Memory Formative
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Transcript of Memory Formative
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The Effect of Word Position, Word Frequency and Delay or Distraction after Encoding
on Free Recall.
Abstract
This experiment aimed to find out whether someone’s ability to freely recall words from a list
is affected by the position of the words in the list and by the words’ frequency in everyday
language. It also aimed to investigate the effect on short term memory of a delay and/or a
distraction task between initial encoding and recall. This was done using six word lists, split
into groups of high and low frequency words. Participants were required to watch the sets of
words being presented one by one on a computer screen, and then recall them in any order
under one of three conditions: either immediately, or after a 30 second delay during which
time they may be rehearsing the words they have seen, or after a 30 second delay with a
distraction task to prevent them from rehearsing. It was suggested that word frequency would
affect the primacy effect as high frequency words occurring at the beginning of the lists
would be recalled more accurately than low frequency words because they would already
have a strong presence in our long term memory. It was also predicted that the best recall
would be when there was no delay, and the worst recall would be in the condition where a
distracting task was used. It was found that both hypotheses were accurate. The results were
explained in terms of the primacy effect (we are more able to recall words at the beginning of
a list because they are rehearsed in the short term memory and gradually transferred into the
long term memory) and the recency effect (we remember words towards the end of a list
reasonably well too because our short term memory has received those pieces of information
most recently, so they haven’t yet decayed or been forgotten). Low frequency words were
only recalled accurately when they had been at the end of the list and the participant had
experienced the recency effect.
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Introduction
One of the first people to formulate a multistore model of memory was William James (1890,
cited in Loftus & Loftus, 1976). James’ theory was at first ignored due to the lack of
hypothesis and experimental support for the idea, but his notions were adopted by
Waugh and Norman (1965, cited in Baine, 1986) who developed their own concept
of a multistore model of memory. Their version suggested that we memory has two
components: primary memory (precursor to the short term memory as it is known
today, or STM, where we briefly hold memories of stimuli that we attend to) and
secondary memory (Today’s Long Term Memory, or LTM, where more permanent
memories are held). Waugh and Norman thought that if rehearsed, information in
the primary memory is more likely to enter the secondary memory.
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968, as cited in Baine, 1986) formulated another multistore model of
memory, suggesting a store of ‘sensory memory’ before the STM. They suggested that the
sensory store had a large capacity and the ability to take a visual replica of the stimulus, but a
short time span of only up to 2 seconds. After this time the information is either lost or is
transferred to the STM if attended to. The STM is said to have a capacity of around only 7 (+
or - 2) items. Atkinson & Wickens (1971, as cited in Baine, 1986) suggested that as long as
rehearsal was maintained, the information would remain in the STM. Atkinson and Shiffrin
(1968, as cited in Baine, 1986) proposed that if the information was not rehearsed however, it
would decay in around 10 to 15 seconds. They believed that the STM is also used in the
recall of information, where memories from the LTM can become conscious short term
memories again and that memories in the LTM are said to be only lost via displacement. The
multistore model of memory is supported by neurophysiological evidence, such as that from
the case study of Clive Wearing, who suffered from anterograde amnesia after an illness and
was left without the ability to convert short term memories into long term memories. He was
unable to retain new memories for more than a few moments or fully access old ones. This
supports the multistore model because it suggests a distinction between long and short term
memories and also a link between the two stores. It is the operation of the STM in this model
that is most relevant to this study.
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One of the interesting phenomena that has been discovered through previous research into
behavioural evidence for the STM is the serial position effect, a term coined by Hermann
Ebbinghaus (Ebbinghaus, 1913). This refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies
depending on an item's position within a study list. When asked to recall a list of items in any
order (free recall), people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items
best (the recency effect). Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more
frequently than the middle items (the primacy effect).
This study is based on an experiment originally conducted by Glanzer & Cunitz (1966a, as
cited in Herriot, 1974) who investigated the effect on the serial position curve of a delay
between the stimuli being presented and the time of recall. They found that with no
distraction, the primacy/recency curve looked as expected. With a ten second delay, the very
end of the curve did not rise quite as high as the curve with no delay, so recall was poorer.
