outlook on life. It always proceeds from the known to the unknown (Sanchez,1997).

Thus, the end of research is something new in a possession of the truth. Its end product is the

discovery of truth (Sanchez,1997).

According to Parel (as cited by Sanchez,1997), research is “a

systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of

answering questions posed by the researcher/s.”

Meanwhile, Creswell (as cited in Wikipedia) states that “research is a process of steps used to collect

and analyze information to increase our understanding of a

topic or issue".

It consists of three steps:

Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present

an answer to the question.

Kerlinger (1973, as cited by Sevilla, et al. ,1993) defines scientific

research as “a systematic, controlled, empirical

(observable/verifiable), and critical investigation of hypothetical

propositions about the presumed relations among natural

phenomena.”

Research is systematic when it follows steps or stages that begin with

identification of the problem, relating of this problem with existing theories,

collection of data, analysis and interpretation of these data, drawing

of conclusions, and integration of these conclusions into the stream of

knowledge (Sevilla, et al. ,1993)

Scientific research is controlled (unlike ordinary

problems which may be solved cursorily). It is so

planned every step of the way that fancy and guess

work do not sit in.

The problem is defined thoroughly, variables identified and selected, instruments carefully selected or

constructed, and conclusions drawn only from the data yielded.

Consequently, recommendations are based on the findings and

conclusions.

As soon as the data have been collected, evidences

are now on hand to confirm or refute the hypothesis

formulated at the start of the investigation. These

empirical data will form the basis for conclusions.

Everything is so controlled that any observer of the investigation will develop full confidence in the

results. Due to the control employed in the research, exact

and precise outcomes are expected.

Research and problem solving are similar, although there is a fundamental difference:

The purpose of research is to reveal new knowledge while problem

solving is to provide answer to an immediate problem in particular

setting (Manalaysay,2011)

Distinctions between Research and Problem- Solving

(Manalaysay,2011):

1. The elements of research are explicitly and precisely described that is not usually demanded of

problem-solving.

2. Research data are usually analyzed with appropriate statistical procedures while

problem-solving seldom uses statistical analysis.

3. Factors are elaborately controlled which are not usually imposed in

problem-solving.

4. Findings are generalized (to a population).

5. Report of research findings is expected in writing that the others may utilize the

results.

Why do research?

1. Research is a vehicle for mobility or change.

2. It is a major contributor towards the attainment of national

development goals. (Research then assumes the role of shaping the

nation’s future.)

3. Research has brought about progress and a much better life for

all.

4. At present, no college student can escape from conducting

research.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

A. According to motives

Basic (or Pure) Research and Applied Research

Both basic and applied research are important to the advancement of human knowledge, but they work in slightly different ways, and they have different end goals in sight.

Basic or pure research is conducted solely for the purpose of gathering

information and building on existing knowledge, as opposed to applied research, which is geared

towards the resolution of a particular question.

A neurologist who studies the brain to learn about its general

workings is doing basic research, while a neurologist who is searching for the origins of

Alzheimer's disease is involved in applied research.

Often, applied research builds on existing basic research. Basic

research could be considered the foundation of knowledge which provides people with the basic

information they need to pursue particular areas of research.

In the example of the two neurologists above, for example,

the neurologist involved in applied research on a neurological condition will probably use research published by the

neurologist who is more generally studying the brain.

In basic research, general theories, ideas, and questions are explored and

tested, from where the universe comes from to how animals communicate.

Some people have suggested that this type of research should not be a

priority, because it doesn't always result in an immediate benefit to

humans.

But without basic research, many applied

research programs would be hard-pressed to get

the start they need.

Doing basic research ensures that applied

researchers don't need to reinvent the wheel every time they start on a new

project, because the groundwork has been done.

