Mekong River Dams
Transcript of Mekong River Dams
Mekong River DamsNational Laws to Address Environmental and
Human Rights Issues, and Obstacles to Enforcement
by EarthRights International’s Mekong Legal Advocacy Institute (MLAI)
December 2009
Mekong Legal Advocacy Institute (MLAI)InMay,2009,EarthRightsInternationalfoundedtheMekongLegalAdvocacyInstitute(MLAI)inordertosupportpublicinterestlawyers,providetrainingandnetworkingopportunitiesinhumanrightsandenvironmentallaw,andpromotepublicinterestlitigationintheMekongregion.
EarthRights International (ERI)EarthRightsInternational(ERI)isanongovernmental,nonprofitorganizationthatcombinesthepowerofthelawandthepowerofpeopleindefenseofhumanrightsandtheenvironment,whichwedefineas“earthrights.”Wespecializeinfact-finding,legalactionsagainstperpetratorsofearthrightsabuses,traininggrassrootsandcommunityleaders,andadvocacycampaigns.Throughthesestrategies,ERIseekstoendearthrightsabuses,toproviderealsolutionsforrealpeople,andtopromoteandprotecthumanrightsandtheenvironmentinthecommunitieswherewework.
FormoreinformationonERI,visitwww.earthrights.org.
Copyright©2009EarthRightsInternationalThisworkislicensedunderaCreative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License. PermissionsbeyondthescopeofthislicensemaybeobtainedbyemailingMLAI@earthrights.org
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................. 11. Burma ..................................................................................... 32. Cambodia ............................................................................... 53. China .................................................................................... 134. Lao PDR ................................................................................ 185. Thailand ................................................................................ 246. Vietnam ................................................................................ 30Regional Message from MLAI and Samreth on Mekong Mainstream Dams ...................................................................... 36A Note on Sources ..................................................................... 38
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Introduction
IntheMekongRegion,oneofthemostsignificantdevelopmentsaffectingtheenvironmentandlocalpeople’slivelihoodsareplanstobuildlargehydropowerdamsonthemainstreamoftheMekongRiver.TheseproposalsoriginatedduringtheColdWar,buttheUS-Vietnamwarinthe1970s,andtheglobalriseofenvironmentalawarenessamongthemajorAsianfundingsources(WorldBankandADB)duringthe1980sand1990s,preventedanyofthesedamsfromgoingforward.
However,inthedawnofthe21stCentury,Chinahastakenalargereconomicrole,bothgloballyandinSoutheastAsia,especiallywithregardtodambuilding.Furthermore,theADBandWorldBankovercameintransigencetowardlargehydropowerwiththeNamTheunIIDaminLaoPDR,andnowtheyalsoarepushingformoreofthesame.Therearecurrentlyatleast11damsproposedfortheLowerMekongRiverinThailand,LaoPDR,andCambodia.WhileVietnamhasnotproposedanymainstreamdams,theyhavebuiltseveraldamsupstreamofCambodiaonMekongtributariessuchastheSesanRiver,withsevereimpactstolocalCambodiancommunities.
InthemiddleofthissituationistheMekongRiverCommission(MRC).TheMRCisfundedbyWesterncountries,butdecision-makingpowerisheldbynationalgovernmentsofLao,Cambodia,ThailandandVietnam.Thishascreatedsignificantfriction,withdonorsseekingWestern-styleeconomic,environmentalandsocialanalysis,butMekonggovernmentspushingforrapidlarge-scaledevelopment.ThegovernmentsclaimthatMekongdamswillalleviatepoverty,butpastdambuildingintheMekongRegion(andglobally)hasbeenriddledwithcorruptionandmassiveenvironmentaldevastation.
InordertogetinfrontofthisnewpushfordamconstructionontheMekongRiver,theMRChasinitiatedaStrategicEnvironmentalAssessment(SEA)forthe11damproposals.ThefirstpublicstepintheSEAwasacallforlocalgroupsandpeopletosubmitcommentsonwhattheSEAshouldinclude.AlthoughlegalissueswerenotmentionedbytheMRCintheircallforcomments,thelawsofhostcountrieswillbecentraltoeffortsbylocalcommunitiestoconfrontthedamsproposals.
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InresponsetotheMRC’scallforinitialscopingcomments,EarthRights’MekongLegalAdvocacyInstitute(MLAI)organizedlawyersfromeachoftheMekongCountriesandaskedthemtogatherinformationabouttheircountry’slawsrelatedtohydropowerconstructionandoperation.Fivelegalsubjectswereconsideredforeachcountry:Publicparticipation,Accesstoinformation,Environmentalimpactassessment,Environmentalprotection,andLandconfiscationandresettlement.
MLAIthenanalyzedtheselawsinordertoconsideriftheyincludeanappropriatelegalframework,aswellaswhethereachhostcountryhastheabilityandpoliticalwilltoenforcetheirenvironmentallaws.Inmostcases,MLAIfoundthatMekongcountrieshavealongwaytogoinenforcingtheirenvironmentalandhumanrightslaws.
MekongRegioncountriesoftenhavemanywell-developedlawsconcerningpublicadvocacy,environmentalprotectionandresettlement.Unfortunately,theyarepoorlyimplementedandunscrupulousofficialsoftenignorethemwithimpunity.
ThisbookletpresentsthescopingcommentssubmittedonbehalfofeachofthesixMekongcountries,includingtwo(BurmaandChina)thatarenotmembersoftheMRC.DespitethelackofofficialMRCrepresentation,ChinaisdeeplyinvolvedintheMekongRiver,becausetheyarecurrentlybuildingacascadeof8damsontheirpartoftheriver(CalledtheLancang),aswellasshowinginterestinfundingandconstructingmanyoftheLowerMekongdamsaswell.Burma,whilerelativelyunrelatedtotheMekongdams,isplanningtheirowndam-buildingfrenzyontheSalween,Irrawaddy,andChindwinrivers,withthemajorityofthesebeingpaidforandbuiltbyChinaandThailand.
Thus,allMekongcountrieshaveacloseassociationwiththeLowerMekongdamproposals,andthelocalpeopledeservetohavetheirvoicesheardconcerningthelegalissuessurroundingthem.
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1. Burma
TheMekongLegalAdvocacyInstituteissubmittingthesecommentsontheproposedStrategicEnvironmentalAssessmentofLowerMekongMainstreamDams,withregardtoBurma.WenotefirstthattherewillbelittleimpactonBurmafromLowerMekongdams.Inaddition,Burmaisbesetbyamilitarydictatorship,theStatePeaceandDevelopmentCommittee(SPDC),thatruleswithoutrespectforruleoflawandwithoutimpunityforegregioushumanrightsviolations.Therehasbeennovalidconstitutionsince1988,andmanylawsareenforcedonlytobenefittheSPDCanditscronies.
TheUSStateDepartment2008CountryReportonBurma(http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119035.htm)states:
“The judiciary is not independent of the government. The SPDC appoints justices to the Supreme Court, which in turn appoints lower court judges with SPDC approval. These courts adjudicate cases under decrees promulgated by the SPDC that effectively have the force of law. The court system includes courts at the township, district, state, and national levels. While separate military courts for civilians do not exist, the military regime frequently directs verdicts in politically sensitive trials of civilians.
“The government continue[s] to rule by decree and [is] not bound by any constitutional provisions providing for fair public trials or any other rights. Although remnants of the British-era legal system remain formally in place, the court system and its operation [are] seriously flawed, particularly in the handling of political cases. The misuse of blanket laws--including the Emergency Provisions Act, Unlawful Associations Act, Habitual Offenders Act, Electronic Transactions Law, Video Act, and Law on Safeguarding the State from the Danger of Subversive Elements--as well as the manipulation of the courts for political ends continue[s] to deprive citizens of the right to a fair trial and to stifle peaceful dissent. Executive Order 5/96, which provides for
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the arrest of any person deemed a threat to the National Convention and the “roadmap to democracy,” effectively stifle[s] open debate among citizens. Pervasive corruption further serve[s] to undermine the impartiality of the justice system.”
Withthisstateofaffairs,thereislittlereasontobelievethatlocalpeoplewillhavetherighttoinformationorparticipation.Inaddition,anyattemptstoperformEnvironmentalImpactAssessments(EIAs)orprovidecompensationareinvariablytwistedandeventuallystolenbytheSPDC.Thusdambuildingandotherdevelopmentinthecountrycannotbecondoned,asitwillonlybenefittherichandpowerful,andlocalpeoplewillbeabused,torturedandkillediftheymakeanyattemptatvoicingtheirconcerns.Seewww.salweenwatch.organdmembers’reportsthereinformoredetails.
