Q.1 Researcher wants to study relationship between attitude towards inclusive education

and adjustment of secondary teacher. Write 5 objectives, 5 hypothesis, identify variables.

Write the scope and limitations.

A. Intro:

Education means learning for life. In order that Education empowers the individual with skills for

holistic life, the education system needs to evolve as per the individual’s needs as well as the needs of the community and nation at large. The education model where all children reach their full

learning potential and decisions are based on the individual needs of the student and founded on evidence is called Inclusive Education.

Inclusive education is a pairing of philosophy and pedagogical practices that allows each student to feel respected, confident and safe so he or she can learn and develop to his or her full potential.

It is based on a system of values and beliefs centered on the best interests of the student, which promotes social cohesion, belonging, active participation in learning, a complete school experience and positive interactions with peers and others in the school community. These values and beliefs

will be shared by schools and communities.

Inclusive education requires complete participation of the Teaching Faculty. This possible only if the teachers value diversity and nurture the wellbeing and quality of learning of each of their members. Thus Inclusive education can be carried out only through effective teacher adjustment.

Teacher Adjustment, according to Carol Ann Tomlinson is the process of “ensuring that what a

student learns, how he or she learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he or she has learned. It modifies is as per the student’s readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning.” Teachers can adjust through four ways: 1) through content, 2) process, 3) product, and

4) learning environment based on the individual learner

Teacher Adjustment is an organized, yet flexible way of proactively adjusting teaching and learning methods to accommodate each child's learning needs and preferences in order to achieve his or her maximum growth as a learner. In order to understand how our students learn and what

they know, pre-assessment and ongoing assessment are essential. This provides feedback for both the teacher and the student with the ultimate goal of improving student learning.

Teacher Adjustment is an integral part of Inclusive Education which is individually student centered, with a focus on utilizing appropriate instructional and assessment tools that are fair,

flexible, challenging, and engage students in the curriculum in meaningful ways.

Working Title of the Research: A study of the impact of Secondary Teacher Adjustment on Inclusive Education.

Objectives:

1. To make Secondary Teachers aware of Inclusive Education

2. To improve understanding about Inclusive Education in Secondary Teachers 3. To measure relationship between Teacher Adjustment and Inclusive Education

4. To realize need for Teacher Adjustment in Secondary Teachers for promoting Inclusive Education

5. To recommend steps that promote Teacher Adjustment in Secondary Teachers to achieve Inclusive Education

Hypothesis

1. Awareness of Teacher Adjustment will lead to positive attitude towards Inclusive Education in Secondary Teachers.

2. Secondary Teachers with more teaching experience will have better attitude towards

Inclusive Education than secondary teachers with lesser teaching experience. 3. Secondary Teachers having better Adjustment will have positive attitude towards Inclusive

Education than Secondary teachers with lesser adjustment 4. Positive Attitude towards Inclusive Education can be achieved in secondary teachers by

improving Teacher Adjustment through use of student-centred teaching methods

5. There is no measureable impact of Secondary Teacher Adjustment on Attitude for Inclusive Education.

Variables:

Independent Variable: Attitude for Inclusive Education

Dependent Variable: Secondary Teacher Adjustment Control Variable: Teacher’s Age

Intervening Variable: Teaching Experience, Student-Centred Teaching Methods

Moderator Variable: Teacher’s Gender

Extroneous Variable: Teacher’s Training, Classroom Environment, Teacher’s belief

Preferred Method of Research

The Researcher wants to study relationship between attitude towards inclusive education and

adjustment of secondary teacher. There interaction of two variables: 1. Attitude for Inclusive Education 2. Secondary Teacher Adjustment.

The Attitude for Inclusive Education is independent of Secondary Teacher Adjustment which depends on related (intervening) variables such as teacher’s teaching experience, student-centred

teaching methods, etc

Hence Descriptive Survey Method with test tool as Questionnaire will be useful to determine the status of Attitude to Inclusive Education in correlation to Secondary Teacher Adjustment.