Basic or Pure: Robotic: Its Economic Potentials

and Ethical Issues

Applied: Build- Operate- Transfer Scheme in

the Philippines

B. According to time element

1. Historical – describes “what was”2. Descriptive - describes “what

is” (On-line Games and Academic Performance)

3. Experimental- describes “what will be”(Selected Herbal Medicines and Hypertensive Residents of Cebu City)

C. According to types of data

1. Quantitative (Motorist Helmet and Accident Survival Rate)

2. Qualitative (Extent of Awareness on Global

Warming)

D. According to levels of investigation

1. Descriptive- looks into the variables and relationships among them.

2. Experimental- looks on how variables affect other variables.

3. Exploratory – looks for the variables themselves.

(Factors Affecting Water Contamination)

4. Developmental- done to design better work method.

(Automated Water Sprayer for Del Monte Philippines)

E. According to duration

1. Retrospective or Historical- studies that look for causes, events, etc. that occurred in the past.

2. Prospective- studies that look to the present following into the future (looking into changes of the dependent variables over time).

.

3. Cross- sectional- describes what exists today using one

measurement time (collects data one time only and are meant to

obtain a cross section of the population at a given moment in

time – now/today)

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

(Sevilla, et. al.,1993)

A researchable problem is not answerable by a seminar or by a single book (Manalaysay, 2011).

SOURCES OF PROBLEM

• One of the critical steps in thesis writing is the choice of the problem.

• Although a great number of students find this stage stimulating/challenging, often this is one factor that hinders them in pursuing a thesis.

Students may pick their problem from:

1. journals2. books

3. abstracts4. recommendations in theses

5. teachers and friends

THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS MAY MANIFEST A PROBLEM :

(McGuigan,1978, as cited by Sevilla, et. al., 1993)

1. When there is an absence of information resulting in a gap in

knowledge.2. When there is a gap between what

is and what should be (Manalaysay, 2011)

3. When there are contradictory results.

4. When a fact exists and one intends to make a study explain it.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PROBLEM:

1. The topic should be very interesting to the researcher.

2. It is useful for the concerned people in particular fields.

3. It possesses novelty.

4. A good problem invites a more complex designing.

5. It can be completed in the allotted time.

6. It does not carry ethical or moral impediments.

SHARPENING SKILLS FOR DISCOVERING and IDENTIFYING a

PROBLEM

The following activities are suggested:

1. Reading a lot of literature in one’s field of concentration and being

critical of what one reads.

2. Attending professional lectures/seminars.

3. Being close observant of situations/happenings.

4. Thinking out the possibility of research for most topics/lessons taken

in content courses.

5. Conducting mini-researches and noting the obtained findings closely.

6. Compiling researches with special emphasis on content and

methodology.

7. Visiting libraries for possible discovery of researchable topics.

8. Subscribing to journals in one’s field and in research.

9. Building-up a library of materials in one’s field.

STATEMENT of the PROBLEM

LIMITING and DEFINING the PROBLEM

(How may a broad topic be more defined/narrowed down):

1. One may start defining some major terms or concepts.

2. One should read further literature (Take note of research

approaches/methods, the participants/respondents,

instruments, data analyses, outcomes, etc.)

3. One may shape his specific questions more finally than what

he did at the beginning of the survey of the literature.

WRITING THE TITLE OF THE INVESTIGATION

There are some functions that the title serves as it is used in a study:

1. It draws (in summary form) the content of the entire investigation, giving the

reader an instant grasp of what the study is .

2. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis.

3. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own.

4. It helps other researchers to refer to the work for possible

survey of theory.

In view of the above-mentioned functions, the

title should be written briefly, but should contain 3

things:

a. The variables one will study.

b. The relationship among the variables.

C. The target population.

Example:

1. From “The Relationship Between Creativity and Music Achievement”

to

“Creativity and Music Achievement Among Grade Six Pupils in Four Marist

Schools of Metro Manila”.

Example2. From “A Study of the Relationship

Between I.Q., Socio-economic Status, Personality, Work Values, and Career

Preference”to

“I.Q., Socio-economic Status, Personality, Work Values, and Career Preferences Among Fourth Year High School Students of South Cotabato”

VARIABLES

(Sevilla, et. al., 1992)

A variable is a characteristic that has two or more mutually

exclusive values or properties.

Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same

time.

An example is tossing a coin once, which can result in either heads or

tails, but not both.