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2. Cambodia
Introduction
TheMekongbasiniscriticaltoCambodia,coveringmorethan84%ofCambodianterritory.1TheRoyalGovernmentofCambodia(RGC)isbuildinghydropowerdamsatKamchay,StungAtayandLowerStungRusseyChrum,KiriromIIIandTatay,with10otherprojectsundergoingfeasibilitystudiesand13MemorandumsofUnderstandingsigned.2Apre-feasibilitystudyhasbeencompletedfortheSamborHydropowerProjectonthemainstreamMekong,35kmnorthofKratieprovince,andapre-feasibilitystudyisbeingpreparedfortheStungTrengDamonthemainstreamMekonginStungTrengprovinceaswell.3
Article59oftheCambodianConstitutionsaystheStateshallestablisha“preciseplanofmanagement[emphasisadded]”fornaturalresourcessuchaswater.AnobjectiveoftheRGCis:“Indevelopinghydropowerresources,theGovernmentwillcarefullyanalyzeallaspectsinvolved,especiallytheeconomicbenefits,andtheenvironmentalandsocialbenefits.”4AlthoughtheRGChasstartedtodevelopalegalframework,includingwaterresourcemanagement,“thelackofaclearpolicyandlegislationondammanagement,exacerbatedbyweakcomplianceandenforcementofexistingrelevantlegislation,remaincriticalconstraintstothesustainableuseandconservationofnaturalresourcesandbiodiversityinCambodia.”5Also,theinstitutionalstructuresandfunctionsofrelevantlineministriesinCambodiadealing
1 “ScopingStudyofExistingFrameworksRelatedtotheWorldCommissiononDamsStrategicFramework–Cambodia”bySamChamreoun,IUCN,p.4.2 “HydropowerDevelopmentinCambodia”presentationbyMr.TungSereyvuth,DeputyDirectorofEnergyDepartment,MinistryofIndustry,MinesandEnergyattheMRC,RegionalStakeholderMeetinginLaos,25-26September2008.3 “StrategicEnvironmentalAssessmentofHydropoweronmainstreamMekongRiver”,presentedbytheMRCcommission,July2009.4 RectangularStrategyforGrowth,Employment,EquityandEfficiency2003-2008.5 “ScopingStudyofExistingFrameworksRelatedtotheWorldCommissiononDamsStrategicFramework–Cambodia”bySamChamreoun,IUCN,p.2.
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withwaterresourcemanagementarehighlycompartmentalized,lackingmechanismsforcoordination,feedbackandregulatoryresponsibility.
Inthiscontext,SamrethLawGroupandtheMekongLegalAdvocacyInstitute(MLAI)believeanyassessmentofdamsontheMekongmainstreamshouldbedelayeduntilthereispreciseplanofmanagementfortheuseofwaterrelatingtohydropowerdams,whichallowsforcarefulassessmentofthecostandbenefitsofsuchprojects.Article9oftheWaterResourcesandManagementLawstatesthatMinistryofWaterResourcesandMeteorology(MOWRAM)shallberesponsibleforpreparinganationalwaterresourcesplan.Thisplanshould,asaminimum,addressindetailthefollowingissues:
a. publicparticipation;b. accesstoinformation;c. environmentalandsocialimpactassessment;d. avoidingormitigatingenvironmentalimpacts,ande. resettlement.
AlthoughthetopicsfortheMRCscopingstudydonotincludelegalissues,SamrethlawGroupandMLAIareoftheviewtheyshouldbeincludedinanyadequatescopingstudy.ThispaperaddressesthelegalaspectsforeachofthefiveissueslistedaboveinrelationtohydopowerdamsinCambodia.
Public participation
PublicparticipationisafundamentalrightforCambodians.Article35oftheConstitutionstates;“Khmercitizensofeithersexshallbegiventherighttoparticipateactivelyinthepolitical,economic,socialandculturallifeofthenation”and“[any]suggestionsfromthepeopleshallbegivenfullconsiderationbytheorgansoftheState”.
Bylaw,thereisapositivedutyontheRGCtoencouragepublicparticipation.Article7oftheWaterResourcesandManagementLaw(WRML)states;“TheRoyalGovernmentofCambodiashallencouragethecollaborationwithandparticipationoftherelevantagencies,privatesectors,beneficiarygroups,NGOsandInternationalOrganizationsinallactivitiesrelatedtothemanagement,investment,exploitation,conservationanddevelopmentofwaterresources.”Article16oftheEnvironmentalProtectionandNaturalResourceManagementLaw(EPNRML)states;“TheMinistryofEnvironmentshall,followingproposalsbythepublic,provideinformationonitsactivities,andshallencourageparticipationbythepublicinenvironmentalprotectionandnaturalresourcemanagement”.
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However,thelegalframeworkdoesnotprovideclearproceduresforCambodiancitizenstorealizetheirrighttoparticipateorfortheRGCtofulfillthisduty.Underarticle17oftheEPNRML,thegovernmentismeanttoissueasub-decreeontheproceduresforpublicparticipation;howeverthissub-decreeisyettobeadopted.ThedraftEnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Guidelinesdocontainsomerequirementsforpublicparticipation,althoughtheytoolackdetail(seeEIAsectionbelow).
ThepublicparticipationofaffectedcommunitiesindamscurrentlybeingbuiltinCambodiahasbeenlimited.Forexample,“[approximately]30,000peoplelivingupstreamwillbenegativelyaffectedbyconstructionandoperationoftheLowerSesan2Dam,andtensofthousandsmoredownstream.However,onlyafewhundredpeoplewereconsulted,andwithoutproperdocumentation”.6Here,publicparticipationfellshortofthestandardsetoutintheCambodianConstitution.
UntilthereareclearproceduresinCambodiaforpublicparticipationinadamproject’sidentification,construction,operationanddecommissioning,forallrelevantstakeholdersincludingilliterateandindigenouspeople,decisionsonwhethertobuilddamprojectsonthemainstreamMekongshouldbepostponed.Additionally,asdamsplannedfortheMekongmainstreamrequirepriorcross-borderconsultationbythestateinaccordancewiththeMekongRiverCommission’sProceduresforNotification,PriorConsultationandAgreement,theRGCshouldpubliclyannouncehowitwillincorporatepublicparticipationintotheprocessofagreement.
Otherwise,itisnotpossibletoshowthereisacceptanceofaprojectonthepartofstakeholdersbeforeaproposedhydropowerprojectisapproved.Greaterpublicparticipationwillalsoleadtomoreinformeddecision-makingprocessesaswellasleadtofewerpost-constructiondisputes.
Access to information
Meaningfulpublicparticipationinthemanagementofwaterresourcesisheavilydependentuponaccesstoinformationofprojectdocuments,includingpre-feasibilitystudies,EIAreportsandprojectdesignandoperationreports.Lackingastrongtraditionofpublicparticipationinenvironmentalassessmentandwithoutdetailedprocedures,thepublichasdifficultyassertingitsrightof
6 LowerSesan2HydroProjectEIAReview,preparedbytheNGOForumonCambodia,August2009,pp5-6.
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accesstoinformation.Article16oftheEPNRMLstates;“TheMinistryofEnvironmentshall,
followingproposalsbythepublic,provideinformationonitsactivities”.ThedraftEIAguidelinesprovidefor“focusgroupdiscussions”to“informthepublicaboutdevelopmentprojects”,howevernofurtherdetailisprovided(seeEIAsectionbelow).
Article8oftheWRMLdoesprovideforapubliclyavailableinventoryofthelocation,quantityandqualityofwaterresourcesinCambodia;“exceptthoseclassifiedasconfidential”.Asthereisnodetailastowhatinformationwillbeclassifiedasconfidential,thisexceptionistoowide.Also,the3SRiversProtectionNetwork(3SPN)sentletterstotheCNMCandVNMCrequestinghydrologicaldataandrainfalldataontheSrepokRiver,butnoresponsewasevergiven.
TherearestillnodetailedproceduresfortheprovisionofadequateinformationaboutwaterresourcesrelatingtodamsinCambodia.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) requirements
Article6oftheLawonEnvironmentalProtectionandNaturalResourcesManagementestablishesageneralEIArequirement“oneveryprojectandactivitywhetherprivateorpublicandshallbeexaminedandevaluatedbytheMinistryofEnvironmentbeforeitissubmittedtotheRoyalGovernmentforadecision”.AlistofthoseprojectsrequiringanInitialEIA(IEIA)and/orEIAwasincludedintheSub-decreeontheEIAProcess,andincludeshydropowerdams.
However,therearestillnoofficialEIAguidelinesinplace.Draftguidelinesandadraftprakas(declaration)ontheimplementationoftheguidelineswerereleasedforpubliccommentinFebruary2008.Asecond“DraftGeneralGuidelinesforEIA”wasreleasedinlate2008.TheserequirethatashortinitialEIAispreparedforaproposedprojectandreviewedbytheMoE.Ifitisrevealedthatthereare“severesocialandenvironmentalconsequences,theprojectownerwillberequiredtoprepareanEIA.”Theterm“severe”isnotdefined.
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TheRiversCoalitioninCambodia(RCC)madethefollowingrecommendationstotheMinistryofEnvironment(MoE)onthecontentoftheFebruary2008draftguidelines:7
a. moredetailisneededintheminimumcontentofanEIA;b. moredetailisneededonhowpublicconsultationtakesplacein
theEIAprocess;c. moreclarityonhowtheMoEwillbaseitsdecisiononwhetheror
nottoapproveaproject;d. strengthentheSocialImpactAssessmentoftheEIA;e. setouthowtheprojectwillbemonitoredduringandafter
construction,andf. setoutadisputeresolutionprocessfordisputesrelatingtotheEIA
process.TheHumanRightsProgramatHarvardLawSchool(HRPHLS)alsowrote
alettertotheEIADepartmentattheMoEoutliningproceduralandsubstantiveconcernsonpublicparticipation,institutionalreviewandapprovalandpost-EIAsafeguards.8
AstheSeptember2008draftEIAguidelineshavenotsubstantiallychangedfromtheFebruary2008draft,thecommentsoftheRCCandHRPHLSarestillvalid.Furthermore,SamChamreoun,Director,DepartmentofEnvironmentalPlanningandLegalAffairs,MinistryofEnvironment,statesthatmanagingandenforcingEIArequirementsinCambodiafacesanumberofobstacles:9
“First, EIA requirements are not well known, and various sector ministries and project owners are therefore not yet applying them. The authority of the Ministry of Environment to enforce the requirements appears to be limited by these circumstances. Another problem is the limited capacity within Cambodia to conduct EIAs.”