With a 30 second delay however, recall was extremely poor. This demonstrates the limit of
the STM, suggesting it has a span of only 30 seconds at the most, and the importance of
rehearsal if for the stimuli to progress into the LTM. Perhaps the 30 second delay would only
have not had an effect if the stimuli were rehearsed in the STM for the entire 30 seconds, but
that would be difficult if the participant was being distracted, for example, so this experiment
uses a distraction task as one of the conditions before recall for comparison.
The experiment in this report is similar in design to that of Glanzer & Cunitz (1966a, as cited
in Herriot, 1974). The stimuli used were 6 word lists used in 6 conditions. Half of the word
lists contained high frequency words and the others contained low frequency words in order
to see if this affected our ability to remember the words. Within each of these 2 categories,
the time that elapsed between encoding and recall was altered each time. The options were 0
seconds, 30 seconds and 30 seconds plus a task. The task in the last condition was to distractthe participant in order to prevent them from rehearsing the list, to see if this would have
impact on the recency effect. It was predicted that similar results to those of their previous
experiment (Glanzer & Cunitz 1966a, as cited in Herriot, 1974) would be found, where the
longer the time elapsed and the addition of the task would mean that the participant’s ability
to recall words towards the end of the list would be severely reduced. The study’s further aim
was to see if low frequency words in the lists would be less well remembered than high
frequency words, as was suggested by Raymond (1969, as cited in Herriot, 1974). If this were
the case, it would be put down to our pre-existing familiarity with high frequency words and
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therefore link to our LTM. If the LTM was affected by the distraction task or the delay, we
would expect the primacy effect to change too, as our ability to rehearse and store those first
few words in the list would be reduced.
Thus, the first experimental hypothesis was that the lower the word frequency, the less we
expect a primacy effect, so the primacy effect would have a greater impact when high
frequency words were used. The second hypothesis was that during free recall, a normal
recency effect would be expected after no delay, with more words from the end of the list
being recalled accurately. It was predicted that there would be a reduced recency effect after a
30 second delay, and the worst recency effect and recall would be after a 30-second gap with
a distracting task to perform.
Method
Participants
The 58 participants used in the experiment were an opportunity sample of 18 to 35 year old
Psychology undergraduates. The mean age was 19.7 years. 29 were female and 29 were male.
It was not checked whether all the student’s native languages were English – if not, this
could have affected the results because it might be more difficult for them to remember a
word in a different language, as demonstrated in Craik and Tulving’s work on the semantic
level of processing (Craik and Tulving, 1975). If participants had reading difficulties such as
dyslexia this could also hinder their ability to remember the words when they were presented
in sequence. This was however, also not checked, but could be done in further research.
Apparatus
Two lists of 45 6-letter words were used, one consisting of high frequency words such as
‘colour’, ‘public’ and ‘decide’ and the other of low frequency words, such as ‘neuter’,
‘zealot’ and ‘lancet’. These words were then randomly assigned into six sets of fifteen words
that were shown to the participant on a screen. To do this, the participant accessed a
specifically designed computer programme, where they read on-screen instructions and then
viewed the word lists, and later typed in those which they could recall. The participants could
exit the screen which they were to type words into at any time by closing the window if they
didn’t remember any more. During the distraction task condition, the participant’s task was to
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count down from a certain number in given intervals, such as ‘count down in three’s, starting
from 99’ and they had to type their answers in whilst doing this to show they were doing it
properly. (See Appendix A for word lists, full instructions and examples of the data entry
screens).
Design
The experiment used a within-participants design and had two independent variables (IV): the
first was the word frequency, which had 2 levels, high and low. The other IV was
the delay / activities the participants partook in between seeing and recalling the
words. This was on three levels: (i) immediate recall, (ii) 30 seconds elapsed before
recall, allowing rehearsal and (iii) 30 seconds elapsed before recall, but with the
participant performing a simple counting task to prevent rehearsal. The dependent
variable (DV) was the number of words correctly recalled in each position on the
list. As previously mentioned, there were six conditions, which contained words
randomly selected from both high and low frequency lists and placed in the delay-
task conditions.
