The oldest settled area of the ancient Near East is MesopotamiaMesopotamia. "Mesopotamia" is a word coined from two Greek words that mean "between the riversbetween the rivers."  The two rivers that form this area are the Tigris River and the Euphrates River.  Today, this area forms modern IraqIraq. From about 10,000 B.C.E., farming was taking place in this area.  From about 8,000 B.C.E., settled villages were founded in this area. From about 3,000 B.C.E., writing on clay tablets was well established in

Mesopotamia. The first group to settle this area was the SumeriansSumerians. The historian Bottero traces a line of decent from the Sumerians

and Babylonians of Mesopotamia to the Hebrews and Arabs of Palestine to the Greek and Romans of the Mediterranean  to the rise of Christianity.  Bottero, in tracing the influence of Mesopotamian ideas and thought, says that "we . . . are remote dependents of the Sumerians and Babylonians.  [They] are our oldest recognizable ancestors in a direct line of descent" (23) .

SOURCE: http://vc.ws.edu/engl2410/2002/unit1/01AncientMiddleEast.htm

4000-3000 B.C.E. Sumeria2000 B.C.E. Assyria, to the north --

NinevahNinevah, chief cityNinevah was the foundation of the pre-

historic world, much like Rome was to Greece.

2000 B.C.E. Babylonia, to the south -- Babylon, chief city (presently, Baghdad, IraqBaghdad, Iraq)Nebuchadnezzar was the last ruler of

New Babylonia

Archeologists have found many clay tablets in Mesopotamia that date from 5,000 years ago (that is, 3000 B.C.E.).  The clay tablets contain writing in the form of cuneiformcuneiform ("wedge-shaped") impressions made on wet clay and then baked in the sun to preserve the impressions.  

The oldest cuneiform writing consists of lists of how many sheep a farmer brings to be sold and how many of them are to be given to the king for tax.  Lists, tax rolls, king names, and so on account for the earliest cuneiform writing. However, later Mesopotamian writing consists of stories, stories, psalms (hymns), proverbs (wise sayings psalms (hymns), proverbs (wise sayings and parables), and a wide array of and parables), and a wide array of literary formsliterary forms.  

Archeologists have also found many examples on the clay tablets of school boys learning how to write cuneiform by pressing a triangular reed into the wet clay.

One of the first stories that school boys in Mesopotamia learned to copy was the story of Gilgamesh.  In this story, the central character, an early Mesopotamian king, finds a companion.  When he and his companion first meet, they fight one another.  After Gilgamesh wins the fight, the two become instant friends and bosom buddies. Gilgamesh befriends EnkiduEnkidu.

Together, they go in search of adventures to win fortune and fame for themselves by slaying a monster.   Later, Gilgamesh's friend dies after being struck down by God for killing the monster, and Gilgamesh morns the death of his friend.

As a result of losing his friend, Gilgamesh goes in search of immortalityimmortality so that he will not suffer the same fate at Enkidu.

Gilgamesh is believed to have actually lived actually lived and is listed in Sumerian records as the king of UrukUruk and builder of its great city wall. He may be largely legendary, but his city is real enough as an early center of civilization. The wall, dating from a little after 3000 B.C.E., is about six miles long. And it is from Uruk that the earliest written tablets survive.

Uruk is soon eclipsed by a neighboring city state - that of UrUr. The discovery of the royal cemetery at Ur has revealed an astonishing level of sophistication in objects created in around 2500 B.C.E. for the local ruling family. But Ur and Uruk soon fall to other conquerors.

Gilgamesh, originally a Sumerian legend passed down through oral traditionoral tradition. It is believed that the first written copy of Gilgamesh was written down around 2100 B.C.E. It was later copied by the Assyrians. Assurbanipal, the last great king of Assyria, sent messengers out to search the archives of the ancient seats of learning in Babylon, Uruk, and Nippur, and to copy and translate into the contemporary Akkadian Semitic those texts which were in the older Sumerian language of Mesopotamia. Amongst these texts, was the poem which we call the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Paul Emile Botta, physician to a rich Arab and who later became a French consul in 1841, discovered the first Assyrian palace. This was the first finding of the places of the Old Testament. He discovered the out-skirts of Ninevah.