Finally,thereiscurrentlynolawinplaceinCambodiadetailingwhenacumulativeimpactassessmentisneededorrequired.GiventhatacascadeofdamsisplannedontheLowerMekongRiver,acumulativeimpactassessmentshouldbedeemednecessaryinordertofullyassesstheproject’sfeasibilityandimpacts.Proceduresonhowtocarryoutthiscumulativestudyshould
7 LetterfromRCCtoMoE,dated6March2008.8 LetterfromtheHumanRightsProgramatHarvardLawSchooltotheEIADepartmentatMoE,dated12March,2008.9 “MekongRegionWaterResourcesDecision-making”,IUCN,2006,p.10.
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alsobeestablishedpriortoanydecision-makingprocessforaprojectplannedwherenumerousprojectsarelocated.
Avoiding or mitigating environmental impacts
CambodiaproducesthefourthmostfreshwaterfishintheworldafterChina,IndiaandBangladesh;some850speciesoffishhavebeenreportedontheTonleSaplakeandlowerreachesoftheMekongRiver.10Itisalsoestimatedthatmorethan70%ofthetotalfishcatchintheMekongbasinisdependentuponfishmigrations,andthemainstreamMekongisthecorridorformostlong-distancemigrations.DamsonthemainstreamMekong,especiallyinthemiddleandlowerpartsoftheMekong,includingCambodia,willthereforehaveagreaterimpactonfisheriesthandamsontributariesandtheupperpartsoftheMekong.11Theimpacttofisherieswouldalsolikelycausesignificantimpactonpeople’sfoodsecurity,healthandnutrition,asmorethan80%ofCambodia’spopulationdependsonfishasamainsourceofanimalmeatprotein12.
TheMRC’sresearchnotesthattheSamborrapidsandassociateddeeppoolsareimportantfishhabitats,particularlyforspawningandrefugepurposes.TheconstructionoftheSamborDamwouldhave“significant”impactsonmigratoryfishstocks.13
Furthermore,aninternationalexpertgrouprecentlyfoundthatbasedonavailableinformationthereisnotatpresentanytechnologicalsolutiontoenableeffectivefishmigrationacrossdams,andanydamonthemainstreamMekonginthemiddleandlowerparts“willhaveamajorimpactonfisheriesandseriouseconomicandsocialimplications”.14
ThereisarequirementinthedraftEIAguidelinesforanEnvironmentalManagementPlanforeachprojectthatmustincludeasummaryofprotectionmeasures,trainingsandamonitoringschedule.Thesignificantenvironmentalimpactstofishstocksandassociatedsocialandeconomicimpactsalone
10 “ScopingStudyofExistingFrameworksRelatedtotheWorldCommissiononDamsStrategicFramework–Cambodia”bySamChamreoun,p.3811 “MainstreamDamsasBarrierstoFishMigration:internationallearningandimplicationsfortheMekong”,PatrickDuganinCatch and CultureVolume14,No.3December2008,p.11.12 KentHortle,2007.13 Middleton,p.32.14 Dugan,p.12.
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underlinewhyamoredetailedandpreciselegalframeworktoregulatedamsisneededbeforeprojectscanbeproperlyassessedandbuilt.
Land confiscation and resettlement issues
Theconstructionoflargehydropowerprojectsraisesseriousissuesregardingresettlementandcompensation.ByitsConstitutionandLandLaw,theRGCisrequiredtoprovidefairandjustcompensationinadvanceforanytakingofland.15TheseprovisionsarebolsteredbyinternationalconventionstowhichCambodiaisaparty.Forexample,theConventiononEconomic,SocialandPoliticalrightsprovidesastrictframeworkforevictionandresettlementproceduresandminimumstandards.
However,theselegalprinciplesarenotbeingadequatelyimplemented.16Localcommunitiesareoftenevictedinaprocessthatlacksdueprocessoradequatecompensationfortheirlossoflandandlivelihood,despitedomesticandinternationallawobligations.ThisincludesthecommunitiesbeingresettledduetothedamscurrentlybeingbuiltinCambodia.Whileestimatesvary,itislikelythattensofthousandsoffamilieswillbeaffectedbymainstreamdamoperations.Theproposedprojectlocationssuggestthatthepoorestsectorsofsociety,thosemostcompletelyreliantonthelandfortheirlivelihoods,willbethemostadverselyaffected.
TheRGCiscurrentlyintheprocessofdraftingaResettlementLawandaCircularonInformalSettlements.ItistheopinionofSamrethLawGroupandMLAIthatitwouldbebeneficialifmoredetailedlegalproceduresaredeveloped,solongastheproceduresareconsistentwithexistingCambodianlawsandhavebeendevelopedinaprocessofmeaningfulpublicparticipation.Moreimportantly,implementationofexistinglawsrelatedtoresettlementandcompensationneedtobeimprovedbeforedamsshouldbebuiltontheMekongmainstream.
Conclusion and recommendations
TherearetwomainissuesthatneedtobeimprovedbeforedamsonthemainstreamMekongcanbeproperlyassessed.First,thereneedstobeapreciseanddetailedplanofmanagementofhydropowerdamsthrough
15 CambodianConstitution,article44;2001LandLaw,article5.16 See“RightsRaised:ForcedEvictionsinCambodia,”AmnestyInternational,February,2008.
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thewholedevelopmentcycleofidentification,construction,operationanddecommissioning.Second,thecomplianceandenforcementofexistinglawsandpoliciesneedstoimprove.Untilbothoftheseimperativesoccur,hydropowerdamsshouldnotbebuiltonthemainstreamMekong.
SamrethLawGroupandMLAIrecommendthefollowinglawsandproceduresbeputinplacebeforedamsarebuiltonthemainstreamoftheMekong:
a. moredetailedproceduresofpublicparticipationandaccesstoinformationaredevelopedthataccommodateindigenousandilliteratecommunities;
b. moredetailedenvironmentalimpactassessmentguidelinesaredevelopedwiththerecommendationsoftheRCCinmind,
c. avoidingormitigatingenvironmentalimpacts,andd. demonstratedcommitmentofgovernmentalimplementationof
itslandlawframework,particularlyrelatingtoproceduralrights,compensationandresettlement.
SamrethLawGroupisapublicinterestlawfirmregisteredwiththeBarAssociationoftheKingdomofCambodia.SamrethLawGroupiswillingtoassistrelevantgovernmentauthoritiesinthepreparationofamoredetailedlegalframeworkwithoutchargingfees.
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3. China
ThesecommentsregardingChina’slawandlegalaspectsoftheassessmentofmainstreamdamsontheMekongaresubmittedonbehalfoftheMekongLegalAdvocacyInstitute(MLAI)inChiangMai,Thailand.Weaddressfivecorelegalissueswithregardtodamconstructionandoperation:(a)PublicAccesstoInformation,(b)PublicParticipation,(c)RequirementsforproducingandenforcingEnvironmentalImpactAssessments,(d)Preventing,avoidingormitigatingenvironmentalimpacts,and(e)Landconfiscation,CompensationandResettlementconcerns.
Eachoftheseissueshasadirectimpactnotonlyontheproceduralstepsrequiredforbuildingandoperatingdams,butalsothelivelihoodsofpeoplelivingallalongtheMekongRiverwhodependonathriving,free-flowingriverfortheirveryexistence.Therefore,itisincumbentupontheMRCtobeawareof,followandenforcetheselegalprovisionsthroughouttheprocessoftheStrategicEnvironmentalAssessment.
Access to Information
TheConstitutionofthePeople’sRepublicofChina(PRC),theLegislationLawof2000,andtheEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentLawof2002provideforpublicaccesstoinformation.Informationaccessiblebythepublicincludesthepolicies,laws,plansandmajorprojectsthathavebeenenacted,andthedecision-makingprocessusedtoenactthem.
TheRegulationofthePRContheDisclosureofGovernmentInformationof2007tookeffectMay1st,2008.
• Itpromotesofficialtransparencyandsafeguardsthepublic’srighttoknow,therighttoparticipateandtherighttosupervise.TheregulationisChina’sfirstinformationdisclosurelegislationandrequiresgovernmentstoreleasedataonsuchpublicissuesaslandacquisitions,residencerelocationsandrelatedcompensation.
• Theregulationalsosetslimitstopublicdisclosure.Article14statesthat“noadministrativeorganmayendangernationalsecurity,publicsecurity,economicsecurityorsocialstabilitywhendisclosinggovernmentinformation.”
TrialMeasuresonOpenEnvironmentalInformationwereadoptedby
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theStateEnvironmentalProtectionAdministrationonFebruary8,2007andeffectiveonMay1,2008.Thesemeasures:
• propelandregulatethedisclosureofenvironmentalinformationbyadministrativedepartmentsinchargeofenvironmentalprotectionandenterprises,and
• maintaintherightsandinterestsofcitizens,legalpersonsandotherorganizationstoobtainenvironmentalinformationandpromotethepublic’sinvolvementinenvironmentalprotection.