Scope

1. The major scope of Descriptive method in the current research will describe the relationship between Attitude for Inclusive Education and Secondary Teacher Adjustment

2. The Descriptive Method is has a cross-sectional approach which can establish link between other factors like Student-centred Teaching Methods, Teachers experience, strength and weakness of curriculum in the context of Inclusive Education, etc

3. It identifies present status of Attitude for Inclusive Education in general and points out the need for awareness about Attitude for Inclusive Education among teachers

4. The Descriptive method using survey in the form of questionnaire helps in understanding the impact of Teacher Adjustment on Students Achievement, Teacher Appraisal, Personality Testing of Teacher etc

Limitations

1. Time Consuming and Large Sample size: Since the sample size needed for survey must be cross- sectional to get a wider range of population the descriptive survey method can be

time consuming. 2. Planning of Questionnaire: In order that relevant conclusions and suggestion be drawn for

the research, Planning of Questionnaire is critical, which needs to include maximum number of interrelated variables within minimum number of questions.

3. Return of Questionnaire: Since the sample is randomly collected, getting back

questionnaires which have relevant answers is doubtful 4. Reliability and Validity: Reliability and validity of data is doubtful

5. Difficult to analyze data. Only descriptive statistics can be used. Thus the researcher needs to prepare the survey questionnaire with care such that maximum factors

related to Secondary Teacher Adjustment and Attitude for Inclusive Education are covered. Thus will increase reliability and validity of data and help achieve relevant conclusions.

Q 2. Mrs. Thakur Class Teacher of Std VII B of A D Vidya Mandir has observed that her

students are weak in English Subject. As an expert in the field of Educational research help

Mr. Thakur solve her Problem.

A. Education is a transformation process wherein there is development of skills within the student

through the continual efforts of the teacher, such that the student can apply these skills in real life

situations. In order that the Education process moves with the times, research related to

enhancement of education methods, improvement of teaching-learning process, student- teacher

interaction, classroom management, teacher effectiveness etc. which help to improve overall

education system. This research is called Educational Research which contributes to the theory

and practice of education simultaneously.

According to Moore: ‘The final purpose of Educational Research is to ascertain principles and

develop procedures in the field of education.

Types of Educational research

1. Fundamental or Basic or Pure Research: This research is universal in its application,

anyone can use its inputs. The focus is to understand fundamentals related to education e.g.

Theory of Methods, theory of social learning. It does not produce results of immed iate

practical value.

2. Applied Research: This kind of research is immediate in its solution, which are focused on

specific and practical problems. It is scientific enquiry of effectiveness of methods,

programs, strategies and teaching aids.

3. Action Research: This research is taken in classroom situation, based on specific problem

encountered by a teacher/ educationist such that the decisions/ conclusions drawn are

applied immediately after the research, which will bring about change in the operational

area.

In our current discussion, Mrs. Thakur as Class Teacher of Std. VII B of A D Vidya Mandir

has observed the problem that her students are weak in English Subject. The Class teacher is

dissatisfied with the fact that students are weak in English Subject. Hence she feels the need to

find a solution. So as an Expert in Educational Research I would suggest that she take up

Action Research on the said problem.

Steps of the Action Research:

1. Identifying the Problem: Std VII B Students of A. D Vidya Mandir are weak in English Subject

and Mrs. Thakur is the Class teacher

2. Defining and Delimiting the problem: The Action is taking constructive steps such as

Language lab, Programmed Learning, Grammar Tutorials etc to overcome weakness in English

subject faced by Std VII B students with the goal that their Skills in English subject show

improvement after administering the constructive steps.

3. Analyzing causes of the problem: The causes of the problem could be the English as a third

Language, Poor Base in English at primary school education, Cultural barriers, etc. and which

have direct effect or indirect effect on the problem.

4. Formulating the Hypothesis: It is the statement of action, which indicates the action to be taken

and the goal to be achieved.

Hypothesis 1: “If Mrs. Thakur takes weekly grammar tutorials for Std Vii B students, then they

will improve in English Subject Skills.”

Hypothesis 2: “If Mrs. Thakur uses Programmed learning technique for developing English

Subject Skills then Students of Std. VII B will show improvement in English Subject.’

5. Design and testing of Hypothesis: As per Hypothesis 1, Mrs. Thakur will take weekly

Grammar Tutorial in English Subject for Std VII B students and observe the result over a set

period of time. If the hypothesis is not accepted than she will test the next hypothesis. If this

too not accepted then researcher can design new hypothesis and further test the same.

6. Conclusions of the Action Research Project. Accepting or rejecting hypothesis leads to

drawing of conclusion. The statement of conclusion indicates some prescription for the

practical problem solving.

