Meditation - Practices in Various Religions

7/29/2019 Meditation - Practices in Various Religions

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9/24/13 Meditation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation

Meditation is a practice in which an individual trains the mindor induces a mode of consciousness, either to realize

some benefit[1]or as an end in itself. [2]

The term meditationrefers to a broa d variety of practices (much like the term sports) that includes techniques

designedto promote relaxation, build internal energy or life force (qi, ki,prana, etc.) and develop compassion,[3]love,

patience,generosity an d forgiveness. A particularly ambitious form of meditation aims at effortlessly sustained single

pointed concentration[4]s ingle-pointed analysis, [5]meant to enable its practit ioner to enjoy an indestructible sense of

well-beingwhile en gaging in any life activity.

The word meditationcarries differ ent meanings in different contexts. Meditation has been practiced since antiquity as

a component of numerous religious traditions and beliefs.[6]Meditation often involves an internal effort to self-regulate

the mind in some way. Meditation is often used to clear the mind and ease many health issues, such as high blood

pressure,[7] depression, and anxiety. It may be done sitting, or in an active way - for instance, Buddhist

monksin volve awareness in their day-to-day activities as a form of mind-training. Prayer beadsor other ritual objects

are commonly usedduring meditation in order to keep track of or remind the practitioner about some aspect of the

training.

Meditation may involve generating an emotional state for the purpose of analyzing that state such as anger,

hatred, etc. or cultivating particular mental response to various phenomena, such as compassion.[8]The term

"meditation" can refer to the state itself, as well as to practices or techniques employed to cultivate thestate.[9]Medita tion may also involve repeating a mantraand closing the eyes. [10] The mantra is chosen based on its

suitability to the individual meditator. Meditation has a calming effect and directs awareness inward until pure

awareness is achieved, described as "being awake inside without being aware of anything except awareness

itself."[11] In brief, there are dozens of spe cific styles of meditation practice, and many different types of activity

commonly referred to as meditative practices.[12]

Contents [hide]

1 Etymology

2 History

3 Modern definitions and Western models3.1 Definitions and scope

3.2 Western typologies

4 Religious and spiritual meditation

4.1 Bah' Faith

4.2 Buddhism

4.3 Christianity

4.4 Hinduism

4.5 Islam

4.6 Jainism

4.7 Judaism

4.8 Pagan and Occult Religions

4.9 New Age

4.10 Sikhism

4.11 Daoism

4.12 Prayer beads

5 Secular meditation in the West

5.1 Mindfulness

6 Modern cross-cultural dissemination

7 Western context
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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation 2

8 Meditation, religion, and drugs

9 Physical postures

10 Scientific studies

11 Popular culture

12 See also

13 References

14 Bibliography

14.1 Further reading

15 External links

Etymology [edit source]

The English meditation is derived from the Latin meditatio, from a verb meditari, meaning "to think, contemplate,

devise, ponder".[13]

In the Old Testament, hg (Hebrew: ) means to sigh or murmur, and also, to meditate. When the HebrewBiblewas translated into Greek, hgbecame the Greek melete. The Latin Bible then

translated hg/meleteinto meditatio.[14]The use of the term meditatioas part of a formal, stepwise process of

meditation goes back to the 12th-century monk Guigo II.[15]

The Tibetan word for meditation "Gom" means "to become familiar with one's Self" and has the strong implication of

training the mind to be familiar with states that are beneficial: concentration, compassion, correct understanding,

patience, humility, perseverance, etc.[16]

Apart from its historical usage, the term meditationwas introduced as a translation for Eastern spiritual practices,

referred to as dhyna in Buddhismand in Hinduism, which comes from the Sanskritroot dhyai, meaning to

contemplate or meditate.[9][17]The term "meditation" in English may also refer to practices from Islamic Sufism,[18]or

other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalahand Christian Hesychasm.[19] An edited book about "meditation" published

in 2003, for example, included chapter contributions by authors describing Hindu, Buddhist, Taoist, Jewish, Christian

and Islamic traditions.[20][21]Scholars have noted that "the term 'meditation' as it has entered contemporary usage" is

parallel to the term "contemplation" in Christianity.[22]

According to Ariel, David S. says that meditation was not something practiced without deliberation and prior

commitment to the Jewish faith. from the fraternities of Merkava meditation to the whole Hasidic communities

engaging in meditative act, Jews were expected to follow Jewish laws and customs at the very least moreover, as

seen in cases of the Prophets and later meditation techniques, a certain level of purification was needed.(4)

History [edit source]

Main article: History of meditation

The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced.[23]Even in

prehistoric times civilizations used repetitive, rhythmic chants and offerings to appease the gods. [24] Some authors

have even suggested the hypothesis that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many

methods of meditation,[25]may have contributed to the final phases of human biological evolution. [26]Some of the

earliest references to meditation are found in theHindu Vedas.[23] Wilson translates the most famous Vedic mantra

'Gayatri' thus : "We meditate on that desirable light of the divine Savitri, who influences our piuous rites" (Rgveda :

