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Medicinal Plants Traded in Informal Herbal Medicine Markets of...
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Research ArticleMedicinal Plants Traded in Informal Herbal Medicine Marketsof the Limpopo Province, South Africa
Marula Triumph Rasethe,1 Sebua Silas Semenya ,2 and Alfred Maroyi 3
1Limpopo Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism, Private Bag X9484, Polokwane 0700, South Africa2Technology Transfer Office, Research Administration and Development Department, University of Limpopo,Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa3Medicinal Plants and Economic Development (MPED) Research Centre, Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare,Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa
Correspondence should be addressed to Alfred Maroyi; [email protected]
Received 2 February 2019; Accepted 9 April 2019; Published 16 April 2019
Academic Editor: Adolfo Andrade-Cetto
Copyright © 2019 Marula TriumphRasethe et al.This is an open access article distributed under theCreative CommonsAttributionLicense, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in anymedium, provided the originalwork is properly cited.
Trading of herbal medicines generates economic opportunities for vulnerable groups living in periurban, rural, and marginalizedareas.This study was aimed at identifyingmedicinal plant species traded in the Limpopo province in South Africa, including tradedplant parts, conservation statutes of the species, and harvesting methods used to collect the species. Semistructured questionnairesupplemented by field observation was used to collect data from owners of 35 informal herbal medicine markets in the Limpopoprovince. A total of 150 medicinal plant products representing at least 79 plant species belonging to 45 botanical families, mainlythe Fabaceae (11.4%), Asteraceae (7.6%), andHyacinthaceae (6.3%), were traded in the study area. Roots (50.0%), bulbs (19.0%), andbark (16.0%) were the most frequently sold plant parts. Some of the traded species which include Alepidea amatymbica, Bowieavolubilis, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Clivia caulescens, Dioscorea sylvatica, Elaeodendron transvaalense, Encephalartos woodii,Eucomis pallidiflora subsp. pole-evansii,Merwilla plumbea,Mondia whitei, Prunus africana, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, Synaptolepisoliveriana, andWarburgia salutaris are of conservation concern and listed on the SouthAfrican RedData List. Findings of this studycall for effective law enforcement to curb illegal removal of wild plants especially those species that are at the verge of extinction.
1. Introduction
Research by Olsen [2] and Djordjevic [3] estimated that70% to 80% of the people in developing countries use rawmedicinal plants to meet their primary health care needs.This high percentage is attributed to several factors includinglimited accessibility, availability, and affordability of modernmedicines [4, 5]. Generally, the number of African plantspecies with therapeutic uses is estimated to be close to6000 [6]. Therefore, it is not surprising that trading ofmedicinal plant species through informal herbal medicinemarkets in Africa has significant socioeconomic importancein various countries, as this enable millions of people togenerate incomes [7–17]. Quiroz et al. [16] argued that herbalmedicines generate economic opportunities for vulnerablegroups living in periurban, rural, and marginalized areasespecially women and farmers facing decreasing agricultural
incomes. Meke et al. [18] argued that 90% of herbal traders insouthern and central Malawi derived more than 50% of theirhouseholds’ income from selling medicinal plants. Similarly,over 61 000 kilograms of nonpowdered medicines valuedUS$344,882 are traded in informal herbal medicine marketsof Tanzania per year [19]. In Morocco, annual revenuesgenerated from export of medicinal plants were US$55.9million in 2015 [20] and US$174, 227,384 in Egypt [21].According to van Andel et al. [15], approximately 951 tonnesof crude herbal medicines with an estimated total value ofUS$7.8 million was traded in Ghana’s herbal markets in 2010.Findings from all these aforesaid studies show that tradingin medicinal plants play an important socioeconomic role inseveral Africans countries.
Similarly, trading in medicinal plants also serves as avaluable source of income for several households in differentprovinces of South Africa. Mander et al. [13] argued that
HindawiEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2019, Article ID 2609532, 11 pageshttps://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2609532
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
the trade in herbal medicines in South Africa is estimatedto generate an income value at about R2.9 billion per year,representing about 5.6% of the National Health budget. Forexample, in KwaZulu, Natal province, between 20000 and30000 people, mainly woman make a living from tradingover 4000 tonnes of medicinal plant materials valued at R60million per year [9]. Dold and Cocks [10] found that a totalof 166 medicinal plant species estimated to be 525 tonnesand valued about R27 million are traded in the Eastern Capeprovince annually. In the Limpopo province, research byBotha et al. [22] showed that 70 plant species were tradedin Sibasa and Thohoyandou in Vhembe district, Giyani, andMalamulele in Mopani district. Moeng [23] found that eachmedicinal plant trader in the Limpopo province generatedmore than R5000 per month. There are concerns that thetrade in traditional medicines threatens the wild populationsof the utilized species as a result of harvesting pressure [8, 9,13, 17, 24].