Thus Mrs. Thakur can take up Action Research wherein she can modify and improve the skill for

English subject in students, through grammar tutorials, programmed learning and other techniques.

Q. 4. Researcher wants to study effectiveness of concept mapping in students. Identify the

variables involved in the research study and classify them giving relevant explanation/

justification.

A. Humans have from time immemorial been in search of Knowledge. Education is the process

through which the learner learns to apply knowledge into skills for life. For knowledge to be

applied as skills, the teacher breaks down knowledge in concepts. Cognition is the psychologica l

process which uses concepts (mental representations, including memory, reasoning and

using/understanding language) for perception, learning and reasoning. One function of concepts is

the categorisation of knowledge.

A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts suggested relationships between

concepts. It is a graphical tool that designers, engineers, technical writers, and others use to

organize and structure knowledge.

A concept map typically represents ideas and information as boxes or circles, which it connects

with labeled arrows in a downward-branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts can be articulated in linking phrases such as causes, requires, or contributes to. The technique for visualizing these relationships among different concepts is called concept mapping.

A concept map is a way of representing relationships between ideas, images, or words in the same way that a sentence diagram represents the grammar of a sentence, a road map represents the locations of highways and towns, and a circuit diagram represents the workings of an electrical

appliance. In a concept map, each word or phrase connects to another, and links back to the origina l idea, word, or phrase. Concept maps are a way to develop logical thinking and study skills by

revealing connections and helping students see how individual ideas form a larger whole. An example of the use of concept maps is provided in the context of learning about types of fuel.[3]

Concept maps were developed to enhance meaningful learning in the sciences. A well-made concept map grows within a context frame defined by an explicit "focus question", while a mind

map often has only branches radiating out from a central picture. Because concept maps are constructed to reflect organization of the declarative memory system, they facilitate sense-making

and meaningful learning on the part of individuals who make concept maps and those who use them.

Types of Concept Maps.

Topic maps: Concept maps are rather similar to topic maps in that both allow to connect concepts or topics via graphs. Among the various schema and techniques for visualizing ideas, processes,

and organizations, concept mapping, as developed by Joseph Novak is unique in its philosophica l basis, which "makes concepts, and propositions composed of concepts, the central elements in the

structure of knowledge and construction of meaning."

Mind maps: Both concept maps and topic maps can be contrasted with mind mapping, which is often restricted to radial hierarchies and tree structures. Another contrast between concept mapping

and mind mapping is the speed and spontaneity when a mind map is created. A mind map reflects

what you think about a single topic, which can focus group brainstorming. A concept map can be a map, a system view, of a real (abstract) system or set of concepts. Concept maps are more free

form, as multiple hubs and clusters can be created, unlike mind maps, which fix on a single two centered approach.

Title of Study: To study the effectiveness of Concept Mapping in students of Std VII for

learning of science concepts, using experimental method.

A Random sample of 114 Std VII students is taken, which are divided into two equivalent homogeneous groups of 57 students each.

Effectiveness of Concept Mapping is studied by using experimental method by conducting:-

1. a pre-test measuring known content of concepts of the unit under consideration before the

concept mapping process ( administered to 57 students of control group- C.G) 2. a post-test measuring improvement of concepts of the unit under consideration after the

concept mapping process ( administered to 57 students of experimental group- E.G)

The amount of learning attained by the students in each group is compared, with

The independent variable is the teaching method it stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables being measured. The independent variable causes change in the dependent

variables.

the dependent variable is students’ performance after concept mapping, it could change depending on several factors such as how much previous knowledge the students had, how

much sleep they got the night before the test, or even how adjusted or anxious they were when they took it. As we are looking for a relationship between concept mapping and

learning of science concepts, we are trying to find out what makes the extent of concept mapping change.

intervening variable is teacher’s experience because an intervening variable is one that occurs

between the independent and dependent variables. It is caused by the independent variable and is itself a cause of the dependent variable.

the control variable is students’ age – all are from Std VII. The control variable is something that is constant and unchanged in an experiment. Further, a control variable strongly

influences values; it is held constant to test the relative impact of independent variables.

the moderator variable is students’ gender because the effect of a moderating variable is

characterized as an interaction;that is, a qualitative (e.g., sex, race, class) or quantitative (e.g., level of reward) variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between dependent and independent variables.

the Extraneous variable is Teacher’s belief, gender, classroom environment because these are undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the variables that a

researcher is examining. These are variables the influence the outcome of an experiment, though they are not the variables that are actually of interest. These variables are undesirable

because they add error to an experiment. A major goal in research design is to decrease or control the influence of extraneous variables as much as possible.