Mandala-3, Sukta-62, Rcha-10). Around the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, other forms of meditation developed

in TaoistChina and BuddhistIndia. [23]

In the west, by 20 BCE Philo of Alexandriahad written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention

(prosoche) and concentration[27]and by the 3rd century Plotinushad developed meditative techniques.
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Man Meditating in a Garden Setting

Buddhistmonk Meditating in a Waterfall Setting

The Pli Canon, which dates to 1st century BCE considers

Indian Buddhistmeditation as a step towards salvation. [28]By the time

Buddhism was spreading in China, the Vimalakirti Sutrawhich dates to

100 CE included a number of passages on meditation, clearly pointing

to Zen.[29] The Silk Road transmission of Buddhismintroduced meditation

to other Asian countries, and in 653 the first meditation hall was opened in

Singapore.[30]Returning from China around 1227, Dgen wrote the

instructions for Zazen.[31][32]

The Islamicpractice of Dhikrhad involved the repetition of the 99 Names

of God since the 8th or 9th century.[33][34]By the 12th century, the

practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its

followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy

words.[35]Interactions with Indians or the Sufismay have influenced

the Eastern Christianmeditation approach to hesychasm, but this can not

be proved.[36][37] Between the 10th and 14th centuries, hesychasmwas

developed, particularly on Mount Athosin Greece, and involves the

repetition of the Jesus prayer.[38]

WesternChristianmeditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it

does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no

specific posture. WesternChristian meditationprogressed from the

6th century practice of Bible reading amongBenedictinemonks

called Lectio Divina, i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a

"ladder" were defined by the monk Guigo IIin the 12th century with

the Latin terms lectio,meditatio, oratio, and contemplatio(i.e. read,

ponder, pray, contemplate). WesternChristian meditationwas further

developed by saints such as Ignatius of Loyolaand Teresa of Avilain

the 16th century.[39][40][41][42]

By the 18th century, the study of Buddhism in the Westwas a topic

for intellectuals. The philosopher Schopenhauerdiscussed

it,[43]and Voltaireasked for toleration towards Buddhists. [44] The first

English translation of the Tibetan Book of the Deadwas published in

1927.[45]

Secular forms of meditation were introduced in India in the 1950s as a

Westernized form of Hindu meditative techniques and arrived in the

United States and Europe in the 1960s. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes

stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement.[46][47]Both spiritual and secular forms of meditation have been

subjects of scientific analyses. Research on meditationbegan in 1931, with scientific research increasing

dramatically during the 1970s and 1980s.[48]Since the beginning of the '70s more than a thousand studies of

meditation in English-language have been reported.[48]However, after 60 years of scientific study, the exact

mechanism at work in meditation remains unclear. [49]

Modern definitions and Western models [edit source]

Definitions and scope [edit source]
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Definitions or Characterizations of Meditation:

Examples from Prominent Reviews*

Definition / Characterization Review

"[M]editation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness in

order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-

being and development and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration"[50]:228-9

Walsh &

Shapiro

(2006)

"[M]editation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby affecting mental

events by engaging a specific attentional s et.... regulation of attention is the central commonality across the

many divergent methods"[51]:180

Cahn &

Polich

(2006)

"We define meditation... as a stylized mental technique... repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a

subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often

characterized as blissful"[52]:415

Jevning

et al.

(1992)

"the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness , is the

single invariant ingredient in... every meditation system"[19]:107Goleman

(1988)

*Influential reviews (cited >50 times in PsycINFO[53]),

encompassing multiplemethods of meditation.

As early as 1971, Claudio Naranjonoted that "The word 'meditation' has been used to designate a variety of practices

that differ enough from one another so that we may find trouble in defining what meditationis." [54]:6There remains no

definition of necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved universal or widespread acceptance

within the modern scientific community, as one study recently noted a "persistent lack of consensus in the literature"

and a "seeming intractability of defining meditation".[55]:135

In popular usage, the word "meditation" and the phrase "meditative practice" are often used imprecisely to designate

broadly similar practices, or sets of practices, that are found across many cultures and traditions.[19][56]

Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been the need to recognize the particularities of the many

various traditions.[57] There may be differences between the theories of one tradition of meditation as to what it means

to practice meditation.[58] The differences between the various traditions themselves, which have grown up a great

distance apart from each other, may be even starker.[58] The defining of what 'meditation' is has caused difficulties for

modern scientists. Scientific reviews have proposed that researchers attempt to more clearly define the type of

meditation being practiced in order that the results of their studies be made clearer. [57]:499 Taylor noted that to refer

only to meditation from a particular faith (e.g., "Hindu" or "Buddhist")

is not enough, since the cultural traditions from which a particular kind of meditation comes are quite

different and even within a single tradition differ in complex ways. The specific name of a school of

thought or a teacher or the title of a specific text is often quite important for identifying a particular typeof meditation.[59]:2

The table shows several definitions of meditation that have been used by influential modern reviews of research on

meditation across multiple traditions. Within a specific context, more precise meanings are not uncommonly given

the word "meditation."[60]For example, 'meditation', is sometimes the translation of meditatioin Latin, which is the

third of four steps of Lectio Divina, an ancient form of Christian prayer. 'Meditation' may also refer to the second of the

three steps of Yogain Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, a step called dhynain Sanskrit. Meditation may refer to a mental or

spiritual statethat may be attained by such practices, [9]and may also refer to the practice of that state.