AccesstoinformationisalsohinderedbyChina’sstatesecurityregulations.Informationaboutthewaterresourcesofinternationalrivers(includinghydrology,waterquality,sediment,water,internationalriverconditionsandcircumstancesofthenaturalecosystems,etc.)isaState2ndSecret-levelissue.Real-timeinformationaboutinternationalriverswaterlevelsandforecastingresults,areState3rdSecret-levelmatters.
So,whileChinahasmanylawsandregulationstoprovideinformation,therearealsoprovisionsthataremorethanampletopreventthereleaseofanythingthegovernmentwantstokeepsecret.WithregardtodownstreamimpactsoftheirMekongMaintreamdams,thismeansthatvillagesalongtherivercannotcurrentlyobtainreal-timeknowledgeofunseasonalriverflows.ThishasalreadyhaddevastatingeffectsinChiangSaenandChiangKhongDistricts,ThailandandwillcontinuetodosoaslongastheChina’sgovernmentremainssosecretiveabouttheirdamoperations.
Public Participation
ThePRCConstitutionrequirespublicparticipationinsomecases.Forexample,the2002EIALawestablishespublicparticipationinEIAsduringthefeasibilitystudyphase.ItstatesthatdraftEIAsofanyimportantplansorprojects,exceptthoseconcerningnationalsecuritythatwillhaveanadverseimpactontheenvironmentoraffectpublicenvironmentalrightsmustbecommunicatedthroughpublichearings,workshopsorotherchannels.
Mostrecently,theMinistryofEnvironmentalProtectiondraftedtheRegulationofthePeople’sRepublicofChinaonEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentofPlanning.ItwasadoptedbytheStateCouncilonAugust12th,2009andcameintoforceonOctober1st,2009.ItincludesArticle25(3),regardingfollow-upassessmentofenvironmentalimpactsofplanning,whichshallincludepublicopinionsofenvironmentalimpactwhiletheplanningisimplemented.
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TheLandAdministrationLawof2004establishesprovisionsforpublicparticipationinresettlementplans,includingthedisplacedpeople.ForlandconfiscatedbytheState,therequisitionplanshallbepubliclyannouncedbythepeople’sgovernment,withcommentsandsuggestionssolicitedfromlocalorganizationsandpeople.Disagreementsaresubjecttonegotiationandthen,arbitration,withnomentionoflitigation.
China’sresettlementpolicies,however,aresubjecttoseverecorruption,withmuchofthemoneyforcompensationbeingdivertedtootherusesbylocalorCountyauthorities.Further,intimidationandviolencebysecurityofficialsareoftenusedtopreventactiveparticipation,asseenduringthe2008BeijingOlympics,intheexperiencesofbereavedparentsfollowingthe2008Sichuanearthquake,andinothervenues.
OppositiontodamconstructionhasalsobeentargetedbyChineseauthorites,impedingtherighttopublicparticipation.“ProtestorsoftheThreeGorgesDaminChinahavesufferedfromgovernmentoppression.DaiQing,anactiveopponentoftheproject,wasimprisonedfortenmonthsforeditingthebook“Yangtze!Yangtze!,”whichcriticizedthedamproject.ThebookwasalsobannedinChinaandremainingcopieswerecollectedandburned.”17
Environmental Impact Assessment
EIAwasoriginallymentionedintheEnvironmentalLawforthePRCof1989.Morerecently,therequirementsforEIAwerelaidoutundertheEIALawof2002andsubsequentRegulations.Thus,EIAisrequiredfortheexploitation,utilizationanddevelopmentofriverbasins;aswellasspecificplansconcerningenergyproductionandwaterconservation.
WhenpreparingEIAs,publicaccesstoinformationandpublicparticipationareguaranteed.TheEIAlawandregulationsrequirethatDraftEIAsofanyimportantplansorprojectsthatwillhaveanadverseimpactontheenvironmentoraffectpublicenvironmentalrightsmustbecommunicatedthroughpublichearings,workshopsorotherchannels.
17 Krech,McNeillandMerchant,EncyclopediaofWorldEnvironmentalHistoryA-E,pg.283(Routledge).
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Also,theRegulationsonAdministrationofConstructionProjectEnvironmentProtectionrequireanEIAtobeprepared.Further,theTechnologicalGuidelinesforEIA,1993statethataprojectEIAmustincludeassessmentof:
• theenvironmentalcomponents,• ageneralsurveyandassessmentofpeople’shealth,• socio-economicconditions• sitesofscencandhistoricalinterest,valuablemonumentsandrelics.Withregardtoenforcement,theEIAapprovalauthoritycanorder
monitoringandmitigation.Inaddition,theDevelopermustprotecttheenvironmentduringconstruction.
Whiletheseprovisionssoundpowerful,manydomesticEIAsremainstatesecrets,andthereisnolawthatrequiresChina’scompaniestoproduceEIAsforforeignprojects.TherearesomeguidelinesfortheChinaEx-Imbank,butnothingismandatory.Thus,China’sinvolvementinLowerMekongdamscouldleadtosignificantenvironmentalimpactsthatfacelittleornocomprehensive,multidisciplinaryanalysisordisclosureinanEIA.
Avoiding or mitigating environmental impacts
Chinahasseverallawsandregulationsthatprotecttheenvironmentandrelatetodamconstructionandoperation.Mostsignificantly,manyoftheselawsstatethatmigratoryfishmustbeprotectedfromdams,includingtheWaterLawof1988andits2002revision,theLawonWildlifeProtectionof1988,andtheFisheryLawof2007.Inaddition,theRegulationsonNatureReserves,1994createprotectedareasandrelatedbufferzoneswithahigherconservationstatus,andtheLawonWildlifeProtection,1988,establishesprotectedareasforthreatenedandendangeredspecies.
Inotherrivers,however,theselawsandregulationshavefailedtoprotectChina’sendangeredaquaticspecies,liketheYangtzedolphinortheMekonggiantcatfish.AstheMRCwellknows,theMekongRiver’saquaticbiodiversityiswithoutparallel,butremainsextremelyvulnerabletomigrationblockages.Passageformigratoryfish,whetherbyladderorbypass,isimpossibleforthevolumeofmigratoryfishintheMekong,nomatterwhatthelawsofanynationsay,includingChina.
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Resettlement and compensation
Chinahasextensiveexperienceandmanylawsthatcoverresettlement.Forexample,theConstitutionrequirescompensationwhentheStateconfiscatesprivateproperty.Also,theLandAdministrationLawregulatesresettlementandcompensation.
Otherlawsthataddressresettlementandcompensationinclude:• RegulationsforLandAcquisitionandResettlement1991• RegulationsonResettlementoftheThreeGorges,2001• CivilLitigationLawandGeneralrules.
RecentlytheChinesehavetriedtwodifferentcompensationschemes:Landforland,andlong-termfinancialpayments.ArecentstudybyEarthRightsresearchersfoundthat,whilethefinancialpaymentsledtomoreincome,theoveralllevelofstressthesameforbothschemesbecausealloftherelocatedpeoplewereveryconcernedabouttheirnewlivelihoods.Thiswasbecausetheyhadtofindnewjobs,oftenhadtomigrateforwork,andwereforcedtocompletelychangetheirwayoflife.Moreeffortsatovercomingthisstressandprovidingsocialsafetynetsareessential.
So,eventhoughChinahasgreatexperienceindealingwithlandconfiscationandresettlement,andhasestablishedlawstoregulatethesepractices,thereremainvastsocial,economicandenvironmentalpitfallsthatrequireadditionalstudyandadaptations.
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4. LaoPDR
ThesecommentsregardingthelawoftheLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic(LaoPDR)andlegalaspectsoftheassessmentofmainstreamdamsontheMekongaresubmittedonbehalfoftheMekongLegalAdvocacyInstituteinChiangMai,Thailand.Weaddressfivecorelegalissueswithregardtodamconstructionandoperation:(a)PublicAccesstoInformation,(b)PublicParticipation,(c)RequirementsforproducingandenforcingEnvironmentalImpactAssessments,(d)Preventing,avoidingormitigatingenvironmentalimpacts,and(e)Landconfiscation,CompensationandResettlementconcerns.
Eachoftheseissueshasadirectimpactnotonlyontheproceduralstepsrequiredforbuildingandoperatingdams,butalsothelivelihoodsofpeoplelivingallalongtheMekongRiverwhodependonathriving,free-flowingriverfortheirveryexistence.Therefore,itisincumbentupontheMRCtobeawareof,followandenforcetheselegalprovisionsthroughouttheprocessoftheStrategicEnvironmentalAssessment.
Public Access to information
Fundamentalrightslikeaccesstoinformation,freedomtoengageinadvocacyandenvironmentalprotectionmechanismsareverynew.ThereisnospecificlegislationintheLaoPDRonpublicaccesstoinformation.Asaresult,informationaccessandpublicparticipationarestillnotbeingproperlyimplementedformostdevelopmentactivities.Thisglaringomissionmakespublicparticipationingovernmentactivitiesseriouslydifficultifnotoutrightimpossible.TheresultisthatanydamsontheMekongbuiltunderLaolawwilllacktransparencyandwillultimatelytramplelocalpeopleslivelihoods.