Q. 5 and 8. What are the steps of Educational Research? Explain with Examples.

A. Research implies the discovery of truth. It is an intellectual activity undertaken with the

ultimate aim of scientific and systematic creation of knowledge. Educational Research refers to a

systematic attempt to gain better knowledge and understanding of the process of education, with

the aim of improving its efficiency. Since education is a behavioral science, the major concern of

educational research is to understand, explain, predict and control human behavior.

Steps in Educational Research.

1. Selection/ Identification of the problem:

2. Filling the Gaps

3. Stating the Objectives/ Goals

4. Formulating the Hypothesis

5. Collection of the Data and Testing the Hypothesis

6. Data Analysis

7. Finding, verification and interpreting the findings

8. Reporting Results

1. Selection/ Identification of the problem: Educational Research begins with the selection

of the problem that the researcher has identified for research. It must be a question that

can be answered through scientific inquiry. The statement of the problem must be

complete. Such that it can be presented in a clear form with relevant data or evidence

2. Filling the Gaps: The researcher based on experience and observation realizes that some

students in a class do not perform well in examination. Therefore he/ she poses the

unanswered question: ‘Which factors are associated with students’ academic

performance?’

3. Stating the Objectives/ Goals: The researcher then states the objectives or goals of the

study

i) To ascertain the relationship of anxiety with academic performance of students

ii) To ascertain the gender differences in the anxiety and academic performance of

students

iii) To ascertain the gender differences in the relationship of anxiety with academic

performance of students

4. Formulating the Hypothesis: The researcher may state his/ her hypothesis as follows:

i) There is a significant relationship between anxiety and academic performance of

students

ii) There is significant gender difference in the anxiety and academic performance of

students

iii) There is a significant difference in the relationship of anxiety with academic

performance of students

5. Collection of the Data and Testing the Hypothesis: The researcher uses appropriate tools

and techniques to measure anxiety and academic performance of students, selects a

sample students and collects data from them. He/ she uses appropriate techniques to

verify and test the hypothesis of the study

6. Data Analysis: He/ she interprets the findings in terms of whether the relationship

between anxiety and academic performance is positive or negative, Linear or curvilinear.

He/she finds that the relationship is curvilinear .i.e. when a student’s anxiety is either

every low or very high, his/ her academic performance is found to be low. However if the

student’s anxiety is moderate his/ her academic performance is high

7. Finding, verification and interpreting the findings: The researcher now tries to find

whether his/ her conclusions match those of prior researches or not.

8. Reporting Results: Based on the interpretation the researcher draws conclusion and

reports the results, which in case of the example is that students with moderate anxiety

are motivated enough to study regularly and systematically all through the year and hence

their academic performance is high.

Q 6. State the areas of Educational Research. Explain any 2.

A. Education as a process takes into account both the science of education and the art of

education. The science of education comprises the corpus of knowledge which is largely

responsible for making the art of education more effective. The art education has relevance to

class –room practices and for effective dialogue rapidly between the teacher and the students.

Since knowledge is rapidly expanding in all disciplines including education, there is need to

extend the frontiers of knowledge in areas which constitute the science of education. .

Based on this point of view, the fields of educational research can be classified in terms of the

following content areas:-

1. Psychology of Education

2. Philosophy of Education

3. Sociology of Education

4. Economics of Education

5. Educational Management and Administration

6. Education Evaluation

7. Environmental Education

8. Comparative Education

9. Educational Measurement and Test Development

10. Curriculum, Textbooks and Method of Teaching

11. Teacher education and Teacher Behaviour

12. Guidance and Counselling

13. Educational Technology

14. Value Education

15. Peace Education

16. Vocational and Technical Education

17. Inclusive Education

18. Open and Distance Education

19. Non-formal education

In order the researcher selects the problem for research, classification of the areas of

educational research is critical. We have considered the following:

1. Educational Management and Administration, 2. Comparative Education

1. Educational Management and Administration :

A) All Educational Institutions function due to the interaction of:

i) the Human Resource Principal, Subject Teachers, Assistant Teachers, Non- Teaching

staff, Class- four workers, Students, Parents, Counsellor, Experts,Vendors and suppliers etc.

ii) Material resources such as

Infrastructure in form of Class rooms, Laboratories, Library, Washroom, Common

room, Canteen, Computer lab, Language lab, Playground, lightening arrangement,

audio- visual aids, teaching aids etc.