This article mainly focuses on meditation in the broad sense of a type of discipline, found in various forms in many
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Patajali Statue (traditional

form indicating Kundalinior

incarnation of Shesha)

Bodhidharmapracticing zazen.

cultures, by which the practitioner attempts to get beyond the reflexive, "thinking"

mind[61] (sometimes called "discursive thinking" [62] or "logic" [63]) into a deeper, more

devout, or more relaxed state. The terms "meditative practice" and "meditation" are

mostly used here in this broad sense. However, usage may vary somewhat by

context readers should be aware that in quotations, or in discussions of particular

traditions, more specialized meanings of "meditation" may sometimes be used (with

meanings made clear by context whenever possible).

Western typologies [edit source]

Ornstein noted that "most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary practices

but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice and

belief".[64]:143This means that, for instance, while monks engage in meditation as a

part of their everyday lives, they also engage the codified rules and live together in

monasteries in specific cultural settings that go along with their meditative practices.

These meditative practices sometimes have similarities (often noticed by

Westerners), for instance concentration on the breath is practiced in Zen, Tibetan and

Theravadan contexts, and these similarities or 'typologies' are noted here.

Progress on the "intractable" problem of defining meditation was attempted by arecent study of views common to seven experts trained in diverse but empirically

highly studied (clinical or Eastern-derived) forms of meditation.[65]The study

identified "three main criteria... as essential to any meditation practice: the use of

a defined technique, logic relaxation, and a self-induced state/mode. Other criteria

deemed important [but not essential] involve a state of psychophysical relaxation,

the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of suspension of

logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical context, or a state of

mental silence".[55]:135 However, the study cautioned that "It is plausible that

meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by

'family resemblances'... or by the related prototype model of concepts".[55]:135[66]

In modern psychological research, meditation has been defined and characterized

in a variety of ways; many of these emphasize the role of attention.[19][50][51][52]

In the West, meditation is sometimes thought of in two broad categories:

concentrative meditation and mindfulnessmeditation. [67]These two categories are

discussed in the following two paragraphs, with concentrative meditation being

used interchangeably with focused attention and mindfulness meditation being used interchangeably with open

monitoring,

direction of mental attention... A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-

called concentrative meditation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-

called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness. [55]:130[68]

"One style, Focused Attention (FA) meditation, entails the voluntary focusing of attention on a chosen

object. The other style, Open Monitoring (OM) meditation, involves non-reactive monitoring of the

content of experience from moment to moment."[69]

Other typologies have also been proposed,[70][71][additional citations usef ul]and some techniques shift among major

categories.[72]

Evidence from neuroimaging studies suggests that the categories of meditation, defined by how they direct attention,
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Dynamic tranquility: the Buddha

incontemplation.

appear to generate different brainwave patterns.[70][71][additional citations usef ul]Evidence also suggests that using

different focus objects during meditation may generate different brainwave patterns. [73]

Religious and spiritual meditation [edit source]

Bah' Faith [edit source]

In the teachings of the Bah' Faithmeditation, along with prayer, is one of the primary tools for spiritual

development, [74]and it mainly refers to one's reflection on the words of God. [75]While prayerand meditation are linkedwhere meditation happens generally in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God, [76]and

meditation is seen as a communion with one's self where one focuses on the divine. [75]

The Bah' teachingsnote that the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one's understanding of the words of God,

and to make one's soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power,[75]and that both prayer and

meditation are needed to bring about and to maintain a spiritual communion with God. [77]

Bah'u'llh, the founder of the religion, never specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free

to choose their own form.[74]However, he specifically did state that Bah's should read a passage of the Bah'

writingstwice a day, once in the morning, and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to

reflect on one's actions and worth at the end of each day.

[75]

The Nineteen Day Fast, a nineteen-day period of theyear, during which Bah's adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, is also seen as meditative, where Bah's must

meditate and pray to reinvigorate their spiritual forces. [78]

Buddhism [edit source]

Main article: Buddhist meditation

Buddhist meditationrefers to the meditative practices associated with the

religion and philosophy of Buddhism. Core meditation techniques have

been preserved in ancientBuddhist textsand have proliferated and

diversified through teacher-student transmissions.Buddhistspursue

meditation as part of the path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana.[79] The

closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism

are bhvan,[80]jhna/dhyna,[81]and vipassana. According to Manmatha

Nath Dutt, there is hardly any difference between mainstream Hinduism's

Dhyana, Dharana and Samadhi with the Buddhist Dhyana, Bhavana,

Samadhi, especially as both require following the precepts (nayas and

niyamas.)

