Methodology in research (Philosophical approaches) Ann Winter.
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Transcript of Methodology in research (Philosophical approaches) Ann Winter.
Methodology in research(Philosophical approaches)
Ann Winter
Research
The aim of a research project is the researcher’s intention to find out something about a phenomenon in a particular way in order to answer the research question
Holloway I (1997) Basic concepts for interpretive research 1997 Blackwell Science. Oxford
Why discuss philosophy?
Helps to clarify research designs
Recognise which designs will work
Identify and create designs
Easterby-Smith M et al (2002) Management research SAGE. London
Early 19th & 20th C. European philosophical position- the social world exists externally, and that its properties should be measured through objective methods
Comte (1853) ‘….there can be no real knowledge but that which is based on observed facts’
Positivism is Comte’s
Implications
Systematic observation of facts World can only be known through
direct experience (empiricism) Science can solve mankind’s
problems Experimentation and manipulation
What positivism has come to mean
Positivism = quantitative - 1950’s Exemplified by the structure of journal
articles and research reports1. Hypothesis2. Method3. Data collection – numbers/stats4. Analysis5. Results
Activity
Consider the structure/layout of a research paper
Gain the following information:
1. Why was the study conducted
2. What exactly were the researchers investigating
3. How was this done
4. The conclusions drawn
Strengths and weaknesses of positivist research
Wide coverage of a range of situations Fast Economical Relevant to policy decisions – large
samples Inflexible Not effective at understanding
processes
Positivism and evidence based healthcare
A scientific approach to healthcare management
Consideration of evidence, values and resources in decision making
Ebh + quality management = maximum health benefit @ lowest cost & risk
Managed care/guidelines/pathways/protocols Introduce evidence hierarchy- strength of
evidence
Grading best evidence Originated Canadian task Force late 70’s RCT – considered to have highest internal validity and
reliability VALIDITY - the best available approximation to the truth
relationships, causal relationships and generalisation RELIABILITY- In research, the term reliability means
"repeatability" or "consistency". A measure is considered reliable if it would give us the same result over and over again – measured between 0 and 1…..0.5 = 50 % truth
Focus on effectiveness ie does it work? Differing grading systems Useful as a guide/framework
Classification of strengths of evidenceSIGN classification for grading evidence
1++ High-quality meta-analyses, systematic reviews of RCTs, or RCTs with a very low risk of bias
1+ Well-conducted meta-analyses, systematic reviews, or RCTs with a low risk of bias 1– Meta-analyses, systematic reviews, or RCTs with a high risk of bias 2++ High-quality systematic reviews of case-control or cohort studies High-quality case-control or cohort studies with a very low risk of confounding or bias and a high probability that the relationship is causal 2+ Well-conducted case-control or cohort studies with a low risk of confounding or bias and a moderate probability that the relationship is causal 2– Case-control or cohort studies with a high risk of confounding or bias and a significant
risk that the relationship is not causal 3 Non-analytic studies; for example, case reports, case series 4 Expert opinion
RCT: randomised controlled trial; SIGN: Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network
http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/
Positivist research position on the hierarchy Meta analysis Systematic reviews RCT Cohort Case control
Alternatives to positivism
Interpretive (Habermas, 1970)
A group of approaches Reality is determined by people rather than
objective/external factors Appreciate different constructions and
meanings that people place on their experience
What individuals and people collectively are thinking & feeling
Habermas J (1970) Knowledge and interest in D.Emmet & A Mcintyre (eds) Sociological Theory and Philosophical Analysis London:Macmillan
Approaches to research on Stress
Interpretivist Aspects of work
considered stressful How people manage
stress Interview people
about stressful factors & gather stories of incidents
Data = text
Positivist Stress exists Measure stress on a
large sample Identify external
causes Data = numbers
Applications of interpretive research in health services Where it is important
to understand the meaning and interpretation of human social arrangements such as clinics, management and decision making
To convey to policy makers the experiences of individuals, groups or organisations who may be affected by policies
? Social marketing
Strengths and weaknesses of interpretivist research
Understand people’s meanings Contribute to new theories Natural data Time consuming Costly Data interpretation is difficult Untidy subjective
Matrix of research designs
DETACHED
INVOLVED
POSITIVIST INTERPRETIVIST
Case method
Ethnography
Grounded theory
Action research
Experimental
Survey
Postmodernism
Stresses plurality and diversity of values and beliefs
Relativism – mixed method Subjectivity Reflexivity Go across boundaries of art and science