Educational Research is related to the interaction between the various human and

material resources, educational planning, educational legislation, school plant planning,

school organization, business administration, evaluation, supervision,, management of

resources.

B) Implications for developing policies with respect to recruitment of teaching and non-

teaching staff as per guidelines of NCERT

C) Job Analysis of Principal, Headmaster, Sub- inspector, district education officer,

deputy director helps in improving the educational administration and supervision of

educational institutions

D) Acts and Laws related to Education such RTE act and its implication influence

universalization of education, development and trying out leadership programs,

institutional viability in terms of size and curriculum offering

E) Goals of Education as per the NEP, decentralization, professionalization and

accountability

2) Comparative Education

Political, cultural, socio-economic and geographical conditions have an impact on the

education system of different countries. Comparative Study of education of various

countries helps to

appreciate formation of the institution of schooling,

measure the impact of financial security or poverty on the learner and learning

potential,

impact of war and peace in citizen development

education and national development in terms of economic growth

problems of educational control and reorganization of curriculum

role of universities,

social education,

impact of three language system over single language system

Comparing Vocational Education Systems of two countries

Interstate Grant-in-aid schools performance

Comparative study of procedures, problems of textbook production, quality of

textbook and teachers’ reaction.

Thus the Areas of Educational Research are vast and interconnected, such that the research in

any one field will directly or indirectly be related to several others. The final purpose is to

improve the realm of education with its ultimate goal of universalization of education.

Q. 7. Explain with suitable example types and characteristics of hypothesis.

Educational research refers to the systematic and scientific inquiry of the educational process,

with the final aim of improving its efficiency. The steps of educational research are similar to

scientific method. These include identification of problem, review of relevant literature,

formulation of the hypothesis, collection of sample and data, analysis and interpretation of data

and reporting of results.

Once the problem is selected and defined, derivation of hypothesis is an important part of the

research process. Etymologically, hypothesis is made up of two words, hypo- less than and

thesis- less certain. The Hypothesis is a presumptive statement of proposition or a reasonable

guess, based upon available evidence, which the researcher seeks to prove through the study.

Hypothesis can be defined as a tentative or working proposition suggested as a solution to the

problem under consideration. The hypothesis is a powerful tool in research process to achieve

dependable knowledge. It helps the researcher to relate theory to observation and observation to

theory.

Importance of Hypothesis:

1. Facilitates tentative explanation of facts and phenomena that can be tested and verified. If

held valid, can lead to generalizations which help in understanding the problem.

2. Provides the researcher with rational statements, consisting of elements expressed in a

logical order of relationships or events that have not yet been confirmed by facts.

3. Provides direction to the research as they represent specific objectives.

4. Helps derive the variables or conditions/ parameters that need to be measured, controlled

or manipulated such that the research is valid and result is reliable.

Types of Hypothesis:

Researchers have classified hypothesis as:

A. i) Directional Hypothesis test the differences or relationships between variables, e.g.

There is positive relationship between an individual’s attitude towards experimentation

and his achievement in learning of physics subject.

ii) A research hypothesis that does not specify the direction of expected differences or

relationships is a non- directional hypothesis. E.g. There is difference in the anxiety level of

adolescent girls of high IQ and low IQ.

B. The researcher can also express the hypothesis in the declarative form, the null form and

the question form.

i) Declarative hypothesis is appositive statement about the outcome of the study, e.g.

‘The academic achievement of extrovert students is significantly higher than that of

introvert students’. Here the researcher makes a prediction based on theoretical

formulations of what should happen if his research is correct.

ii) Null Hypothesis is a statement that no relationship exists between variables under the

study. E.g. ‘There is no significant difference between the academic achievement of

high school athletes and that of non- athletes. The researcher can reject the null

hypothesis if there is significant statistical evidence to prove otherwise. Hence it is

also called testing Hypothesis or statistical hypothesis. Null hypothesis is rejected

only when the quantity of chance is 1 time out of 100 or 0.01 percent.

iii) Question form of Hypothesis is when a question asks what the outcome will be,

instead of stating what outcome is expected. E.g. ‘Will teaching children through

programmed learning decrease their test anxiety?’