Buddhist meditation techniques have become increasingly popular in the

wider world, with many non-Buddhists taking them up for a variety of reasons. There is considerable homogeneity

across meditative practices such as breath meditationand various recollections ( anussati) that are used

across Buddhist schools, as well as significant diversity. In the Theravdatradition alone, there are over fifty methods

for developing mindfulness and forty for developing concentration, while in the Tibetantradition there are thousands of

visualization meditations.[82]Most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific. [83]

The Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice:

"serenity" or "tranquillity" (Pali: samatha) which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind;

"insight" (Pali: vipassana) which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned

phenomena based on the five aggregates).[84]

Through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to release obscuring hindrances; and it is, with the
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A strong believer in Christian

meditation, Saint Padre Piostated:"Through the study of books one

seeks God; by meditation one

finds him".[86]

A large statue in Bangaloredepicting

Lord Shivameditating

release of the hindrances, through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberating wisdom.[85]

Christianity [edit source]

Main articles: Christian meditation,Aspects of Christian

meditation, Contemplative prayer,Hesychasm, and Theoria

Christian Meditationis a term for form of prayer in which a structured attempt is

made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations

of God.[87]The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditari, which meansto concentrate. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on

specific thoughts (e.g. a biblicalscene involving Jesusand the Virgin Mary) and

reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God. [88]

Christian meditation contrasts with cosmic styles of eastern meditation as

radically as the portrayal of God the Fatherin the Bible contrasts with discussions

of Krishnaor Brahmanin Indian teachings. [89] Unlike eastern meditations, most

styles of Christian meditations do not rely on the repeated use of mantras, but are

intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to

heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian

communion. [90][91]

InAspects of Christian meditation, the Catholic Churchwarned of potential

incompatibilities in mixing Christian and eastern styles of meditation.[92] In 2003,

inA Christian reflection on the New Agethe Vaticanannounced that the "Church

avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age".[93][94][95]

Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three stage characterization of prayer: it

then involves more reflection than first level vocal prayer, but is more structured than the multiple layers

of contemplationin Christianity. [96]

Hinduism [edit source]See also: Dhyana in Hinduismand Yoga

There are many schools and styles of meditation within Hinduism. Yoga is

generally done to prepare one for meditation, and meditation is done to

realize union of one's self, one's atman, with the omnipresent and non-

dual Brahman. This experience is referred to as mokshaby Hindus, and is

similar to the concept of Nirvanain Buddhism. The earliest clear

references to meditation in Hinduliterature are in the

middleUpanishadsand the Mahabharata, which includes the Bhagavad

Gita.[97][98] According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka

Upanishadrefers to meditation when it states that "having becoming calm

and concentrated, one perceives the self (tman) within oneself".[99]

Within Patajali's ashtangayoga practice there are eight limbs leading

to kaivalya"aloneness." These are ethical discipline (yamas), rules

(niyamas), physical postures (sanas), breath control (pryama),

withdrawal from the senses (pratyhra), one-pointedness of mind

(dhra), meditation (dhyna), and finally samdhi, which is often

described as the realization of the identity of the Self (tman) with the omnipresent (Brahman), and is the ultimate

aim of all Hindu yogis.
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Dhikr

Meditation in Hinduism is practiced in different forms by different schools and sects and has expanded beyond

Hinduism to the West.[99]

The influential modern proponent of Hinduism who first introduced Eastern philosophy to the West in the late 19th

century, Swami Vivekananda, describes meditation as follows:

Meditation has been laid stress upon by all religions. The meditative state of mind is declared by the

Yogis to be the highest state in which the mind exists. When the mind is studying the external object,

it gets identified with it, loses itself. To use the simile of the old Indian philosopher: the soul of man is

like a piece of crystal, but it takes the colour of whatever is near it. Whatever the soul touches ... it has

to take its colour. That is the difficulty. That constitutes the bondage.[100]

Islam [edit source]

Main articles: Sufi, Muraqaba, Sema, and Dhikr#Sufi_view

Remembrance of God in Islam, which is known by the concept Dhikris

interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufismor Islamic

mysticism. [33][34]This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it

was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with fikr (thinking) which

leads to knowledge.[101]By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included

specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls

and the repetition of holy words. [35]

Numerous Sufi traditionsplace emphasis upon a meditative procedure which

comes from the cognitive aspect to one of the two principal approaches to be

found in the Buddhist traditions: that of the concentrationtechnique, involving

high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-

Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, this is particularly evident,

where muraqabatakes the form of tamarkoz, the latter being a Persianterm

that means concentration. Meditative quiescence is said to have a quality ofhealing, andin contemporary

terminologyenhancing creativity.[102]

Tafakkuror tadabburin Sufism literally means reflection upon the universe: this is considered to permit access to a

form of cognitiveand emotionaldevelopment that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The

sensation of receiving divine inspirationawakens and liberates both heartand intellect, permitting such inner growth

that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the infinite. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of

one's submission to God.[103]

Meditation in the Sufi traditionsis largely based on a spectrum of mysticalexercises, varying from one lineage to

another. Such techniques, particularly the more audacious, can be, and often have been down the ages, a source of

controversy among scholars. One broad group ofulema, followers of the great Al-Ghazzali, for example, have in

general been open to such techniques and forms of devotion.