The trade in herbal medicines in South Africa is on ascale that is a cause for concern among researchers, conser-vation organizations, and traditional healers as the harvestingmethods employed are unsustainable [9, 13, 17, 23, 25–31].Theharvesting methods employed by medicinal plant gatherersinvolve uprooting of whole plants, collection of roots, bulbs,removal of the bark, and cutting of stems and leaves. Theseharvesting methods are aimed at collecting large quantitiesof medicinal plants including those that are of conservationconcern and in some cases illegally collecting plant materialsin protected areas and critically endangered ecosystems.Consequently, the population numbers of these targetedmedicinal plants are declining rapidly and some of themare now on the verge of extinction leaving their therapeuticpotential unfulfilled. The current study was, therefore, aimedat documenting medicinal plants traded in the Limpopoprovince, including traded plant parts, conservation statutesof the species, and harvesting methods used to collect thespecies. This information will provide the insight into com-mercial trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province,information on targeted species, the economic value, andpossible ecological impacts of the species.
2. Research Methods
2.1. Study Area and Markets Survey. The present studywas conducted in all five districts (Capricorn, Mopani,Sekhukhune, Waterberg and Vhembe) of the LimpopoProvince of South Africa (Figure 1). In each district, seveninformal herbal medicine shops were sampled, resulting in35 shops visited in the study area. The shop owners whowere directly involved in marketing medicinal plants in theseshops were interviewed. The participants were informedabout the aim and objectives of the study before beingrequested to sign the consent form. The researchers adheredto the ethical guidelines outlined by the International Soci-ety of Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core-programs/ise-ethics-program/code-of-ethics/). Theethical clearance to conduct this study was obtainedfrom the Limpopo Department of Economic Development,Environment, and Tourism (LEDET) and the survey was
conducted from January 2016 to March 2018. Data wasgathered using a semistructured interview, which was sup-plemented by market observations and field visits to deter-mine harvesting methods and habitats of the traded plantspecies. The latter activity was conducted together withthe participants. Other documented information includedsociodemographic profiles of the participants, plant partsused, sources of traded plants, and conservation statutes ofthe documented species.
2.2. Plant Specimen Collection and Data Analysis. Dold andCocks [10] argued that the use of vernacular names toidentify taxa traded in informal herbal medicine markets isunreliable as they vary considerably from place to place andeven between traders within the same market. Therefore, topositively identify the plant material traded in the sampledherbal medicine markets, we requested traders to accompanyus to the field. In this regard, the traders initially identified theplants using their vernacular names and during field trips thevoucher specimens of these species were collected and theiridentities authenticated at the University of Limpopo’s Larry-Leach Herbarium. Botanical names and the plant families ofthe documented species were confirmed using the ‘The PlantList’ created by theMissouri Botanical Gardens and the RoyalBotanic Gardens, Kew (http://www.theplantlist.org/).
Information gathered from the interview schedules andfield observations was collated and analyzed using MicrosoftExcel 2000 and the Statistical Package for the Social Science(SPSS) version 16.0 programme. Descriptive statistics such aspercentages frequencies were used.The conservation statutesof traded medicinal plant species were categorized followingthe IUCN Red List Criteria Version 3.1 (2001). Speciescan be classified into one of the three categories of threat,that is, Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), orVulnerable (VU), or they are placed into Near Threatened(NT), Data Deficient (DD), Extinct (EX), or Extinct in theWild (EW). If a species does not meet any of these criteria, itis classified as Least Concern (LC). A species classified as LCcan additionally be flagged as being of conservation concerneither as Rare, Critically Rare, or Declining [32, 33].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Sociodemographic Profiles of Participants. The majority(n=33, 94.2%) of medicinal plants traders interviewed inthis study were men, and females constituted 5.7% (n=2).The predominance of men in trading herbal medicines iscommon in Malawi [18], South Africa [22], and Tanzania[19]. However, Mander et al. [13] found that the majorityof medicinal plant traders in the Gauteng, Mpumalangaand KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa were women.Ndawonde et al. [34] found that 77% of the 63 plant tradersinterviewed inKwaZulu-Natal province were women. Resultsof the current study revealed that the male participantswere the custodians of the species traded in the provinceand the associated indigenous knowledge, innovations, andpractices. These findings corroborate the observation madeby Cunningham [7] that the commercially sold medicinal
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
Burgersfort
LIMP_TownsNAME
PolokwaneSenwabarwanaTzaneen
LIMP_DistrictsDC_NAME
CapricornMopaniSekhukhuneVhembeWaterberg
0 37.5 75 150 225 300
Kilometers
Prepared byNelwamondo PfarisoLEDETBiodiversity [email protected]
W
N
S
ETOWNS VISITED FOR MUTHI SURVEY
Figure 1: Map of the study area indicating surveyed informal herbal medicine shops and districts.
plants are an important feature of the cultural, medicinal,economical, and ecological component of every city in theworld.
Close to three quarters of the participants (n = 24, 68.5%)were between 31 and 40 years and 20% (n= 7)were between 21and 30 years while 11.4% (n = 4)were between 41 and 50 years.Therefore, increasing trade in themedicinal plants is expectedin the Limpopo province in the future as the majority of theparticipants were within the very active age group.More thanhalf of the participants (n = 22, 62.8%) were educated up tosecondary education, while 22.8% (n = 8) and 14.2% (n =5) had attained tertiary and primary education, respectively.The importance of medicinal plants and the need to tradethem in the Limpopo province were ubiquitously perceived,with all participants claiming to generate adequate profit tomeet their basic livelihood needs and being optimistic aboutthe future of the medicinal plants trade in the province.More than three quarters of the participants (n = 27, 77.1%)
earned monthly incomes of between R3000 and R4000.00.The rest of the participants earned monthly incomes of lessthan R3000 (n = 5, 14.2%) or more than R5 000 (n = 3,8.5%). The findings of this study emphasize the contributionof herbal medicines trade towards participants’ livelihoodneeds, source of primary health care products, and culturalheritage corroborating research by Mander et al. [13] whoargued that trade in herbal medicines in South Africa is alarge and growing industry which is important to the nationaleconomy.