Later excavation by Layard uncovered Ninevah and Nimrud. Rassam, for the British Museum, discovered the Gilgamesh tables. (25,000 brought back to London)

Assurbanipal, the last great Assyrian king in the seventh century B.C.E. had older versions, versions in the Sumerian the Sumerian language, translated into the more modern Akkadian language, translated into the more modern Akkadian and housed in a great library. It is this translation, albeit from Akkadian to English, that we are reading today.

George Smith, at the British Museum, translated the first Gilgamesh tablets and returned to Mesopotamia to find the missing tablets; he found tablets relating the account of the flood. Smith died of hunger and exposure in Mesopotamia at the age of 36.

Universal Themes:The Problem of KingshipThe Problem of Kingship: A king should be a

responsible leader for his people, but the text opens with Gilgamesh behaving badly. How does one become a great leader?

Fear of DeathFear of Death: Why is the fear of death so great? Why are the characters not comforted by their deities?

The Search for Immortality/FameThe Search for Immortality/Fame: What are Gilgamesh's ideas of immortality? What does he learn?

Connections to Other Works of Literature:Story of a great floodStory of immortal man surviving the flood in

a boat – UtnapishtimStory of the serpent

Mesopotamia and Mesopotamia and History:History:

•Internet Source Book on Mesopotamia - www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook03.html•The Assyro-Babylonian Mythology FAQ - http://members.bellatlantic.net/~vze33gpz/assyrbabyl-faq.html•The Library of Congress’ Near East Collection –http://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/guide/nes-arabworld.html  

The Epic of Gilgamesh:The Epic of Gilgamesh:•The Epic of Gilgamesh Online - www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM•The Interactive Gilgamesh - web.archive.org/web/20030606215449/gilgamesh.psnc.pl/index.html•Gilgamesh Study Guide - http://novaonline.nv.cc.va.us/eli/eng251/gilgameshstudy.htm •Flood Stories from Around the World - www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flood-myths.html•The Basics of Gilgamesh - http://novaonline.nv.cc.va.us/eli/eng251/gilgameshstudy.htm

How have the literary traditions of the Middle East’s past influenced its contemporary writers?Much like writers from any culture, many Middle

Eastern writers root their texts in… the geography the geography of the Middle East (exploring issues of

land, agriculture, terrain),the socio-economic structures the socio-economic structures (divisions between ethnic

groups, classes, gender roles, wealth),political concerns political concerns (power and control, borders, conflict)religious concerns religious concerns (in addition to religious conflict, the

values/beliefs of Islam)And these concerns are found in both ancient and

contemporary texts, connecting traditional writers to their contemporary counterparts.

Israeli Perspective: Poets played a major role voicing the hardships and joys

during Israel's founding. Today the poetry scene is more fractured, much like the land itself. Prominent Israeli poets Agi Mishol, Eliaz Cohen and Aharon Shabtai reflect on the situation (http://www.pbs.org/newshour/video/module.html?mod=0&pkg=21032007&seg=1)

Palestinian Perspective:Poets in the Arab world have historically been important cultural figures, and this tradition continues among Palestinians. Jeffrey Brown talks to three leading poets, Taha Muhammad Ali, Samih al-Qasim and Ghassan Zaqtan, about the role of poetry in Arab society.(http://www.pbs.org/newshour/video/module.html?mod=0&pkg=22032007&seg=1)

Token (n.) - an outward sign or expression; a symbol, emblem, or keepsake

Emblem (n.) - an object or the figure of an object symbolizing and suggesting another object or an idea

Assurance (n.) - something that inspires or tends to inspire confidence

Rend (v.) - to split or tear apart or in pieces by violence

Supplicate (v.) - to ask humbly and earnestly of

Entrench (v.) - to establish solidly Encroach (v.) - to enter by gradual steps

or by stealth into the possessions or rights of another

Usurp (v.) - to take or make use of without right

Cordon (n.) - a line of persons or objects around a person or place