In recent years, meditation or Muraqabahas been popularized in various parts of the world by Silisila Naqshbandia

Mujaddadia under Nazim Al-Haqqaniand Silsila Azeemiaunder Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi.

Jainism [edit source]

Main article: Jain meditation

In Jainism, meditation has been a core spiritual practice, one that Jains believe people have undertaken since the

teaching of the Tirthankara, Rishabha.[104]All the twenty-four Tirthankaras practiced deep meditation and attained

enlightenment. [105]They are all shown in meditative postures in the images or idols. Mahavirapracticed deep
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Mahavirain meditative posture

meditation for twelve years and attainedenlightenment.[106]The Acaranga

Sutradating to 500 BCE, addresses the meditation system of Jainism in

detail.[107] Acharya Bhadrabahuof the 4th century BCE practiced

deep Mahapranameditation for twelve years. [108]Kundakundaof 1st century BCE,

opened new dimensions of meditation in Jain tradition through his

booksSamayasra, Pravachansar and others.[109]

Jain meditation and spiritual practices system were referred to as salvation-path. It

has three important parts called the Ratnatraya"Three Jewels": right perceptionand faith, right knowledge and right conduct. [110]Meditation in Jainism aims at

realizing the self, attaining salvation, take the soul to complete freedom.[111]It

aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure

consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be

just a knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized

to Dharmya Dhyanaand Shukla Dhyana.

There exists a number of meditation techniques such aspindstha-dhyna, padstha-dhyna, rpstha-dhyna,

rptita-dhyna, savrya-dhyna, etc. Inpadstha dhynaone focuses on Mantra.[112]A Mantra could be either a

combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. There is a rich tradition of Mantrain Jainism. All Jain

followers irrespective of their sect, whether Digambaraor Svetambara, practice mantra. Mantra chanting is an

important part of daily lives of Jain monks and followers. Mantra chanting can be done either loudly or silently in

mind. Yogasanaand Pranayamahas been an important practice undertaken since ages. Pranayama breathing

exercises are performed to strengthen the five Pranas or vital energy. [113] Yogasanaand Pranayamabalances the

functioning of neuro-endocrine system of body and helps in achieving good physical, mental and emotional

health.[114]

Contemplation is a very old and important meditation technique. The practitioner meditates deeply on subtle facts.

In agnya vichya, one contemplates on seven facts life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal

of karmas, and the final accomplishment of liberation. In apaya vichya, one contemplates on the incorrect insights

one indulges, which eventually develops right insight. In vipaka vichya, one reflects on the eight causes or basic

types of karma. In sansathan vichya, one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the

soul.[112]

Acharya Mahapragyaformulated Preksha meditationin the 1970s and presented a well-organised system of

meditation. Asanaand Pranayama, meditation, contemplation, mantra and therapy are its integral

parts.[115]Numerous Preksha meditation centers came into existence around the world and numerous meditations

camps are being organized to impart training in it.

Judaism [edit source]

Main article: Jewish meditation

There is evidence that Judaism has had meditative practices that go back thousands of years. [116][117]For instance,

in the Torah, the patriarch Isaacis described as going " " (lasuach) in the fielda term understood by allcommentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis24:63). [118]

Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanach(the Hebrew Bible) that meditation was used by the

prophets.[119]In the Old Testament, there are two Hebrewwords for meditation: hg( Hebrew: ), which means tosighor murmur, but also to meditate, and s( Hebrew:), which means to muse, or rehearse in one's mind.The Jewish mystical tradition, Kabbalah, is inherently a meditative field of study.[120][121]Traditionally, Kabbalah is

only taught to Jews over the age of forty in Ashkenaz, though training begins at 13 in Sephardic and Mizrahi

communities. The Talmudrefers to the advantage of the scholar over the prophet, as his understanding takes on
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intellectual, conceptual form, that deepens mental grasp, and can be communicated to others. The advantage of the

prophet over the scholar is in the transcendence of their intuitive vision. The ideal illumination is achieved when the

insights of mystical revelation are brought into conceptual structures. For example, Isaac Luriarevealed new

doctrines of Kabbalah in the 16th Century, that revolutionised and reordered its teachings into a new

system.[122]However, he did not write down his teachings, which were recounted and interpreted instead by his close

circle of disciples. After a mystical encounter, called in Kabbalistic t radition an "elevation of the soul" into the spiritua

realms, Isaac Luria said that it would take 70 years to explain all that he had experienced. As Kabbalah evolved its

teachings took on successively greater conceptual form and philosophical system. Nonetheless, as is implied by the

name of Kabbalah, which means "to receive", its exponents see that for the student to understand its teachings

requires a spiritual intuitive reception that illuminates and personalises the intellectual structures.