3.2. Diversity of Traded Medicinal Plants. A total of 150medicinal plant products representing at least 79 plant specieswere recorded in the surveyed informal herbal medicineshops in the Limpopo province (Table 1). A total of 79 speciesbelonging to 45 botanical families, mainly the Fabaceae (n = 9spp., 11.4%), Asteraceae (n = 6 spp., 7.6%), Hyacinthaceae (n =5 spp., 6.3%), Amaryllidaceae (n = 4 spp., 5.1%), Celastraceae,
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Listof
plantsrecorded
ininform
alherbalmedicinem
arketsin
theL
impo
poprovince,Sou
thAfrica.
Family
Scientificn
ame
Habit
Con
servation
status
Partused
Medicinaluses
Frequency
(%)
Acanthaceae
SclerochitonilicifoliusA
.Meeuse
Tree
LCRo
ots
Hypertensionandmalaria
28.6
Amaryllid
aceae
Cliviacaulescens
R.A.D
yer
Herb
NT
Roots
Policee
vasio
n54.3
Amaryllid
aceae
Boophone
disticha(L.f.)H
erb.
Herb
LCBu
lbCancer,diabetes
mellitus
andkidn
eyprob
lem
25.7
Amaryllid
aceae
Ammocharis
coranica
(Ker
Gaw
l.)Herb.
Herb
LCBu
lbHypertensionandbloo
dcancer
25.7
Amaryllid
aceae
Cliviaminiata
var.citrina
Herb
DDT
Bulb
Hum
anim
mun
odeficiency
virus(HIV
),arthritis,
skin
disorder
andtuberculosis
22.9
Anacampserotaceae
Talin
umcaffrum
(Thun
b.)E
ckl.&Ze
yhHerb
LCRo
ots
Eyed
isorder
14.3
Anacampserotaceae
Talin
umcrisp
atulum
Dinter
Herb
LCRo
ots
Kidn
eyandwom
bprob
lem
25.7
Anacardiaceae
Protorhu
slongifolia
(Bernh
.)En
glTree
LCBa
rkTo
othdecayandbadbreath,laxativea
ndpo
ison/killpeop
le22.9
Anacardiaceae
Lann
easchw
einfurthii(En
gl)E
nglvar.stuhlmannii
(Eng
l)Tree
LCRo
ots
Causem
emorylossandincrease
milk
prod
uctio
nin
pregnant
wom
an25.7
Ann
onaceae
Annona
senegalen
sisPers.
Tree
LCRo
ots
Chlamydiaandmalaria
8.6
Apiaceae
Alepidea
amatym
bica
Eckl.&
Zeyh.
Herb
ENRo
otsa
ndwho
leplant
Toattractcustomersa
ndprotectio
nfro
mtheft
,fluandcoldsa
nddiabetes
100.0
Apocyn
aceae
Acokantherarotund
ata(C
odd)
Kupicha
Tree
LCBa
rkHeadachea
ndsin
usitis
11.4
Apocyn
aceae
Mondiawh
itei(Hoo
k.f.)
Skeels
Herb
ENRo
otsa
ndfruits
Stam
inaa
nddiabetes
5.7
Araceae
Stylochaeton
natalen
sisScho
ttHerb
LCRo
ots
Waistpain
inmen
25.7
Araceae
Zantedeschiaaethiopica
(L.)Spreng
.Herb
LCRo
ots
Chlamydiaandmeasle
s5.7
Asparagaceae
Asparagusa
ethiopicu
sL.
Herb
LCRo
ots
Attractcustomersa
ndskin
protectio
nfor
peop
lelivingwith
albinism
22.9
Asteraceae
Callilep
issalicifolia
Oliv.
Herb
LCRo
ots
Flu,coug
handsto
machache
2.9
Asteraceae
Callilep
sislaureolaDC.
Herb
LCTu
ber
Tuberculosisandasthma
54.3
Asteraceae
Dico
maanom
alaSond
.Herb
LCTu
ber
Tuberculosisandflu
8.6
Asteraceae
Helichrysum
cymosum
(L.)D.D
onsubsp.calvum
Hilliard
Shrub
LCWho
leplant
Asth
ma,callancesto
rs,cou
ghand
tuberculosis
5.7
Asteraceae
Senecio
gregatus
Hilliard
Shrub
LCLeaves
Body
cleansin
g22.9
Asteraceae
Senecio
serratuloidesD
C.Sh
rub
LCLeaves
Body
cleansin
gandHIV
symptom
s22.9
Brassic
aceae
CapparissepiariaL.var.subglabra(
Oliv)D
eWolf
Shrub
LCRo
ots
Protectio
nfro
mlightning
andno
sebleed
2.9
Canellaceae
Warburgiasalutaris
(G.Bertol.)
Chiov.
Tree
ENBa
rkAs
thma,bloo
ddisorders,im
potency,skin
disorders,soresa
ndtuberculosis
100.0
Capp
araceae
Capparistomentosa
Lam.