Further,theLaolawsarenotclearregardingsecretandpublicinformation.TheLaopeopleneedmoretimetobuildknowledgeonlegalrights,particularlylocalcommunitiesthatarefamiliarwithsustainableuseofnaturalresourcesandcustomarylivelihoods.
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Public participation
UndertheConstitution,Article37,allLaocitizenshaveequalrighttoengageinpolitics,economics,andsocial-culturalfamilydevelopment.TheEnvironmentalLaw,Article8(5)requires”participationfromvillagerslikelytobeeffectedbythedevelopmentprojectsoroperations.”
PublicparticipationunderLaolawisalsoprovidedintheNationalEIARegulation,theRegulationonImplementingEnvironmentalAssessmentforElectricityProjects,andmoreparticularlyintheSummaryoftheNationalPublicInvolvementGuidelines,2003.
Theseguidelinesprovideadefinitionofpublicinvolvementanditscomponentparts;introducethemainprinciplesunderlyingtheconsultationandparticipationprocess;andprovideclarificationofpublicinvolvementterminology.
Despitetheselawsandguidelines,inmanysignificantprojectsthereisstillnopublicinvolvementindecision-making.Inothers,publicparticipationisminimal.Theendresultisthatlocalpeople’sknowledgeoftheriverandtheiradaptationstonaturalvariabilitywillbeignoredorlost,andfutureprospectsfortheriveranditspeoplearequitedim.
EIA requirements and enforcement
TheLaoConstitution,Article19,requirestheprotectionoftheenvironment.
AccordingtotheEnvironmentalProtectionLaw,1999,NationalEIARegulation,andtheRegulationonImplementingEnvironmentalAssessmentforElectricityProjects,Environmentalimpactassessments(EIAs)must
• includeanassessmentofsocial,healthandculturalissues;• describetheexistingsocio-economicandnaturalenvironmentinthe
area(s)affectedbytheprojectconcerned;• identifyanddescribetheenvironmental,socialandeconomicimpacts
oftheproject;• comparetheimpactswithregardtooneormorefeasiblealternatives
totheproject;• identifyunavoidableimpactsandproposewaystocompensatefor
them;• selectonealternativethatbestaccomplishesthepurposeofthe
project,whilebestprotectingenvironmentalvalues;
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• supplementexistingpublishedinformationwithsufficientfieldstudiestoadequatelydeterminetheexistingconditionsinthearea(s)affected.
TheEnvironmentalProtectionLawrequiresaprojectproponenttoprepareanEIAreporttotheconcernedenvironmentalmanagementandmonitoringunitforanenvironmentcompliancecertificatetobeissuedbeforestartingtheproject.
TheEnvironmentalProtectionLaw,WaterandWaterResourcesLaw,ElectricityLaw,NationalEIARegulation,theRegulationonImplementingEnvironmentalAssessmentsforElectricityProjects,andEnvironmentManagementStandardsforElectricity
ProjectsallrequirecompliancewithenvironmentalandsocialcommitmentsmadeintheEIA.
Non-compliantpersonsandorganizationsareconsideredtobeinviolationoflegalinstrumentswhentheyfailtofollowtheEIA.PenaltiesforviolationarespecifiedintheEnvironmentalProtectionLaw,ElectricityLaw,andNationalEIARegulation.
Inpractice,EIAsfordevelopmentprojectsarepreparedandprovidedbytheinvestor,andagovernmentagencylikeEnvironmentalandWaterResourcesAdministrationrarelydissaprovesEIAs.ThelackofanindependentEIAagencyandmonitoringfromvariousstakeholders/localgroupandcivilsocietymeansthatthereisnopublicoversightofEIAapproval.SinceEIAsarenotrigorousinLao,andRuleofLawisoftenignoredbyLaotianCourts,theunderlyinglawsandemergentprotectionandmitigationrequirementshavelittleifanyforceanddonotprovideanybenefitstolocalpeopleortheenvironment.
TheTheun-HinbounExpansionProjectinLaosrejectedanEIAproducedbyDr.MurrayWatsonandhiredaNorwegiancompany,Norplan,tocompletetheEIA.
WatsonsaidthattheNorplanEIAcomestodifferentconclusionsregardingtherisksoftheplannedexpansionproject.AccordingtoWatson,“theNorplanEIAseriouslyunderestimatestherisksoftheTheun-HinbounExpansionProject,andunderstatesorignoresthechangesalreadyexperiencedfromtheTheun-HinbounHydropowerProject.TheyaredeceivingtheLaoGovernmentandenablingtheirclienttoexternalizecosts.”
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Planning & Management Criteria
TheEnvironmentalManagementStandardsforElectricityProjects,andLaoElectricPowerTechnicalStandards,2004provideaclear,commonsetofcriteriafordevelopingwaterandenergyresourcesbyusingdams.
Unfortunately,theLaoPDR’sagencieslackthecapacitytofullyutilizethesecriteriaandmanagementprovisions,andaregenerallyreliantonforeignassistance.Unsympatheticbureaucratsorinfluentialofficialscanalsostandinthewayofcompliance,sotheplanningandmanagementprovisionsarenotfollowed.Therefore,long-termmanagementofresourceswillbeskewedtowardmaximizingprofitsthroughelectricitygenerationattheexpenseoflocalconcerns.
Preventing, avoiding or mitigating environmental impacts
TheWaterandWaterResourcesLaw,1996states:“Theresponsiblewaterauthorityshalldeterminequalitystandardsfordrinkingwaterandusedwaterthatisdrainedintowatersourcesorintosomeotherplace.”Thelastpartabout“waterthatisdrainedintowatersources”seemstobereferringtowaterpollution.
TheLawonWaterandWaterResources,theEnvironmentProtectionLaw,theForestryLaw,1996andtheElectricityLawallhaveprovisionstoprotectendangeredspeciesanddemandenvironmentalconservation.
Theseprovisionsremainmostlyhypothetical,withuncheckedpollutionongoingandlittleconcernforendangeredspeciesliketheMekonggiantcatfish.Otherenvironmentalissuesarecompletelyoverlooked,suchastheneedsofmigratoryaquaticspecies,impactsofreservoirs(evenrun-of-riverdamscreateimpoundments),orlossoftransportationalternatives.
Waterpollutionisincreasing,especiallyinVientiane,fromurbandevelopmentandindustrialpollution.Existingwatersupplysystemstendtobeoutdatedandinpoorcondition.Groundwatercontaminationisgrowinginthelargercitiesfromsewageandindustrialwastes.
Land confiscation, Compensation and Resettlement issues
Laolawsthatprovideforcompensationtopeopleadverselyaffectedbytheconstructionandoperationofdamsinclude:
• TheElectricityLaw,1997,• NationalEIARegulation,2000,
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• TheRegulationonImplementingEnvironmentalAssessmentforElectricityProjects,2001,and
• EnvironmentalManagementStandardsforElectricityProjects,2001.TheEnvironmentManagementStandardsforElectricityProjectslaw,as
wellasresettlementpolicyandguidelinesoninvoluntaryresettlementstatethatanaffectedpersonisentitledtoreceivedirectorindirectbenefitsharing.
Littleisactuallydonetoenforcetheseprovisions.AnexampleofthisistheTheun-HinbounDamincentralLaos.RecentlytheTheun-HinbounPowerCompanyadmittedthat25,000peoplein61villages—mostlysubsistencefarmers—havelostfish,rice,vegetablesanddrinkingwaterasaresultofthedam.Alittlecompensationwasallowed,butvillagersstillhavenotbeencompensatedforfishlossesofupto90percentoftheirpre-damcatch.
InternationalRiversfoundthattheprojectwasinviolationofLaogovernmentresettlementlawandtheEquatorPrinciplesinnumerousinstances.TheTheun-HinbounPowerCompanyisalsofailingtocomplywithitsConcessionAgreementandResettlementActionPlan(RAP).Theseviolationsinclude:CompensationforlossofassetsandlivelihoodsinthedownstreamvillagesasaresultoftheoriginalTheun-HinbounProjecthasnotbeenpaid[ViolationofLaoresettlementlawArticle6];noprovisionofarangeofresettlementoptionstothedownstreamvillagers[ViolationofPerformanceStandard5],andnodocumentationon“goodfaithnegotiations”withtheaffectedindigenouscommunities[ViolationofPerformanceStandard7].Seehttp://www.internationalrivers.org/en/southeast-asia/laos/theun-hinboun.
Villagersuseagriculturallandfortheirlivelihood,whilebusinessmenusethoselandstoseekprofit.Whengovernmentpolicyistopromoteinvestmentinthecountryforeconomicgrowthsomevillagersagree,butwhenvillagerswhodisagreewiththeconcessiontheyarenotprovidedinformation.Thereisnorightsprotectionmechanismforthecommunityorindividualstolitigate,noristhereanywaytoconfrontthecompanyorauthorityresponsible.Therearenoguaranteedrightsthatapplyequallyforeveryoneandeverywhere.Conflictresolutionmethodsforcustomarylivelihoodsthroughthelegalsystemarenarrowandlimited,andfailtoprovideanadequateremedy.
TheLaoGovernmentandtheMRCneedtoconsiderthesequestions:“Whatisinvestmentforpublicinterest?Whatisfaircompensation?Howshouldgoodgovernanceprinciplesbeapplied?”