Corresponding to the learning of Kabbalah are its traditional meditative practices, as for the Kabbalist, the ultimate

purpose of its study is to understand and cleave to the Divine.[123]Classic methods include the mental visualisation of

the supernal realms the soul navigates through to achieve certain ends. One of the best known types of meditation in

early Jewish mysticism was the work of the Merkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).

In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called "hitbodedut" ( , alternativelytransliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in Kabbalistic,Hasidic, and Mussarwritings, especially the Hasidic

method of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" ( ), meaning the state ofbeing alone.[124]Another Hasidic system is the Habadmethod of "hisbonenus", related to the Sephirahof "Binah",Hebrew for understanding.[125]This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a

mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings.

Pagan and Occult Religions [edit source]

Religions and religious movements which use magic, such as Wicca, Thelema,Neopaganism, occultismetc., often

require their adherents to meditate as a preliminary to magical work. This is because magic is often thought to

require a particular state of mind in order to make contact with spirits, or because one has to visualize one's goal or

otherwise keep intent focused for a long period during the ritual in order to see the desired outcome. Meditation

practice in these religions usually revolves around visualization, absorbing energy from the universe or higher self,

directing one's internal energy, and inducing various trance states. Meditation and magic practice often overlap in

these religions as meditation is often seen as merely a stepping stone to supernatural power, and the meditation

sessions may be peppered with various chants and spells.

New Age [edit source]

Main article: New Age

New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, mysticism, Yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet

may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the

social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the youth of the day rebelled against traditional belief

systemsas a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethicalguidance.[126]New Age meditation as practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the

mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing

on an object.[127]

Sikhism [edit source]

Main article: Nm Jap

In Sikhism, simran(meditation) and good deeds are both necessary to achieve the devotees Spiritual

goals,[128]without good deeds meditation is futile. When Sikhs mediate they aim to feel God's presence and

immerge in the divine light.[129]It is only God's divine willor order that
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Sikh's gather in Gurdw ara's and

reciteShabad Kirtan, a vocal meditation

"Gathering the Light", Taoist

meditation from The Secret of the

Golden Flower

allows a devotee to desire to begin to mediate.Guru Nanakin the Japji

Sahib daily Sikh scriptureexplains, "Visits to temples, penance,

compassion and charity gain you but a sesame seed of credit. It is

hearkening to His Name, accepting and adoring Him that obtains

emancipation by bathing in the shrine of soul. All virtues are Yours, O

Lord! I have none; Without good does one can't even mediate." Japji

Sahib(Stanza 21). [130]

Nm Japninvolves focusing one's attention on the names or greatattributes of God.[131]The practices of Simran and Nm Japn encourage

quiet internal meditation but may be practiced vocally in the sangat(holy

congregation). Sikhs believe that there are 10 'gates' to the body, 9 visible holes (eg nose holes, ears holes, mouth,

belly button, etc) and the 10th invisible hole. The 10th invisible hole is the top most energy level is called the tenth

gate or Dasam Duaar. When one reaches this stage through continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that

continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavour when a

meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, and experiences absolute peace and tranquility inside and outside

the body.

Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that love comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation

only conjures up positive emotions in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first Guru of the Sikhs,Guru Nanak Dev Ji preached the equality of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householder's life

instead of wandering around jungles meditating, the latter of which being a popular practice at the time. The Guru

preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love

amongst every human being regardless of religion.

In the Sikh religion, kirtan, otherwise known as singing the hymns of God is seen as one of the most beneficial ways

of aiding meditation, and it too in some ways is believed to be a meditation of one kind.

Daoism [edit source]

Main article: Daoist meditation

Taoist or Daoist meditation has a long history, and has developed various

techniques including concentration, visualization, qicultivation, contemplation, and

mindfulness meditations. Traditional Daoist meditative practices were influenced

by Chinese Buddhismbeginning around the 5th century, and later had influence

uponTraditional Chinese medicineand the Chinese martial arts.

Livia Kohn distinguishes three basic types of Daoist meditation: "concentrative",

"insight", and "visualization".[132] Ding(literally means "decide; settle;

stabilize") refers to "deep concentration", "intent contemplation", or "perfect

absorption." Guan(lit. "watch; observe; view") meditation seeks to merge attain

unity with the Dao. It was developed by Tang Dynasty(618907) Daoist masters

based upon the TiantaiBuddhist practice of Vipassan"insight" or "wisdom"

meditation. Cun(lit. "exist; be present; survive") has a sense of "to cause to

exist; to make present" in the meditation techniques popularized by the

Daoist Shangqingand Lingbao Schools. A meditator visualizes or actualizes solar

and lunar essences, lights, and deities within his/her body, which supposedly

results in health and longevity, evenxian"immortality".