Shrub
LCBa
rkHom
eprotection
11.4
Caryop
hyllacea
Dianthu
sbasuticu
sBurtt
Herb
LCRo
ots
Win
courtcases
22.9
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
Scientificn
ame
Habit
Con
servation
status
Partused
Medicinaluses
Frequency
(%)
Cela
straceae
Cathaedulis(Vahl)Fo
rssk
exEn
dlTree
LCLeaves
Energy
boostera
ndsta
mina
14.3
Cela
straceae
Elaeodendron
transvaalense(Burtt)
RHArcher
Tree
NT
Bark
Tuberculosisandsexu
allytransm
itted
infections
(STI)
2.9
Cela
straceae
Pleurosty
liacapensis(Turcz.)Lo
es.
Tree
LCRo
ots
Eyes
disordersa
ndmentalilln
esses
28.6
Clusiaceae
Garcin
iagerrardiiH
arv.ex
Sim
Tree
LCRo
ots
Lack
ofappetite
20.0
Com
bretaceae
Combretum
molleR.Br.exG.Don
Tree
LCRo
ots
Skin
disordersa
ndtuberculosis
8.6
Com
melinaceae
Commelina
subu
lata
Roth
Herb
LCSeeds
Cause
mem
oryloss
5.7
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
sylva
ticaEckl.
Herb
VU
Bulb
Foot
disorder
andbo
dypains
54.3
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
dregeana
(Kun
th)T
Durand&Schinz
Herb
LCTu
ber
Foot
disorder,bod
ypains,malariaandto
oppresso
ppon
ents
54.3
Dipsacaceae
Scabiosa
columbaria
L.Herb
LCRo
ots
Assistp
eopletosto
pdrinking
alcoho
l,qu
ench
thirs
tand
oralinfections
20.0
Ebenaceae
Diospyros
lycioidesDesfsub
spseric
ea(Bernh
)De
Winter
Tree
LCRo
ots
Cancer,chestp
ains
andST
I11.4
Ebenaceae
Eucle
acrisp
a(Th
unb.)G
urke
subsp.crisp
aTree
LCRo
ots
Stom
achailm
ents
22.9
Ebenaceae
Diospyros
galpinii(H
iern)D
eWinter
Shrub
LCRo
ots
Body
cleansin
gandlaxativ
e2.9
Fabaceae
Vignafru
tescensA
Rich
subspfru
tescensv
ar.frutescens
Herb
LCRo
ots
Stom
achailm
entsanddiarrhoea
20.0
Fabaceae
Pterocarpu
sangolensis
DC.
Tree
LCBa
rkUsedto
causeh
arm/death
22.9
Fabaceae
Erythrinalys
istem
onHutch.
Tree
LCBa
rkCa
ncer,cou
gh,m
alaria,tub
erculosis
and
skin
rash
5.7
Fabaceae
Peltophorum
afric
anum
Sond
.Tree
LCBa
rkCleanseb
ody,tre
atbadluck
andHIV
symptom
s20.0
Fabaceae
Mun
dulea
seric
ea(W
illd.)A
.Chev.
Tree
LCBa
rkTu
berculosisandmenstr
uald
isorders
20.0
Fabaceae
Albiziaadianthifolia
(Shu
mach.)W
.Wight
Tree
LCBa
rkMentalilln
esses,soresa
ndmalaria
11.4
Fabaceae
Elephantorrhizaele
phantin
a(Burch.)Skeels
Shrub
LCRo
ots
Bloo
ddisorders,diarrhoea,HIV
symptom
sand
purgative
17.1
Gentia
naceae
Enico
stemaaxillare(Lam.)A.Raynalsub
sp.A
xillare
Herb
LCWho
leplant
Diabetes
100.0
Geraniaceae
Pelargonium
capitatum
(L.)L'Her.
Herb
LCRo
ots
Menstr
ualp
ains
andlabo
urpains
17.1
Geraniaceae
Monsoniaangustifolia
Sond
.Herb
LCWho
leplant
Diabetes,hypertensio
n,bo
dycle
ansin
g,im
potencyandincrease
appetite
100.0
Hyacinthaceae
Drim
iaela
taJacq.
Herb
DDT
Bulb
Bloo
drelatedailm
ents,
perio
dspainsa
ndwom
bproblem
100.0
Hyacinthaceae
Merwillaplum
bea(Lindl.)Speta
Shrub
NT
Bulb
Body
cleansin
g,skin
rash
inbabies
and
prom
otev
omiting
ofim
pure
milk
inbabies
14.3
Hyacinthaceae
UrgineasanguineaSh
inz
Herb
LCBu
lbHypertension,
diabetes,blood
clotting
,bo
dypainsa
ndST
I20.0
Hyacinthaceae
Eucomisautumna
lis(M
ill.)Ch
ittHerb
LCBu
lbBo
dypains,hypertensio
nandST
I100.0
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Family
Scientificn
ame
Habit
Con
servation
status
Partused
Medicinaluses
Frequency
(%)
Hyacinthaceae
Eucomispallidiflora
Bakersub
sppole-evan
sii(N
EBr)
Reyn
ekee
xJC
Manning
Herb
NT
Bulb
Body
pains,hypertensio
n,malaria,STI
andtuberculosis
17.1
Hypoxidaceae
Hypoxisobtusa
Burch.ex
KerG
awl.