Whenpublicinterest,humanrightsandenvironmentalprotectionconflict
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witheconomic-socialdevelopment,localcommunitiesgenerallylosetheiragriculturelandandareleftwithalowqualityofenvironment.Theyalsofaceahighriskiftheycriticizethegovernmentpolicyordevelopmentprojects.Someactivecommunityleaderswerearbitrarilydetained,manypeoplereceivedunfaircompensation,andconflictrelatedtolandandnaturalresourceisincreasing.Stillthereisonsocialagencyormechanismtosolvetheseconflicts.“Publicinterest”advocacyislimitedtopreservingsocialorderbygovernmentofficials,whouseittocontrolfreedomofexpressionanddemonstrations/protests.Humanrightsdefendersandlawyersarenotallowedbythejudiciarytoengageinpublicinterestlitigationforcivilsocietybasedonenvironmentalandhumanrightsissues.
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5. Thailand
ThesecommentsregardingThailand’slawsandlegalaspectsoftheassessmentofmainstreamdamsontheMekongaresubmittedonbehalfoftheMekongLegalAdvocacyInstituteinChiangMai,Thailand.Weaddressfivecorelegalissueswithregardtodamconstructionandoperation:(a)PublicAccesstoInformation,(b)PublicParticipation,(c)RequirementsforproducingandenforcingEnvironmentalImpactAssessments(EIA),(d)Preventing,avoidingormitigatingenvironmentalimpacts,and(e)Landconfiscation,CompensationandResettlementconcerns.
Eachoftheseissueshasadirectimpactnotonlyontheproceduralstepsrequiredforbuildingandoperatingdams,butalsothelivelihoodsofpeoplelivingallalongtheMekongRiverwhodependonathriving,free-flowingriverfortheirveryexistence.Therefore,itisincumbentupontheMRCtobeawareof,followandenforcetheselegalprovisionsthroughouttheprocessoftheStrategicEnvironmentalAssessment.
Public Access to Information
Thailand’s2007Constitutionhasseveralsectionsthatguaranteefreeinformationfromthegovernmentandprovideforpublicparticipation.
Section56oftheConstitutionstates:“Apersonshallhavetherighttogainaccesstopublicinformationinpossessionofastateagency,stateenterpriseorlocalgovernmentorganization,exceptifitwillaffectstatesecurityorpublicsafety.”Also,“Apersonshallhavetherighttoreceiveinformation,reasons,andexplanationfromastateagency,stateenterpriseorlocalgovernmentorganizationbeforepermissionisgivenforimplementationofanyprojectoractivitywhichmayaffectthequalityofenvironment,health,andsanitaryconditions,qualityoflifeorothermaterialofinteresttohimorheroralocalcommunityandshallhavetherighttoexpresshisorheropiniononsuchmatterstoagenciesconcernedforconsideration.”
TheseprovisionsareanewideainThailand,wherethepowerfulbureaucracyishistoricallyquitesecretive.Attemptstogainaccesstogovernmentstudieshavehadmixedsuccess,butrecentNGOeffortstogainaccesstotheEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentforEGAT’sHatgyiDaminBurmaweresuccessfulthankstotheinterventionofThailand’sNational
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HumanRightsCommission(NHRC).Theprecedentofthiscase,whichinvolvesreleasinginformationanathematothemilitaryjuntathatrulesBurma,provideshopeforfutureeffortswithrespecttoMekongdams.
Public participation
Constitutionalprovisionsthatprovideforpublicparticipationinclude:• Section58:Apersonshallhavetherighttoparticipateinthedecision-
makingprocessofstateofficialsinperformanceoftheadministrativefunctionswhichaffectormayaffecthisorherrightsandliberties.
• Section59:Apersonshallhavetherighttopresentapetitionandtobeinformedabouttheresultofitsconsiderationwithintheappropriatetime.
• Section60:Therightofapersontosueastateagency,stateenterprise,localgovernmentorganization,orotherstateauthoritywhichisajuristicpersontobeliableforanyactoromissionbyitsgovernmentofficial,officialoremployeeshallbeprotected.
• Section67:Therightofapersontogivetothestateandcommunitiesparticipationinthepreservationandexploitationofnaturalresourcesandbiologicaldiversityandintheprotection,promotionandpreservationofthequalityofenvironmentforusualandconsistentsurvivalintheenvironmentwhichisnothazardoustohisorherhealthandsanitaryconditions,welfareorqualityoflife,shallbeprotected.Therightofacommunitytosueastateagency,stateenterprise,localgovernmentorganizationorotherstateauthorityasalegalentitytoperformthedutiesasprovidedbyparagraphoneandparagraphtwoshallbeprotected.
• Section87:ThestateshallimplementthePublicParticipationPolicyasfollows:
(1) encouragingpublicparticipationinthedeterminationofpublicpolicyandthemakingofeconomicandsocialdevelopmentplanbothinthenationalandlocallevel;
(2) encouragingandsupportingpublicparticipationtomakedecisiononpoliticsandthemakingofeconomicandsocialdevelopmentplanandtheprovisionofpublicservices;
(3) encouragingandsupportingpublicparticipationintheexaminationoftheexerciseofStatepoweratalllevelsintheformofprofessionoroccupationorganizationorotherforms;
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• TheRoyalDecreeonGuidelinesandProceduresonGoodGovernance,2003statesthatpublichearingarerequiredpriortooperatingagovernmentproject.
• TheActonEstablishmentofAdministrativeCourtsandAdministrativeCourtProcedure,1999providesachannelforaffectedpeopletoseekredressofgrievancesresultingfromanactoromissionbyadministrativeagenciesorStateofficials.
• TheRoyalDecreeonGuidelinesandProceduresonGoodGovernance,2003statesthatapublichearingmustbearrangedpriortotheoperationofanyproject.
Thesepublicparticipationlawsarestrongonpaper,butthereareseriousimpedimentsduetothe“powerfulfigures”whouseforce,threatsandintimidationtoscarepeoplefromparticipating.
Thai Laws Regarding Use and Regulation of Water, a Public Resource
The1992CivilandCommercialCodestatesthat“waterbelongstotheStateandisthereforeregardedaspublicproperty.”
ThePromotionofEnergyConservationAct,1992statesthattheNationalCommitteeonEnergyPolicyhastheauthoritytoissueanymeasuresrelatedtonationalenergy,includingwaterresources.
TheMetropolitanWaterworksAct,1967allowsprivateentitiestoconstructandoperatetheirownwaterworkssystemsincertainareas.
ThePrivateIrrigationAct,1939authorisesindividualsorgroupsofindividualstoacquireanddevelopwaterresourcesbymeansofprivateirrigationsystems.
Thesewater-relatedlawsandregulationsprovideleveragetopubliceffortstoensurethatlocalpeople’svoicesareheardwhenplanningandoperatinghydropowerplants.
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EIA requirements
TherequirementforEIAinThailandfirstaroseintheearly90’s.AccordingtotheAnnextotheMinistryofScience,TechnologyandEnvironmentNotification,1992,EIAreportsmustprovideinformationon,andananalysisof:
(a)thestateoftheenvironment(physical);(b)thestateofbioticresources;(c)humanusevalues;andd)qualityoflife,includingthesocial,healthandculturalaspects.
DuringtheEIApreparationprocess,consultationsamongrelevantagencies,representativesoflocalcommunitiesandindependentexpertsarerequired.AdditionalMinisterialNotificationsupuntil2000statethatEIAsarerequiredfornationalandsub-nationalwaterdevelopmentplans.
Accordingtothe2007Constitution,Sec.67,“Anyprojectoractivitywhichmayseriouslyaffectthequalityofenvironmentshallnotbepermitted,unlessitsimpactonthequalityofenvironmenthavebeenstudiedandevaluatedandopinionsofanindependentorganization,consistingofrepresentativesfromprivateenvironmentalorganizationsandfromhighereducationinstitutionsprovidingstudiesintheenvironmentalfield,havebeenobtainedpriortotheoperationofsuchprojectoractivity.”
Furthermore,theEIAmustincludeopinionsofanindependentorganization,consistingofrepresentativesfromprivateenvironmentalorganizationsandfromhighereducationinstitutions.
TheseEIAprovisionsarequitespecific,butinmanycasesThailandlacksthepoliticalwillorexpertisetofulfillthem.Further,thereleaseofmanyEIAsispreventedbyoverzealousbureaucratsguardingtheiradministrativeturf.Thispreventsfullyinformedparticipationbytheaffectedpublic,andmustbeovercometoproduceeffectiveEIAsthatprotecttheenvironmentwhileallowingsustainabledevelopmenttoproceed.
Avoiding or mitigating environmental impacts
The2007Constitutionalsocontainsspecificprovisionsaimedatprotectingtheenvironment.ConstitutionSection84statesthat“Thestateshallimplementtheland,naturalresources,andenvironmentpolicyasfollows:
…(4)preparingsystematicmanagementplanforwaterandothernaturalresourcesforthecommoninterestsofthenation,andencouragingthepublic
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toparticipateinthepreservation,conservationandexploitationofnaturalresourcesandbiologicaldiversityappropriately;
(5)conductingthepromotion,conservationandprotectionofthequalityoftheenvironmentunderthesustainabledevelopmentprinciple,andcontrollingandeliminatepollutionwhichmayaffecthealthandsanitary,welfareandqualityoflifeofthepublicbyencouragingthepublic,thelocalcommunitiesandthelocalgovernmentstohaveparticipationinthedeterminationofthemeasures….”