In the coin-tossing example, both outcomes are collectively exhaustive, which means that at least one of the outcomes must happen, so

these two possibilities together exhaust all the possibilities.

However, not all mutually exclusive events are collectively exhaustive.

For example, the outcomes 1 and 4 of a single roll of a six-sided die are mutually exclusive (cannot both happen) but not collectively

exhaustive (there are other possible outcomes such as 5 and 6).

At the beginning of a research study, one

should firmly set in mind what his/her variables

are.

Which among the characters or measure do you intend to be your

outcome/objective?

What characteristics/conditions will make the outcome/objective

vary/differ?

Q: In the foregoing questions, which is asking

for the criterion or dependent variable?

variate or independent variable?

A:

Former- criterion/dependent variable

Latter- variate or independent variable

Some sources describe the independent variable as the cause and the dependent variable as the

result.

The dependent variable, therefore, is the object of the investigation.

Title length (Baker & Schutz, 1972, as cited by Sevilla, et. al., 1993)

Twenty substantive words, function words not included, is the maximum allowable length.

Moreover, they propose that the phrases “ A Study of”, “ An Investigation of”, An Inquiry into”, “ A Comparison of”, be dropped from the title since all theses or dissertations are investigations.

WRITING THE

SPECIFIC QUESTIONS

Write them in quantifiable terms.The specificity set will ascertain

just what questions are to be answered. Quantification and measurement will give more direction to the investigation.

Example # 1:

What is the creativity level of college freshman students?

Specific, quantifiable and measurable:

What is the creativity level of college freshman students in terms

of fluency, flexibility, and originality?

Example # 2:

How do certain reading skills relate to problem- solving skills?

Improved:

How does reading comprehension relate to problem-solving skills among Grade V pupils of the

study?

THE HYPOTHESIS

As soon as one has found a suitable topic for a problem, he should start building up predictions of the outcome of the study. These predictions may just be based on observations or firm belief about the topic, but these are all tentative. The real hypothesis will be formulated after a thorough review of the literature.

Gay (1976, as cited by Sevilla, et. al., 1992) defines hypothesis as “a tentative

explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena, or

events which have occurred or will occur.”

It states the researcher’s expectations concerning the

relationship between the variables in the research problem.

A hypothesis then is the most specific statement of a problem.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis:

(Manalaysay,2011)

1. A good hypothesis is easily understood, specific, conceptually

clear, and can be tangibly measured.

2. It should be related to a body of theory so that the findings will be

relevant and provide valuable information.

3. It should be logical, testable, related to the research problem,

factual, and theory- based.

FUNCTIONS OF THE HYPOTHESIS

1. It introduces the researcher’s thinking at the start of the study.2. It structures the next stages or procedures of the study.3. It helps one provide the format for the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of the data in the thesis.

STATING THE HYPOTHESES

Hypotheses are stated in a variety of ways:

simple, complex, directional, non- directional,

or null hypotheses.

Simple: Performance in Mathematics is related to success

in the Board Examination.

Complex: Heredity, home environment, and quality instruction are related to

intelligence and performance in school.

Directional: People who smoke are more prone to fail the Board Exams

than those who don’t.

(The expected direction or nature of a hypothesized relationship is

specified.)

Non- directional: There is a difference in the Board Exams rating of those who smoke and

those who do not.

Null hypothesis: There is no correlation between the Board

Exams rating and smoking.

In studies where the hypotheses are to be tested by statistical tests of significance, the practice is to employ the concept of the null

hypotheses.

Null hypothesis is a statement of “no significant difference or

relationship” between two or more variables that are to be measured

and tested through inferential statistics.

Ex. 1Ho: There is no difference in the 7-day

strength of Portland and Pozzolan cements.

Ex. 2Ho: There is no difference in the

recovery rate of patients who received drug x and those who do

not.

In many studies involving statistical tests of the significance of

relationships, null, as well as alternative hypotheses, are

formulated.

If the data reject the null hypothesis, the alternative

hypothesis is accepted.

The alternative hypothesis (HA) is a reverse statement of a null hypothesis.

It states that “there is a significant difference or relation (for a non-

directional two-tailed test) or that the difference is in a certain direction ( for

a directional one- tailed test).”