The (late 4th century) Guanziessay Neiye"Inward training" is the oldest received writing on the subject

of qicultivation and breath-control meditation techniques. [133]For instance, "When you enlarge your mind and let go

of it, when you relax your vital breath and expand it, when your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the
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A collective meditation in Sri Lanka

One and discard the myriad disturbances. This is called "revolving the vital breath": Your thoughts and deeds

seem heavenly."[134]

The (c. 3rd century BCE) Daoist Zhuangzirecords zuowangor "sitting forgetting" meditation. Confuciusasked his

disciple Yan Huito explain what "sit and forget" means: "I slough off my limbs and trunk, dim my intelligence, depart

from my form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational Thoroughfare."[135]

Daoist meditation practices are central to Chinese martial arts(and some Japanese martial arts), especially the qi-

related Neijia"internal martial arts". Some well-known examples are Daoyin"guiding and pulling", Qigong" life-energy

exercises", Neigong"internal exercises", Neidan"internal alchemy", and Taijiquan"great ultimate boxing", which isthought of as moving meditation. One common explanation contrasts "movement in stillness" referring to energetic

visualization of qicirculation in Qigongand zuochan"seated meditation", [72]versus "stillness in movement" referring

to a state of meditative calm in Taijiquan forms.

Prayer beads [edit source]

Most of the ancient religions of the world have a tradition of using some type of prayer beadsas tools in devotional

meditation.[136][137][138]Most prayer beads and Christian rosariesconsist of pearls or beads linked together by a

thread.[136][137] The Roman Catholic rosaryis a string of beads containing five sets with ten small beads. Each set of

ten is separated by another bead. The Hindu japa malahas 108 beads, as well as those used in Jainismand Buddhis

prayer beads.[139]Each bead is counted once as a person recites a mantrauntil the person has gone all the way

around the mala, which is counted as 100, with an extra 8 there to compensate for missed beads.[139]The

Muslim mishbahahas 99 beads. Specific meditations of each religion may be different.

Secular meditation in the West [edit source]

As stated by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative

Medicine, a U.S. government entity within the National Institutes of Health

that advocates various forms of Alternative Medicine, "Meditation may be

practiced for many reasons, such as to increase calmness and physical

relaxation, to improve psychological balance, to cope with illness, or toenhance overall health and well-being."[140]

Herbert Bensonof Harvard Medical Schoolconducted a series of clinical

tests on meditators from various disciplines, including theTranscendental

Meditation techniqueand Tibetan Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a

book titled The Relaxation Responsewhere he outlined his own version of

meditation for relaxation.[141]

Biofeedbackhas been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind. [142][143

Mindfulness [edit source]

Main articles: Mindfulness (psychology)and Mindfulness

Over the past 20 years, mindfulness-based programshave become increasingly important to Westerners and in the

Western medical and psychological community as a means of helping people, whether they be clinically sick or

healthy.[144] Jon Kabat-Zinn, who founded theMindfulness-Based Stress Reduction programin 1979, has defined

mindfulness as 'moment to moment non-judgmental awareness.'[145]:626 Several methods are used during time set

aside specifically for mindfulness meditation, such as body scan techniques or letting thought arise and pass, and

also during our daily lives, such as being aware of the taste and texture of the food that we eat.[146]Scientifically

demonstrated benefits of mindfulness practice include an increase in the body's ability to heal and a shift from a

tendency to use the right prefrontal cortexinstead of the left prefrontal cortex, associated with a trend away from
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Meditating in Madison Square Park, New

York City

depression and anxiety, and towards happiness, relaxation, and emotional balance. [147]

Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxationwas developed by American physician Edmund Jacobsonin the early

1920s. In this practice one tenses and then relaxes muscle groups in a sequential pattern whilst concentrating on

how they feel. The method has been seen to help people with many conditions especially extreme anxiety. [148]

Modern cross-cultural dissemination [edit source]

Methods of meditation have been cross-culturally disseminated at various times throughout history, such as

Buddhism going to East Asia, and Sufi practicesgoing to many Islamic societies. Of special relevance to the modern

world is the dissemination of meditative practices since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and

communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of numerous Asian-derived

practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has also been

revived,[149]and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries. [150]

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American

Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity,"[59]:3and such ideas "came pouring in [to

America] during the era of thetranscendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s."[59]:3But

The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased

Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil

received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda... [founded]

variousVedantaashrams... Anagarika Dharmapalalectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist

meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha.. . [toured] the US teaching the principles of Bahai, and Soyen

Shakutoured in 1907 teaching Zen... [59]:4

More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. Observers have

suggested many types of explanations for this interest in Eastern meditation and revived Western

contemplation. Thomas Keating, a founder of Contemplative Outreach, wrote that "the rush to the East is a symptom

of what is lacking in the West. There is a deep spiritual hunger that is not being satisfied in the West."[151]:31 Daniel

Goleman, a scholar of meditation, suggested that the shift in interest from "established religions" to meditative

practices "is caused by the scarcity of the personal experience of these [meditation-derived] transcendental states

the living spirit at the common core of all religions." [19]:xxiv

Another suggested contributing factor is the rise of communist political power in Asia, which, "set the stage for an

influx of Asian spiritual teachers to the West," [59]:7oftentimes as refugees. [152]