Also,accordingtotheNationalEnvironmentalQualityActor1992,thepubliccansuefordamagesrelatedtopollutionorenvironmentalchangescausedbystateprojects:
However,violenceandintimidationaimedatactivistsandlawyers,combinedwithbureaucraticdelaysandlackofcapacity,aswellasbriberyandkickbacksbetweencompaniesandgovernmentofficials,meanthattheseprovisionslackeffectivenessinmanycases.Forexample,thenotedThaiHumanRightslawyerSomchaiNeelaphaijitwaskidnappedin2004andispresumeddeadduetohisoutspokendefenseofMuslimsinsouthernThailand,effectivelyintimidatingandsilencingmanyotherThaiactivistsandlawyers.Seehttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4608594.stm.
Land confiscation, Compensation and Resettlement issues
The2007ThaiConstitutionalsohasprovisionstoprotectpeople’srightsconcerningpropertyanddwellings.Section33statesthat“Apersonshallenjoythelibertyofdwelling.Apersonisprotectedforhispeacefulhabitationinandforpossessionofhisdwelling.”Further,Section41promisesthat“Thepropertyrightofapersonisprotected.”
Withevenmoredetail,Section42states:
“The expropriation of immovable property shall not be made except by virtue of the law specifically enacted for the purpose of public utilities, necessary national defence, exploitation of national resources, town and country planning, promotion and preservation of the quality of the environment, agricultural or industrial development, land reform, conservation of ancient monument and historic sites, or other public interests, and fair compensation shall be paid in due course….”
TheEnhancementandConservationofNationalEnvironmentalQualityAct,1992statesthatapersonhastherighttoreceivecompensationinthecase
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ofdamagecausedbythespreadofpollutionorchangesintheenvironmentarisingfromactivitiesorprojectsinitiatedorsponsoredbytheState.TheStateIrrigationActallowsnationalizationoflandandprovidesforcompensationforirrigationdevelopmentplans.
TheselawsarealsosubjecttopervasivecorruptionwithinThailand,andlegaleffortsaimedatgettingcompensationareextremelyrareandtakedecades.Forexample,Thailandrecentlypaid1.2millionbahttoHaiKhanjantha,alsoknownasGrandmaHai,whofoughttoreclaimhersubmergedlandfromtheconstructionofHuayLaHareservoir32yearsago.
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6. Vietnam
ThesecommentsregardingVietnam’slawandlegalaspectsoftheassessmentofmainstreamdamsontheMekongaresubmittedonbehalfoftheMekongLegalAdvocacyInstituteinChiangMai,Thailand.Weaddressfivecorelegalissueswithregardtodamconstructionandoperation:(a)PublicAccesstoInformation,(b)PublicParticipation,(c)RequirementsforproducingandenforcingEnvironmentalImpactAssessments(EIA),(d)Preventing,avoidingormitigatingenvironmentalimpacts,and(e)Landconfiscation,CompensationandResettlementconcerns.
Eachoftheseissueshasadirectimpactnotonlyontheproceduralstepsrequiredforbuildingandoperatingdams,butalsothelivelihoodsofpeoplelivingallalongtheMekongRiverwhodependonathriving,free-flowingriverfortheirveryexistence.Therefore,itisincumbentupontheMRCtobeawareof,followandenforcetheselegalprovisionsthroughouttheprocessoftheStrategicEnvironmentalAssessment.
Public Access to Information
TheRegulationonDemocracyatGrassrootsLevel,GovernmentDecree79/2003/ND-CP,dated7/7/2003,requiresreleaseofinformationtothepublicaswellasparticipationinofficialdecisions.Furthermore,aDraftLawonAccesstoInformationiscurrentlybeingconsidered.Seehttp://www.article19.org/pdfs/laws/vietnam-law-on-access-to-information.pdf.
Despitetheseefforts,thereisstillconsiderablequestionaboutVietnam’scommitmenttoprovidefreedomofinformation.The2003arrestofDr.NguyenDanQueafterdemandingpublicaccesstogovernmentinformationisstillremembered,andtheDecreeandDraftLawstillcontainmanyloopholesthatwillallowthegovernmenttocontrolinformationinappropriately.
Public Participation
TheLawonEnvironmentalProtectionstatesthattheEIApreparationprocessmustincludecommentsandfeedbackfromcommune-levelPeople’sCommittees(PCs)andrepresentativesoflocalcommunitieswithintheprojectarea.Thesecommentsmustincludeanyoppositiontoprojectimplementation
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orenvironmentalprotectionmeasures.DuringtheEIAappraisalprocess,localorganizations,communitiesand
individualsmayprovidecommentsonenvironmentalprotectionissues.Furthermore,projectappraisalandapprovalauthoritiesthenmusttakeintoaccountallthesecomments,beforeanyconclusionordecisionisreached.
VietNam’sAgenda21statesthatforthelargestprojectswiththegreatestimpactonthepopulation,communityparticipationinenvironmentalimpactassessmentshouldbeenhanced
TherequirementsforcommunityconsultationonEIA,transparencycommunicationwithcommunityabouttheprojectandEIAoutcomesarementionedinEIA-relatedlegaldocuments.However,theserequirementsarelikelytobeambiguousandunspecified.Accordingtosomeexperts,thedefinitionofcommunityasanobjectoftheconsultationisratherinsufficient–whoisthecommunitythatshouldbeconsultedbytheEIArelatedspecialists,consultants,investorsandlocalauthorities?Civilorganizationsandassociationsarethebridgesthatconnectthecommunitieswiththegovernment’sfunctionalbodies;howeverregulationsregardingtheirrolesinandbenefitsfromtheirparticipationinEIAarealmostunmentionedinthelaws.
DuringthepreparationprocessofEIA,consultationandconsiderationofthecommunity’sperspectivesaredoneonanad hocbasis.Therefore,theserequirementsarefulfilledtodifferentdegrees,dependingoneachlocality.InbigcitiessuchasHanoiorHoChiMinhCity,theserequirementsarestrictlyfollowed,whileincontrast,theserequirementsarepoorlyfollowedinotherlocalities,iffollowedatall,especiallyinpoor,mountainousorloweducationalareas.Theserequirementsarecarefullyfulfilledbyforeigninvestmentprojects,suchasthePhuMy2thermoelectricityprojectinBaRia-VungTauprovince,financedbytheWorldBankwithfullparticipationoftheprojectstakeholders(localauthorities,relevantdepartments,agenciesandhouseholdsintheprojectareas)andadequateprovisionofinformationregardingtheprojectandmeasurestomitigateenvironmentpollution.
Infact,MONREissueditsCircular05/2008/TT-BTNMTdated08December2008onguidingthestrategicenvironmentassessment,environmentalimpactassessmentandenvironmentalprotectioncommitments.Article2:CommunityConsultation,ChapterIII–Circular05/2008/TT-BTNMTprescribesthatprojectowner(s)shallpublicizeinformationtothelocalcommunityandorganizedialogueswiththeprojectowner(s)on
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maininvestmentitems,environmentproblems,andenvironmentprotectionbysendingoutitsofficialletterandaskforcommentsfromProvincialPeople’sCommitteesandtheCommunalFatherlandFrontintheprojectarea.Thesegovernmentbodies,however,maynotzealouslyrepresentlocalpeople’sinterests.
Eventhoughthereareseverallegalrequirements,Vietnam’scourtsseemtohavelittleregardforpublicparticipationortheruleoflaw.AttorneyCuHuyHaVufiledalawsuitagainstthePrimeMinisterforillegallyapprovingabauxiteminewithoutanEIAandwithoutapprovalbytheNationalAssembly.ThelawsuitwasrejectedonthegroundsthatMr.HaVuisnotalicensedlawyer.TheCourtofAppealsagreed,andrejectedanyfutureappealsaswell.Seewww.lookatvietnam.com/2009/07/cu-huy-ha-vu-not-a-lawyer.htmlandhttp://www.viettan.org/spip.php?article8644.
EIA requirements
Vietnam’slawexplicityrequiresEIA,intheLawonEnvironmentalProtection2005.ThelawstatesthatapprovaloftheEIAreportisaprerequisiteforaprojecttogetinvestmentandoperationallicenses.TheEnvironmentalProtectionLawalsodemandsthesupervisionandinspectionofcompliancewithenvironmentalprotectionrequirementssetoutintheEIAreportasapproved.
Unfortunately,asnotedabove,Vietnam’slegalrequirementstoproduceEIAsandsharethemwiththepublichavelittleforcewhenpowerfulpoliticianssuchasthePrimeMinisterwantaprojecttohappen.Ratherthanaddressinglegalissues,Vietnam’sgovernment(includingcourtsthatlackindependence)willintroduceimaginaryandmeaninglessarguments.Atthepresent,EIAreportsaremerelyconcernedwithshort-termanddirectlynegativeimpactsonthenaturalenvironment,andgivemuchlessattentiontolong-term,indirectandbeneficialimpactsonthesocialenvironment.Therecommendationsandoptionsformitigationoftheimpactsarecursory,infeasibleorfutile,ormerelyabaselesspromise.