Herb
LCBu
lbBloo
ddisorders,diabetes,hypertension
andinfertility
34.3
Hypoxidaceae
Hypoxishemerocallid
eaFisch,CAMey
&Av
e-Lall
Herb
LCTu
ber
Cancer,diabetes,energybo
oster,
hypertensio
n,tuberculosis,
infertilityand
HIV
100.0
Icacinaceae
Pyrena
cantha
grandiflora
Baill.
Shrub
LCRo
ots
Eyed
isordersa
ndbo
dypains
20.0
Kirkiaceae
Kirkiawilm
siiEn
glTree
LCBu
lbArthritis,diabetes,hypertensionand
quench
thirst
11.4
Liliaceae
Bowiea
volubilis
Harv.ex
Hoo
k.f.
Herb
VU
Bulb
Bloo
ddisorder,cancera
ndgood
luck
54.3
Malvaceae
Dom
beya
rotund
ifolia
Hochst.
Tree
LCRo
ots
Diarrho
eaandsto
machailm
ents
8.6
Malvaceae
Adan
soniadigitata
L.Tree
LCBa
rkStam
ina,infertility,impo
tencyand
respira
tory
infections
14.3
Meliaceae
EkebergiacapensisSparrm
.Tree
LCRo
ots
Bloo
dcancer
andST
I11.4
Meliaceae
Trich
iliaem
etica
Vahl
subsp.Em
etic
Tree
LCRo
ots
Body
cleansin
g5.7
Molluginaceae
Psam
motrophamarginata
(Thun
b.)D
ruce
Herb
DDT
Roots
Eyes
disordersa
ndbo
dypains
17.1
Moraceae
Ficusingens(Miq.)Miq.
Tree
LCBa
rkSoresa
ndsto
machdisorders
14.3
Myrsin
aceae
Rapaneamela
nophloeos(L.)M
ezTree
LCRo
ots
Cancer,w
ound
sand
wom
bprob
lem8.6
Olacaceae
XimeniacaffraSond
var.caffra
Tree
LCRo
ots
Stom
achdisorders
17.1
Oleaceae
Olea
europaea
Lsubsp.afric
ana(M
ill)P
SGreen
Tree
LCRo
ots
Facilitateb
irth,coug
handtuberculosis
8.6
Passifloraceae
AdeniaspinosaBu
rttD
avy
Shrub
LCBu
lbBa
thab
abyto
prom
otew
eightgain
14.3
Polygalaceae
Securid
acalongepedun
culata
Fresen.
Tree
LCRo
ots
Cou
gh,flu,im
provem
en'sfertilityand
impo
tency
57.1
Rham
naceae
Zizip
husm
ucronata
Willd.subsp.mucronata
Tree
LCRo
ots
Cou
gh,STI,sores,tub
erculosis
and
wou
nds
14.3
Rosaceae
Prun
usafric
ana(H
ook.f.)
Kalkman
Tree
VU
Bark
Colds,cou
gh,flu,HIV,stomach
complaintsa
ndtuberculosis
11.4
Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum
capense(Th
unb.)H
arv.
Tree
LCRo
ots
Asth
ma,colds,coug
h,fix
badsituatio
ns,
flu,sores
andtuberculosis
62.9
Rutaceae
Brackenridgeazanguebaric
aOliv.
Tree
CRRo
ots
Reverseb
adluck,protectho
useholdand
protectio
nfro
mevilspirits
57.1
Santalaceae
Osyris
lanceolata
Hochst.&Steud.
Tree
LCRo
ots
Attracta
wom
an/m
an,cause
harm
/death
topeop
le,str
engthenah
ouseho
ld,
reprod
uctiv
eproblem
sand
malaria
28.6
Thym
elaeacea
Lasio
siphoncafferM
eisn.
Herb
LCRo
ots
Asthm
a,colds,coug
handtuberculosis
14.3
Thym
elaeaceae
Syna
ptolepisoliveriana
Gilg
Shrub
NT
Roots
Goo
dluck
14.3
Vitaceae
Rhoicissustom
entosa
(Lam
)Wild
&RBDrummun
dHerb
LCRo
ots
Cancer,coug
handtuberculosis
17.1
Zamiaceae
Encephalartosw
oodiiSander
Tree
EWBu
lbProtectio
nagainsth
arm
2.9
Zing
iberaceae
Siphonochilusa
ethiopicu
s(Schw
einf.)B.L.Bu
rtt
Herb
CRBu
lbAsth
ma,colds,coug
h,bo
dypains,flu
,HIV
symptom
sand
good
luck
100.0
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Ebenaceae, and Gentianaceae (n = 3 spp., 3.8% each) werepositively identified and, therefore, further analyses werebased on these species. The rest of the medicinal plant prod-ucts were excluded in the current study because they werenot positively identified due to lack of diagnostic featuressuch as leaves and fruiting material such as flowers andfruits. Previous studies showed that plant species belongingto Fabaceae (13.0%), Apocynaceae (5.7%), Phyllanthaceae(4.9%), and Rubiaceae (4.1%) were the most traded species inMalawi [18], while Fabaceae (7.4%), Asteraceae (6.7%), andEuphorbiaceae (5.5%) were the most traded taxa in SouthAfrica [27] while Asteraceae and Fabaceae (10.6% each),Euphorbiaceae (8.5%) and Cucurbitaceae (6.4%) were themost traded taxa in Botswana [14]. Plant families Apocy-naceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae,Phyllanthaceae, and Rubiaceae have the highest number oftraded species as herbal medicines probably because theseare large families characterized by several species, at least 989species each (http://www.theplantlist.org/).