Alternative Hypotheses:HA1: Portland cement has a greater 7-day

strength.HA2: Pozzolan cement has a greater 7-day

strength.

HA1: Patients will have a higher recovery rate with drug.

HA2: Patients will have a higher recovery rate without the drug.

When the null hypothesis is rejected, it is the alternative hypothesis that serves as the

statement that clinches the finding and answers the question posed in

the pertinent sub-problem.

Q: Why is the null hypothesis (usually) stated in negative?

A: A known advantage of stating a hypothesis in the null or no-

relationship format is the sense of scientific objectivity that pervades

such statement.If Ho is stated in positive, the

impartiality of the research can be questioned, since it appears to have

a preconceived opinion on the outcome.

Q: Is there a hypotheses- free research?

A: Yes.1. Studies not after relationships

do not use hypotheses.

2. A researcher may engage in a fact- finding investigation (He may

be interested in learning more about a certain phenomenon).

Ex: 1. Why do students in Group A perform better than Group B?

2. How can the number of board passers be raised?

WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

SUGGESTIONS:1. Start with a brief background of

events that truly depict the present state of the issue (This is a brief

world scenario citing striking facts/statistics that objectively portray the existing problem

situation abroad, in the Philippines, and in the locality).

2. The researcher’s firm stand on the need to bridge the gap

between existing bodies of knowledge and the prevailing

problem situation.

3. The researcher’s rationale concerning the need to conduct or replicate a completed study. Such is a statement to establish reason

for the study.

4. If a new theory is being envisioned for the study, start by

attacking some pertinent universally- held theories on the subject and giving the rationale

behind the research undertaking.

It is cautioned to refrain from presenting in the introductory section the statement on the

research problem itself or information that should be part of

the related literature.

THEORIES and CONCEPTS

Theory- a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions,

or propositions that provide a view of reality for the purpose of

describing, explaining, predicting, or controlling the phenomena of

interest.

Concept – a complex of ideas so united as to portray a larger

general idea.

FUNCTIONS OF THEORY

1. Presents the gaps, weak points, and inconsistencies in previous

researches. This provides the study with conceptual frameworks,

justifying the need for investigation.

2. Puts together all the constructs/concepts that are

related with the researcher’s topic. The theory then leads one into

other specific questions to ask in the investigation.

3. It presents the relationship among variables that have been investigated. This process enables the researcher

to view the topic on hand against the findings earlier bared. These findings have the function of explaining the

phenomena. It is the thesis/dissertation topic that is the

center of the phenomena.

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK- a set of interrelated

constructs/concepts, definitions, and propositions that presents a

systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables. The theoretical framework serves as a basis for formulating the research

hypotheses.

- a representation of predictive relationships between

theoretical and operational concepts as indicated by the

theory.

The framework is developed out of review of related literature.

Current knowledge is organized around a scheme of (variable-

dependent/independent) concepts that are placed with in a logical, sequential, diagrammic design.

VARIABLE – refers to factor, characteristic or condition of a

person, a group of person, a thing, an event, an approach which takes

on values that can be measured categorically and quantitatively.

Independent Variable (X) – the factor, characteristic, or condition

introduced, removed, or manipulated to cause a change in the dependent variable. X is also called the treatment, stimulus,

predictor, input, or experimental variable.

Dependent Variable (Y) – the factor, characteristic, or condition that is observed and measured to

find out how X affects it. Y is called by such other names as the

outcome, response, output, and criterion, or attribute variable.

Moderator Variable (Z) – a secondary independent variable

that is included in a study to determine whether it affects,

modifies, or alters the relationship between the primary or

independent variable (X) and the dependent variable (Y).

Variables can be classified as:

1. Qualitative- gender, civil status, educational attainment, stress, grief, level of proficiency, etc.

2. Quantitative – IQ, age, scores, number of years in college, etc.

Faculty:Degree

Trainings attendedYears of Experience

Students:Entrance Score

HS GPA

Facilities:Library

Laboratories

Quality Education:Performance in

Licensure Examination

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Quality Education as indicated by the passing in licensure examination is affected by the quality of faculty, students and facilities.