EIAisessentiallyasystematicprocesstoidentify,predictandevaluatethenegativeenvironmentalandsocialeffectsofproposedactionsinordertoaiddecision-makingregardingthesignificantenvironmentalconsequencesofprojects,toensurethattheprojectisnotonlyeconomicallysoundbutalsosociallyandenvironmentallyviable.Nevertheless,themeaningofthistaskisnotfullyunderstoodbysomemanagersandinvestors.Usually,theyconsider
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EIAreportingtobeaprocedureofprojectpreparation/implementation.Worsestill,manyinvestors“blame”theEIArequirementsforhamperingtheirinvestmentandproductionactivities.Therefore,whenoneisrequested,anEIAreportispreparedjustforform’ssake,onemoreprocedureamongothersjusttomakesurethattheprojectiseligibleforapprovalwithoutdueattentionbeingpaidtothefactualenvironmentimpactsandhazards.TypicalexamplesincludethemassivepermissionsforgolfcourseprojectsinVietnamoverthelastfewyears.IfEIAreportsfortheprojectshadbeenpreparedinathoroughandpropermanner,therewouldnotbeconflictsbetweenprojectownersandthelocalcommunitiesontheownershipandaccessibilityofland,forestandwaterresources.
Avoiding or mitigating environmental impacts
Vietnam’sLawonEnvironmentalProtectionincludeslegally-bindingmeasuresforpreventing,minimizing,and/ormitigatingnegativeimpactsofdamsonriversflowingthroughprotectedareasaredirectlyintroducedthroughEIAs.
Furthermore,threatenedorendangeredspeciesareprotectedbymeansofvariousdocumentsincluding:
• theLawonForestProtectionandDevelopment2004,• theLawonEnvironmentalProtection2005,• theLawonFisheries,2003,• theOrdinanceonProtectionandQuarantineofPlants,2001,• GovernmentDecree175/1994/ND-CPontheImplementationofthe
LawonEnvironmentalProtection.Finally,thePenalCodeprovidesamaximumofsevenyearsimprisonment
fortheviolationofregulationsrelatedtotheprotectionofrareandwildspeciesofanimals.
Inordertobeeffective,theseprovisionsrequirevigilantenforcementbyconscientiousofficials.TherequisiteawarenessofconsequencesissometimeslackinginVietnam,ascanbeseenfromthesaleofendangeredpangolinsbywildlifeauthorities,encouragingevenmoreillegalwildlifetrafficking.Seehttp://www.panda.org/wwf_news/news/?153842/Seized-pangolins.
TheMRCmustalsoaddresstheneedtoremedyexistingdamspriortobuildingnewdams(Article7and8ofthe1995MekongAgreement).ThereisanongoingdisputebetweenCambodiaandVietnam,whohavenotbeenabletosuccessfullyresolvethecross-borderimpactsofYaliFallsDamon
Mekong River Dams 34
theSesanRiver.TheCambodiangovernmentmustprotectitspeoplefromharmoriginatinginVietnam,andmustalsofundorstaffitsagencyintheCambodianMoWRMdesignatedtoworkwiththegovernmentofVietnam.IfCambodialacksthecapacityandwilltoresolvethisexistingdispute,howwillVietnam’sgovernmentsolvemultiplefuturedisputeswithCambodiathatwillbeonafarlargerscale?
Formoreinformation,seereport“DownRiver”byHarvardLawSchool’sHumanRightsProgram,availableathttp://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/hrp/documents/down_river.pdf.
VietnamhasnotliveduptotheagreementsmadewithCambodiainthepast.Forexample,Vietnampromisedtobuildre-regulatingdamsontheSesanandSrepokRiversnearthebordersbetweenVietnamandCambodia(Srepok4AandSesan4A),buttherearenoreportsaboutwhetherthesere-regulatingdamsarebeingbuiltandwhethertheyareactuallyhydropowerdams.(ThiscommitmentwasmadeonJanuary12,2007attheCambodia-VietnamStakeholdersMeetingontheSrepokEIAreportatSunwayHotel,PhnomPenh).
Land confiscation, Compensation and Resettlement issues
Likeitsneighbors,Vietnamhasyearsofexperienceinrelocatingpeoplefordevelopmentprojects,aswellaswritinglawstoregulatethepractice.Accordingly,whenlandisrequisitionedbytheState,affectedpersonsshouldbecompensatedandassistedinresettlement,accordingtotheConstitutionof1992,theWaterResourcesLawof1998andtheLandLaw,2003.Furtherregulationsregardingcompensationinclude:
o Decree181/2004/ND-CPonLandLawimplementationo MinistryofFinanceCircular116/2004/TT-BTCo Decree197/2004/ND-CPoncompensation,supportand
resettlementwhenlandistakenbackbytheState;o Decree17/2006/ND-CPdated27/01/2006onrevisionof
previouslyissuedDecreesonLandLawimplementationandDecree187/2004/ND-CPonequitizationofState-ownedenterprises
o LawonEnvironmentalProtection:adverseimpactsontheenvironmentrequirecompensation.
Unfortunately,Vietnam’spreviouseffortsatresettlingpeoplefordamconstructionhavebeenfraughtwithdifficulties.Forexample,thousandsof
35 MekongLegalAdvocacyInstitute
ethnicminoritieshavebeenforcedtomovefortheSonLaDamontheDaRiver,buttheirpreviousoccupationaswetlandricefarmersleavesthemunpreparedformountaintopagricultureforceduponthembyrelocation.Monetarycomnpensationiscompletelyinadequatetorebuildtheirhomes,anddelaysintheprocessareleavingthousandsinabjectpoverty.Seehttp://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/asiapacific/news/article_1471157.php/Vietnam_admits_dam_resettlement_programmes_inadequate.
Mekong River Dams 36
EveryMekongcountryhasitsownlegalandpoliticalsystems.Thesesystemsvarywidely,someworktoprotecteconomicinterestsattheexpenseofothers,whilesomecountriesattempttoseekabalancebetweeneconomics,environmentandlocalpeople’slivelihoods.Somehavelawsthatprovideaccesstoinformationandseekpublicparticipation,whileothercountriesshunorevensuppressthevoicesoftheircitizens.
EachMekongmainstreamdamwillhaveanimpactontheenvironmentandpeoplefarbeyondthebordersofthecountrywhereitisbuilt.Giventhepatchworkoflawsandpoliciesthatwillbeusedtoregulatetheseimpacts,itisimpossibletoreconcileharmtolocalpeople’slivelihoods,includingfoodsecurity,watersupply,andtransportation,withtheeconomicbenefitsthatwillaccruetourbanpeoplewhowillusethepower.
Therefore,weurgetheadoptionofstandardizedlaws,policiesandproceduresthatcontrolwatershedplanning,protectaquaticecosystemsandwaterresources,regulatedamconstruction,relocationandcompensation,andaddressthewiderangeotherissuessurroundingdamconstructionacrosstheMekongRegion,beforethelivelihoodsofmillionsofpeopleareirretrievablydamaged.
Thiswillinvolvetwolevelsofaction.First,individualgovernmentsneedtoharmonizetheirownlegalregimesacrossallsectors,inordertobalancecompetinginterestswhileprotectingtheenvironmentandlocallivelihoods.Second,governmentsthroughouttheregionmustharmonizetheirlegalregimesgoverningwaterresourcesacrossborderstoprovideuniformpoliciesandprocedurestoallpeopleaffectedbyMekongdams.
OneexampleofcountriesadoptingadutytoperformEIAsforprojectswithimpactsthatcrossbordersistheConventiononEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentinaTransboundaryContext(Espoo,1991).Seehttp://www.unece.org/env/eia/.OfparticularinteresttoSoutheastAsiaarethestrongguidelinesforpublicparticipation.Theseguidelinesrecognizemultiplebenefits,suchas:
• Improvedrelationsbetweenpeoplesandcountries,andpreventionoftransboundaryenvironmentalconflicts
RegionalMessagefromMLAIandSamrethonMekongMainstreamDams
37 MekongLegalAdvocacyInstitute
• DevelopmentofcivilsocietyanddemocracyinthecountriesoftheECEregion
• Promototionoftimelydisclosureofrelevantinformationtoparticipantsintheenvironmentaldecision-makingprocess
• Makingpeopleunderstandandrespectthefinaldecisionsonprojects• Givinginsightintoenvironmentalprotectionandlong-term
environmentalproblems.(http://www.unece.org/env/eia/about/publicpart.html.)
InorderforthegovernmentsoftheMekongRegiontoensurearobustfutureforalltheirinhabitants,itisessentialthattheycommittocomprehensiveandtransparentSEAandEIAprocesses.Thisisinadditiontotheneedfortimely,multidisciplinaryEIAs,adherencetoruleoflaw,andprovisionoffair,adequatecompensationforconfiscatedpropertyandlostlivelihoods.
Mekong River Dams 38
ANoteonSources
MostlegalauthoritieshereinhavebeenextractedfromMekongRegionWaterResourcesDecision-making:NationalPolicyandLegalFrameworksvis-à-visWorldCommissiononDamsStrategicPriorities,IUCN(2006),Availableonlineathttp://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/mekong_region_water_resources_decision_making.pdf.
The2007ConstitutionofThailandcanbefoundathttp://www.asianlii.org/th/legis/const/2007/1.html.
Contacts for MLAI and Samreth Law GroupMr.MartyBergoffenEarthRightsInternationalMekongLegalCoordinator+66(8)43727696Email:[email protected]
SamrethLawGroupPhone:(+855)12585269