Analysis of traded plant species showed that herbs andtrees (n = 34, 43% each) and shrubs (n = 11, 13.9%) were themost traded growth forms. Previous research in the Limpopoprovince carried out by Botha et al. [22] showed that trees,shrubs, herbs, climbers, and geophytes were the most tradedgrowth forms in the province. More than half of the tradedspecies (n = 67, 84.8%) were prescribed for more than oneailment and just 15.1% (n = 12) were sold as herbal medicinefor a single ailment (Table 1). Previous studies conducted inthe Limpopo [23, 35], Kwa-ZuluNatal [34], and the NorthernCape [36] provinces in South Africa also found that informalherbal medicine traders mainly sold species with multiplemedicinal applications. The medicinal applications of thetraded species were classified into 15majormedical categoriesfollowing the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard [1]with some changes proposed byMacıa et al. [37] andGruca etal. [38].These categories included respiratory disorders, ritualandmagical uses, blood and cardiovascular system disorders,reproductive system and sexual health disorders, cancer,diabetes, sexually transmitted infections (STI), body pains,gastrointestinal system disorders, human immunodeficiencyvirus (HIV) opportunistic infections, fever and malaria, der-matological problems, injuries, sores andwounds, pregnancy,birth and puerperium, and cleansing of the body (Figure 2).The species traded in the Limpopoprovince are used as herbalmedicine against several diseases categorized by Stats SA [39]as the top killer diseases in SouthAfrica in 2016which includetuberculosis, heart diseases, HIV diseases, influenza, diabetesmellitus, and other viral diseases. Over the years, there havebeen numerous studies that have validated the traditionaluses of some of the traded medicinal plants against the topkiller diseases.
3.3. Highly Traded Species. The most frequently traded plantspecies, recorded in 28.6% of the informal herbal medicineshops, included the following (in ascending order of impor-tance): Osyris lanceolata Hochst. and Steud., Pleurostyliacapensis (Turcz.) Loes., Sclerochiton ilicifolius A. Meeuse,Hypoxis obtusa Burch. ex Ker Gawl., Bowiea volubilis Harv.
ex Hook.f., Callilepsis laureola DC., Clivia caulescens R.A.Dyer, Dioscorea sylvatica Eckl., Dioscorea dregeana (Kunth)T Durand and Schinz, Brackenridgea zanguebarica Oliv.,Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen., Zanthoxylum capense(Thunb.) Harv., Alepidea amatymbica Eckl. and Zeyh.,Drimia elata Jacq., Enicostema axillare (Lam)ARaynal subsp.axillare, Eucomis autumnalis (Mill) Chitt., Hypoxis hemero-callidea Fisch, C A Mey and Ave-Lall, Monsonia angustifoliaSond., Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf) B L Burtt, andWarburgia salutaris (G Bertol) Chiov (Tables 1 and 2). Morethan half of the participants indicated that the followingspecies were in high demand but not readily available in thewild or rare or their populations declining (Table 2): Bowieavolubilis, Clivia caulescens, Dioscorea sylvatica, Dioscoreadregeana, Brackenridgea zanguebarica,Alepidea amatymbica,Eucomis autumnalis, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, and Warbur-gia salutaris. With the exception of Dioscorea dregeana andEucomis autumnalis these species are listed on the SouthAfrican Red Data List as threatened plant species (Table 1),with Brackenridgea zanguebarica and Siphonochilus aethiopi-cus listed as Critically Endangered,Alepidea amatymbica andWarburgia salutaris listed as Endangered, and Bowiea volu-bilis and Dioscorea sylvatica listed as Vulnerable while Cliviacaulescens is listed as Near Threatened [40]. Six other plantspecies that are traded in the study area but not categorized ashigh in demand by the participants which are of conservationconcern in South Africa and listed on the South African RedData List include the following (Table 1):EncephalartoswoodiiSander which is listed as Extinct in the Wild; Mondia whitei(Hook.f.) Skeels is listed as Endangered; Prunus africana(Hook.f.) Kalkman is listed as Vulnerable while Elaeodendrontransvaalense (Burtt) R H Archer,Merwilla plumbea (Lindl.)Speta, Eucomis pallidiflora Baker subsp. pole-evansii (N EBr) Reyneke ex J C Manning, and Synaptolepis oliverianaGilg are listed as Near Threatened [40]. Interviews withparticipants revealed that Alepidea amatymbica, Bowiea volu-bilis, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Clivia caulescens, Dioscoreasylvatica, Dioscorea dregeana, Eucomis autumnalis, Sclero-chiton ilicifolius, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, and Warburgiasalutaris which were regarded as popular and harvested fromthe wild were becoming locally extinct and these speciesfetched high prices (Table 2). All these 14 species that aretraded in the Limpopo province but listed on the SouthAfrican Red Data List are in general overcollected as herbalmedicines and extracted at unsustainable rate throughouttheir distributional ranges [40].