Procedure
Participants worked individually in separate booths with a computer and were presented with
on-screen instructions (see Appendix A). First there was a practice condition in which the
participant was able to get to grips with the task before then attempting all 6 other conditions,
where their results were recorded automatically.
The word lists were presented at a rate of 1 word per second and a maximum of 3 minutes
were allowed for recall. Recall was free, meaning the participants could recall the words inany order. The participants were aware that they would have to recall the words after the test
and so intentional learning was taking place. Participants were able to end the three minutes
prematurely if they could not recall any more words. For the task in the 30 seconds plus
distraction activity condition, participants were given a number and asked to take away a
figure from it until they could go no further or until the 30 seconds was up, whichever came
first.
Results
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Figure 1 shows that words in the middle of the list, from serial position 4-12 were particularly
poorly recalled, with the first and last words being apparently easier to remember. This
suggests a primacy and recency effect in the results, with the primacy effect having the
greatest impact when the word list contained high frequency words. This coincides with the
prediction that the primacy effect would be greatest when high frequency words were
recalled because the long term memory would be called into play. It is shown that the first
words in the series were better remembered than the last words in the series in the high
frequency word list, so the primacy effect was stronger than the recency effect. In the low
frequency word list, however, the opposite occurred - more words at the end of the list were
remembered than at the beginning of the list. For low frequency words, the recency effect
was greater than the primacy effect.
F igure 1: Average number of Correct Responses for the High and Low Frequency Word Conditions
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0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Serial Positio
A v e r a g e N o .
o f T i m e s C o r r e c t l y
R e c a l l e d
Low Frequenc
High Frequen
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Figure 2 shows the curves of the graph when comparing the accuracy of recall in each of the
different conditions. This comparison is regardless of the difference in word frequency. The
difference between the three conditions is clear. With no delay, accuracy in recall was at its
highest, especially for the words later in the list. When 30 seconds elapsed and no task was
performed, the participant had time to rehearse those last few words, but recall was still less
accurate generally. In the condition where 30 seconds passed and the participant was given a
task to carry out, the recall accuracy in the recency period drops significantly. In the ‘0s’
condition, the last word in the list is correctly recalled 36 times. In the ‘30s + task’ condition,
this drops to just 17 times, less than half of the other. As expected, the delay at the end of the
task did not really have an affect on the primacy effect.
Figure 2: Average number of Correct Responses in Each of the Three conditions
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05
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 1 4 1 6
Se rial Po siti
A v e r a g e N o .
W o r d s R e c a l l e d
C o r r e c t l y 0s
30 s
30s + tas
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the first test right through until the end, so found it harder to take in new words being shown
to them and push out the other words. Perhaps it would have been better to stretch the
experiment over a few days so that the last word list was not as fresh in the participant’s mind
as it would have been had they done each condition back to back, so any further research
should take this into account. Also, it has been suggested that the multistore model of
memory as proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin is altogether too simplistic as it doesn’t
categorise different types of stimulus that might be encoded in different ways. For example,
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) elaborated the model to include a central executive, connected to
a phonological loop and a visual spatial sketchpad to show that there are different types of
stimulus that might be processed and remembered differently.
In order to ensure the interpretation of the results in this experiment is accurate, further
research should be carried out. Possible directions for this could include testing the delay
between encoding and recall in smaller increments of time, e.g. in 10 second gaps, in order to
get a more accurate span of the short term memory. Another possible alteration would be to
test using different lengths of word lists in order to see if this affects the primacy and recency
effects. It would be interesting to see if the very first and very last few words are the most
accurately recalled in a word list of any length.
References
Baine, D. (1986). Memory and instruction. Retrieved 21st January 2011 from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4449528
Campbell, R., & Conway, M. A. (1995). Broken memories: Case studies in memory
impairment. Oxford, Blackwell.
Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in
Episodic Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: 1975, Vol. 104, No. 3, p.268-
294
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Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. Columbia
University: Teachers College.
Herriot, P. (1974). Attributes of memory. Taylor and Francis.
Loftus, G. R., & Loftus, E. F. (1976). Human memory: The processing of information.
Routledge, Psychology Press.
Appendices
Appendix A – Data and Instructions for participants
See DUO.
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