Independent Variables

Depedent Variable

SIGNIFICANCE of the STUDY

This section discusses the importance of the study to society,

institution, community, and the writer himself.

It expounds on the study’s probable impact to education,

science, etc.

It also gives justification for the study in terms of its contribution to

theory and practice.Lastly, it touches on the

significance of the study to the researcher himself, what it does to his profession, and the difference it

makes to his own professional growth.

SCOPE and DELIMITATION (Extent of the Study)

Explained in this section are the nature, coverage, and time frame of

the study. It briefly presents the subject areas of investigation, the numbers of respondents/subjects

involved, etc. and the rationale behind delimiting the scope of the

study.

It answers the questions what, when, where, and who.

A sufficiently delimited study generally permits in- depth and

thorough investigation within the projected time frame.

Delimitations- perceived weaknesses of the study include those recognized but beyond the

researcher’s control.

Ex: lack of administrative support, budget , geography, etc.

DEFINITION of TERMSThis is necessary in order for the

researcher and the reader to be “thinking on the same plane”.

This section utilizes Operational Definitions (as opposed to

conceptual/dictionary definitions) of the terms in the title, including

unfamiliar/technical terms used through out the study.

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

(Sevilla, et. al., 1993)

The review of the related literature involves the systematic

identification, location, and analysis of documents containing

information related to the research problem.

FUNCTIONS:

1. It provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the

planned research.2. It provides information about past researches related to the

intended study.

3. It provides the researcher all constructs related to his study.

4. It gives information about the research methods used, the

population and sampling considered, the instruments used in gathering data, and statistical

computations of previous researches.

5. It provides findings and conclusions of past investigations which the present researcher may

relate to his own findings and conclusions.

REASONS FOR REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Bring clarity and focus to your research problem

Improve your methodology Broaden your knowledge base in

your research area.

PROCEDURE FOR REVIEWING THE LITERATURE Search for existing literature in

your area of study; Review the literature selected;

Develop a theoretical framework, and

Develop a conceptual framework

RESEARCH METHODS

By purpose, research methods are considered BASIC or APPLIED.

The former is conducted primarily to test or arrive at theory. Its main objective is to establish GENERAL

PRINCIPLES without known or intended practical application of

the findings.

The latter, on the other hand, refers to the application of theory to the solution of problems. It is

conducted for the purpose of APPLYING, or TESTING theory, and

EVALUATING its usefulness (Gay,1976).

ACTION RESEARCH, which is popularly used in schools, is a

feature of applied research that involves discovering and

identifying a problem in the local setting (in the classroom for

example) and solving it in the same setting but without intention of

generalizing its results.

DESCRIPTIVE METHOD

• It is designed to gather information about present existing conditions.

• The principal aims in employing this method are to describe the nature of the situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of particular phenomena (Travers, 1978).

It involves collection of data in order to test hypotheses or to

answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the

study (Gay, 1976).A descriptive study determines and

reports the way things are.

WAYS OF OBTAINING DESCRIPTIVE INFORMATION

a. Personal interview or mail survey- the data may involve factual information or merely composed of varied opinions.

This type of descriptive investigation is classified as

questionnaire or opinion-naire studies. These studies are also

known as self-reporting.

b. Observation.b.1: activity/process analysis - actual

behavior of participants.

b.2: product analysis- product of the participants behavior.

b.3: situation analysis – to determine the sets of conditions in which the

behavior of participants occurs.

c. Use of devices/instruments to conduct measurements from the

identified participants.Any study which establishes

standards of what is prevalent is termed as normative survey.

THE EXTENT OF USE

(Reasons for the preference for descriptive research)

1. It is more expansive and encompassing than any other

methods.2. Its contribution to science in

supplying the necessary information in a new situation (It

helps identify the factors that may serve as worthwhile for

experimental undertaking.

3. It helps (people) to adjust or meet the existing daily common

problems in life.4. It assists (people) in knowing

how to accomplish desired purposes in the shortest available

time.5. It is applicable to varied kinds of

problems.