About three quarters of the participants (n = 26, 74.2%)did not have plant collecting permits as required by law inSouth Africa [41]. Only a quarter of the participants (n =9, 25.7%) were in possession of a general plant collectingpermit allowing them to collect any medicinal plants inthe wild, without stating the quotas of materials to beharvested, use of sustainable harvesting techniques, andrestrictions on the collection of threatened and protectedplants. According to Retief et al. [42] a Threatened orProtected Species (TOPS) permit in terms of the NationalEnvironmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA) of2004 is required to collect and possess the following specieswhich were traded by the participants and listed on the South
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTa
ble2:Th
emostfrequ
ently
traded
medicinalplantsin
theL
impo
poprovince.
Speciesn
ame
Availabilityin
herbalmedicines
hops
durin
gsurvey
Dem
and
Availabilityin
thew
ildPricer
ange
ZAR(U
SD)/kg∗
Alepidea
amatym
bica
Yes(n=15,42.9%
)High(n
=35,100.0%)
Not
available(n=22,62.9%
)30.00(2.30)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=20,57.1%)
Rare
(n=8,22.9%)
Enico
stemaaxillare
Yes(n=35,100.0%)
High(n
=35,100.0%)
Abun
dant
(n=35,100.0%)
15.00(1.15
)
Eucomisautumna
lisYes(n=29,82.9%
)High(n
=35,100.0%)
Declin
ing(n
=22,62.9%
)27.50(2.12
)Out
ofsto
ck(n
=6,17.1%
)Ra
re(n
=9,25.7%)
Not
available(n=1,2.9%
)
Hypoxishemerocallid
eaYes(n=21,60.0%
)High(n
=35,100.0%)
Abun
dant
(n=33,94.3%
)15.00(1.15
)Out
ofsto
ck(n
=14,40.0%
)Declin
ing(n
=2,5.7%
)
Monsoniaangustifolia
Yes(n=30,85.7%
)High(n
=35,100.0%)
Abun
dant
(n=30,85.7%
)22.50(1.73)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=5,14.3%)
Declin
ing(n
=5,14.3%)
Drim
iaela
taYes(n=22,62.9%
)High(n
=35,100.0%)
Abun
dant
(n=35,100.0%)
12.50(0.96)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=13,37.1%)
Siphonochilusa
ethiopicu
sYes(n=19,54.3%
)High(n
=35,100.0%)
Not
available(
n=32,91.4
%)
8.50
(0.65)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=16,45.7%
)Ra
re(n
=3,8.6%
)
Warburgiasalutaris
Yes(n=31,88.6%
)High(n
=35,100.0%)
Declin
ing(n
=29,82.9%
)27.50(2.12
)Out
ofsto
ck(n
=4,11.4%)
Rare
(n=6,17.1%
)
Zanthoxylum
capense
Yes(n=11,31.4
%)
High(n
=22,62.9%
)Ab
undant
(n=22,62.9%
)27.50(2.12
)Out
ofsto
ck(n
=11,31.4
%)
Securid
acalongepedun
culata
Yes(n=9,25.7%)
High(n
=20,57.1%)
Abun
dant
(n=19,54.3%
)22.50(1.73)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=11,31.4
%)
Declin
ing(n
=1,2.9%
)
Brackenridgeazanguebaric
aYes(n=7,20.0%)
Mod
erate(n=13,37.1%)
Abun
dant
(n=2,5.7%
)27.50(2.12
)Out
ofsto
ck(n
=13,37.1%)
High(n
=7,20.0%)
Not
available(n=18,51.4
%)
Callilep
sislaureola
Yes(n=15,42.9%
)Lo
w(n
=18,51.4
%)
Abun
dant
(n=18,51.4
%)
12.50(0.96)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=4,11.4%)
Mod
erate(n=1,2.9%
)
Bowiea
volubilis
Yes(n=9,25.7%)
High(n
=16,45.7%
)Ra
re(n
=14,40.0%
)12.50(0.96)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=10,26.6%
)Mod
erate(n=3,8.6%
)Not
available(n=5,14.3%)
Dioscorea
dregeana
Yes(n=5,14.3%)
High(n
=11,31.4
%)
Declin
ing(n
=17,48.6%
)27.50(2.12
)Out
ofsto
ck(n
=14,40.0%
)Mod
erate(n=6,17.1%
)Ra
re(n
=2,5.7%
)Lo
w(n
=2,5.7%
)
Dioscorea
sylva
tica
Yes(n=6,17.1%
)High(n
=19,54.3%
)Ra
re(n
=11,31.4
%)
27.50(2.12
)Out
ofsto
ck(n
=13,37.1%)
Not
availableE
(n=8,22.9%)
Cliviacaulescens
Yes(n=17,48.6%
)High(n
=9,25.7%)
Declin
ing(n
=16,45.7%
)12.50(0.96)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=2,5.7%
)Mod
erate(n=6,17.1%
)Ra
re(n
=2,5.7%
)Lo
w(n
=4,11.4%)
Abun
dant
(n=1,2.9%
)Croton
gratissim
usYes(n=15,42.9%
)Lo
w(n
=15,42.9%
)Ab
undant
(n=15,42.9%
)12.50(0.96)
Hypoxisobtusa
Yes(n=11,31.4
%)
High(n
=9,25.7%)
Abun
dant
(n=9,25.7%)
12.50(0.96)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=2,5.7%
)Mod
erate(n=3,8.6%
)Declin
ing(n
=4,11.4%)
Low(n
=1,2.9%
)
Osyris
lanceolata
Yes(n=7,20.0%)
High(n
=1,2.9%
)Ab
undant
(n=7,20.0%)
12.50(0.96)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=3,8.6%
)Declin
ing(n
=3,8.6%
)
Pleurosty
liacapensis
Yes(n=1,2.9%
)High(n
=10,28.6%
)Ab
undant
(n=10,28.6%
)22.50(1.73)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=9,25.7%)
Sclerochitonilicifolius
Yes(n=8,22.9%)
High(n
=10,28.6%
)Declin
ing(n
=7,20.0%)
22.50(1.73)
Out
ofsto
ck(n
=2,5.7%
)Ra
re(n
=3,8.6%
)∗Anaveragee
xchanger
atefor
2018
ofUSD
1=ZA
R13.00
was
used.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
0 5 10 15 20 25Respiratory disorders
Ritual and magical usesBlood and cardiovascular system disorders
Reproductive system and sexual healthCancer
Diabetes mellitusSexually transmitted diseases (STI)
Body painsGastro-intestinal disorders
HIV opportunistic infectionsFever and malaria
DermatologicalInjuries, sores and wounds
Pregnancy, birth and puerperiumCleansing the body
Number of species
Figure 2:Medicinal categories of tradedmedicinal plants in the Limpopo province following the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard[1].