Western context [edit source]

In the late 19th century, Theosophistsadopted the word "meditation" to

refer to various spiritual practices drawn from Hinduism, Buddhismand

other Indian religions. Thus the English word "meditation" does not

exclusively translate to any single term or concept, and can be used to

translate words such as

the Sanskrit dhra,dhyna, samdhiand bhvan.[citation needed]

Meditation may be for a religious purpose, but even before being brought

to the West it was used in secular contexts.[citation needed]Beginning with

the Theosophists meditation has been employed in the West by a number

of religious and spiritual movements, such as Yoga, New Ageand

the New Thoughtmovement.
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Meditation techniques have also been used by Western theories of counseling and psychotherapy. Relaxation

training works toward achieving mental and muscle relaxation to reduce daily stresses. Jacobson is credited with

developing the initial progressive relaxation procedure. These techniques are used in conjunction with other behaviora

techniques. Originally used with systematic desensitization, relaxation techniques are now used with other clinical

problems. Meditation, hypnosis and biofeedback-induced relaxation are a few of the techniques used with relaxation

training. One of the eight essential phases of EMDR(developed by Francine Shapiro), bringing adequate closure to

the end of each session, also entails the use of relaxation techniques, including meditation. Multimodal therapy, a

technically eclectic approach to behavioral therapy, also employs the use of meditation as a technique used in

individual therapy.[153]

From the point of view of psychologyand physiology, meditation can induce an altered state of

consciousness.[154] Such altered states of consciousness may correspond to altered neuro-physiologic states. [155]

Meditation, religion, and drugs [edit source]

Main articles: Entheogensand Religion and drugs

Many traditions in which meditation is practiced, such as Sahaja Yoga, Transcendental

Meditation,[156]Buddhism, [157]Hinduism, [158]and other religions, advise members not to consume intoxicants, while

others, such as the Rastafarian movements and Native American Church, view drugs as integral to their religiouslifestyle.

The fifth of the five precepts of the Pancasila, the ethical code in the Theravadaand Mahayana Buddhisttraditions,

states that adherents must not ingest, "intoxicating drinks and drugs causing heedlessness."

On the other hand, the ingestion of psychoactives has been a central feature in the rituals of many religions, in order

to produce altered states of consciousness. In several traditionalshamanisticceremonies, drugs are used as agents

of ritual. In the Rastafari movement,cannabisis believed to be a gift from Jahand a sacred herbto be used regularly,

while alcohol is considered to debase man. Native Americans use peyote, as part of religious ceremony, continuing

today.[159]In India, the somadrink has a long history of use alongside prayer and sacrifice, and is mentioned in

the Vedas.

During the 1960s, both eastern meditation traditions and psychedelics, such as LSD, became popular in America,

and it was suggested that LSD use and meditation were both means to the same spiritual/existential end.[160]Many

practictioners of eastern traditions rejected this idea, including many who had tried LSD themselves. In The Master

Game,Robert S de Roppwrites that the "door to full consciousness" can be glimpsed with the aid of substances, but

to "pass beyond the door" requires yoga and meditation. Other authors, such as Rick Strassman, believe that the

relationship between religious experiences reached by way of meditation and through the use of psychedelic drugs

deserves further exploration.[161]Also see Psychedelic psychotherapy.

Physical postures [edit source]

Main article: Meditative postures

For bodily positions applied during yoga, seeAsana.

Various postures are taken up in meditation. Sitting, supine, and standing postures are used. Popular in Buddhism,

Jainism and Hinduism are the full-lotus, half-lotus, Burmese, andkneelingpositions. Meditation is sometimes done

while walking, known as kinhin, or while doing a simple task mindfully, known as samu.

Scientific studies [edit source]

Main article: Research on meditation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_on_meditationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samu_(Zen)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinhinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kneelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitting#Cross-leggedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_positionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditative_postureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_psychotherapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation#cite_note-161http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Strassmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_S_de_Ropphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation#cite_note-160http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation#cite_note-159http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_spiritual_use_of_cannabishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafari_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanistichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_states_of_consciousnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Five_Preceptshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intoxicantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation#cite_note-158http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation#cite_note-157http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation#cite_note-156http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_Meditationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahaja_Yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_and_drugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation#cite_note-155http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation#cite_note-154http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation#cite_note-153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMDRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_desensitizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meditation&action=edit&section=25http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meditation&action=edit&section=24http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meditation&action=edit&section=23


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Meditation has been linked to a variety of health benefits. A study of college students by Oman et al. (2008) found

that meditation may produce physiological benefits by changing neurological processes. This finding was supported

by an expert panel at the National Institutes of Health. The practice of meditation has also been linked with various

favourable outcomes that include: effective functioning, including academic performance, concentration, percept

Meditation - Practices in Various Religions

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