perceptions of the world are achieved through representations and images rather than reality
Questioning and doubting of all methods
Research Pragmatism
Pragmatists consider the research question to be more important than either the method they use or the worldview that is supposed to underlie the method. Most good researchers prefer addressing their research questions with any methodological tool available
Tashakkori A and Teddlie C (1998) Mixed methodology: Combining interpretive and interpretive approaches. Thousand Oaks. California. Sage
Combinationist approach
Examine research questions most usefully answered by various research designs
Leininger (1985) systematic study of relative benefits of quantitative and interpretive methods
Filstead (1970) purposes and outcomes of each method need to be understood and used to advantage
Leininger M (1985) Qualitative methodology Chicago: MarkhamFilstead WJ (1970) Qualitative research methods in nursing Grune & Stratton: New York
Interpretive research as a complement to positivist research
As a preliminary to positivist research To supplement positivist work by
building a wider, deeper, richer picture To explore issues not accessible to
positivist research
Methods/types of non-numerical data collection Observation Interview Focus groups Consensus methods Document searches Case studies
Field notes Video tapes Interview transcripts Interview responses Other text
Bryman (1988) interpretive research can be used to facilitate positivist research
by acting as a precursor positivist research can facilitate interpretive to generalise
findings or to identify groups for in-depth analysis One method can address areas not covered by the other interpretive may facilitate interpretation of relationships between
variables Combining the 2 approaches can lead to a ‘macro’ and ‘micro’
study Allow both structure and process perspectives
Bryman A (1988) Quantity and Quality in social research London: Routledge
Methodological approaches to social science
Science largely constructed and practiced in 1 particular style
Alternative styles are possible Preferred ways of operating Fixed and flexible research design
Reason P (1981)Methodological approaches to social science in Human Inquiry,
Mitroff I & Kilmann R pp43-31
Typology
Preferred information input – internal/external
Information dimension
Preferred way of dealing with information
Decision making dimension
Information dimension
Sensation Information via senses Details Situation specifics Hard realistic facts Here and now The practical
Intuition Information through
imagination Interested in the
whole/gestalt Idealists Interested in
hypothetical possibilities What might be Creation of novel,
innovative viewpoints
Decision making dimension
ThinkingUse reasoning which is: Impersonal Formal Seek truth Interested in abstract
generalisations Theoretical Independent of human
needs and concerns Logical Generalises
Feeling
Interested in: Reaching personalistic
value-judgements which may be unique to the individual
They explain via empathy
Value things in human terms
Individuates
Analytical scientist – thinking & sensation
Certainty Accuracy Reliability Ability to phrase the components of an object,
event, person or situation in a precise, accurate and reliable way
Closer and closer to the ‘truth’ Hypothesis testing Controlled enquiry
Conceptual theorist-thinking & intuition Impersonal and theoretical Imaginative and speculative theory building Hypothesis discovering Exploring Ways of being interesting
hypotheses/theories Creating Inventing multiple representations Large scale differences Grounded theory
Particular Humanist –feeling & sensing
Passionate and personal knowledge Further the development of human growth
and awareness In-depth detailed rendering of the life space
of a single individual or social group Co -participant observation Committed involvement Help the person know himself Case study
Conceptual humanist-feeling & intuition Highly personal Imaginative Holistic Concerned with humanity Science is political Storytelling Maximum co-operation between researcher &
researched so they may both know themselves and one another
Ethnography
Research design
Ensure that the evidence obtained (via data collection strategies) enables us to answer the research question as unambiguously as possible
Given a research question what type of evidence is needed to answer the ? in a convincing way
Research questions
Level 1 when little is known about the topic. Purpose is to describe a situation/generate theory
Level 2 looking for relationships between >2 factors or variables
Level 3 test hypotheses
Brink PJ & Wood MJ 1994 Basic steps in planning nursing research: from question to proposal (4ed) Boston. Jones and Bartlett
Level 1 research questions
Positivist
Survey
Interpretivist
Phenomenological
The lived experience
Interview/narratives
Ethnographic
Description of a culture
Observation/interviewing/document analysis
Level 2/3 research questions
Positivist
Experimental
Hypothesis testing
Causal relationships
Interpretivist
Grounded theory
Clarity of purpose
Identify a narrow and precise area for investigation – focus attention on specific aspects
1. Enables readers to understand the research
2. Crucial for evaluating the research
3. Provides a platform from which to decide a suitable design