Roots50%
Bulb19%
Bark16%
Whole plant5%
Tuber5%
Seeds1%
Leaves 4%
RootsBulbBarkWhole plant
TuberSeedsLeaves
Figure 3: Medicinal plant parts traded in the Limpopo province.
African Red Data List: Alepidea amatymbica, Bowiea volu-bilis, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Clivia caulescens,Dioscoreasylvatica, Elaeodendron transvaalense, Encephalartos woodii,Eucomis pallidiflora subsp. pole-evansii, Merwilla plumbea,Mondia whitei, Prunus africana, Siphonochilus aethiopicus,Synaptolepis oliveriana, andWarburgia salutaris.None of theparticipants had a TOPS permit, therefore, these species werebeing illegally harvested by the participants. Findings of this
study call for effective law enforcement to curb illegal removalof wild plants especially those species that are at the verge ofextinction.
Interviews with participants revealed that common keyfactors that were considered in determining the price of thetraded species included demand and availability of the speciesand also whether the plant material being sold is rawmaterialor partially processed (Table 2). Prices of traded species
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
ranged from ZAR8.50 (USD0.65) to ZAR30.00 (USD2.30)(Table 2). Plant species which were sold for more thanZAR26.00 (USD2.00) included the following (in ascendingorder of importance):Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Dioscoreadregeana, Dioscorea sylvatica, Eucomis autumnalis, Warbur-gia salutaris, Zanthoxylum capense, andAlepidea amatymbica(Table 2). Prices recorded in the Limpopo province werelower than prices recorded by Dold and Cocks [10] in theEastern Cape province for Alepidea amatymbica, Bowieavolubilis, and Dioscorea sylvatica with prices ranging fromZAR14.90 (USD1.90) to ZAR82.40 (USD10.30). Mander etal. [13] argued that there is increasing harvesting pressureon traditional supply areas leading to a growing shortagein supply of popular medicinal plant species which aresustaining livelihoods and providing important health careservices to local communities.
3.4. Traded Plant Parts. The plant parts traded as herbalmedicines in the Limpopo provinces were the bark, bulbs,leaves, roots, seeds, tubers, and whole plant. The rootswere the most frequently traded (50.0%), followed by bulbs(19.0%), bark (16.0%), tubers and whole plants (5.0% each),leaves (4.0%), and seeds (1.0%) (Figure 3). The bulbs, tubers,and whole plant were mostly from geophytes and herbaceousplant species (Table 1). However, harvesting of roots ofherbaceous plants for medicinal purposes, bark, bulbs, andwhole plant is not sustainable as it threatens the survival of theplant species used as herbal medicines. It is well recognizedby conservationists thatmedicinal plants primarily valued fortheir bark, bulbs, roots, stems, and tubers and as whole plantsare often overexploited and threatened [24].
4. Conclusion
Medicinal plants are globally valuable sources of pharmaceu-tical drugs and other health products, but they are disap-pearing at an alarming rate [24]. Several plant species usedas herbal medicines in the Limpopo province are threatenedwith extinction from overharvesting due to popularity of thespecies in the herbal medicine markets. Although this threathas been known for decades, the accelerated loss of speciesand habitat destruction in the province has increased therisk of extinction of medicinal plants in the country. Theillegal acquisition of some plant species especially those listedon the South African Red Data List from wild populationsis the principle threat to their persistence. There is need,therefore, to educate local communities on the contemporaryenvironmental legislation, at the same time emphasizing theneed to retain traditional knowledge on medicinal plantutilization in the province.
Data Availability
The data used to support the findings of this study areincluded within the article.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank herbal medicine traders forsharing their knowledge.This studywas financially supportedby the Limpopo Department of Economic Development,Environment and Tourism (LEDET), National ResearchFoundation (NRF), South Africa and GovanMbeki Researchand Development Centre (GMRDC), and University of FortHare.
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