The question form is less powerful than the declarative or null form as a tool for obtaining valid

information.

Characteristics of Hypotheses:

1. Hypothesis should be clear and precise: The hypothesis are clearly stated, they usually

avoid general terms like personality, intelligence, social class etc.

2. Hypothesis should be verifiable and testable: e.g. NCC problem promotes all round

development of high school students would be hard to test, because measuring all- round

development is difficult. Hence the researcher needs to develop suitable tools or

instruments which will provide measures of the variables involved, e.g. There is positive

relationship between concept mapping and achievement in science learning in students of

Std IX, is a testable and verifiable hypothesis, because the variables involved in the

statement can be defined operationally.

3. Hypothesis should state the expected relationship between variables: A satisfactory

hypothesis should state the expected relationship between the variables.

e.g. the hypothesis, ‘NCC problem promotes all round development of high school

students’ cannot be used because all round development cannot be measured by a single

variable. In case of the hypothesis, ‘There is positive relationship between concept

mapping and achievement in science learning in students of Std IX’, there are two

variables concept mapping technique and achievement in science learning which can be

measured, tested and verified.

4. Hypothesis should be limited in scope, stated as far as possible in simple terms

5. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts: Hypothesis should be grounded

in well-established theories and laws.

6. The hypothesis should be specific not general.

7. Emotional Language should be avoided

8. Hypothesis should be based on sound theory or prior experience and observations worthy

of being tested.

9. Hypothesis should be adequate.

Thus it is important that the researcher formulates correct hypothesis before data is gathered. A

satisfactory hypothesis provides objectivity and non-bias to the said research.

Q. 9. What is the importance of review of related literature? Explain on- line reference and

off- line reference.

Research implies the discovery of truth. It is an intellectual activity undertaken with the ultimate

aim of scientific and systematic creation of knowledge. Educational Research refers to a systematic

attempt to gain better knowledge and understanding of the process of education, with the aim of

improving its efficiency. Since education is a behavioral science, the major concern of educational

research is to understand, explain, predict and control human behavior.

Educational Research takes advantage of knowledge which is accumulated in the part as a result

of constant human endeavor. It can never be undertaken in isolation. Hence the researcher has to

review related research which are directly or indirectly related to the proposed topic under study.

The theoretical and empirical framework from which the problem arises must be described.

Review of related literature in the form of research journals, books, dissertations, theses and other

sources of information on the problem is an important step in the planning of any research study.

The review of related literature makes it clear that his/ her problem has roots in the existing

literature, but it needs further research and exploration.

Review of related literature serves the following purpose:

1. Enables the researcher to define the limits of his field, define the problem of study and

delimit the problem

2. Enables researcher to prepare objectives of the study

3. Helps researcher select fruitful problems on which research can be conducted with relevant

data, findings and results and to avoid useless problem areas.

4. Helps researcher avoid duplication of well-established research findings which have

already been verified and whose results are valid and relevant.

5. Gives researcher an understanding of research methodology which refers to the way the

study is to be conducted.

6. Helps research develop suitable tools and instruments which can be used to gather data,

analyze data and interpret data.

7. Provides insight into statistical methods through which validity of results is to be

established.

8. Helps researcher to know about recommendations of previous researchers listed in their

studies for further research.

Sources of review of literature

The first step in reviewing the related literature is identification of the material that is to be

reviewed. Related literature is available either on-line through the internet or off- line through

sources available in the library.

1. Online Related Literature:

The World Wide Web or www is a part of the internet and is an excellent on-line source of related

literature. Through search engines such as Google, Yahoo, Rediff etc. a wide variety of topics can

be reviewed, using the browser. Search engines like Galaxy and Shodganga provide reviews of

research. The research results are usually ran in order of relevance.

For online references there are indexes. The Indexes are grouped under similar categories. The

result of an index search will list the websites resulted to the topic to be searched. It provides

an excellent starting point for review of literature.

2. Off-line related literature:

i) Primary Sources: Articles, books, dissertations, and thesis which the researcher directly

refers to for information on the topic under study. These help the research develop

deeper understanding of the subject at hand and enables him/her to make proper

judgment of the study. Though it is time consuming it provides the researcher with

good source of information.

ii) Secondary Sources: The researcher complies and summarizes the findings of the work

done by others and gives interpretation of these findings

Abstracts: These include brief summaries of the contents of a research study or article.

They serve as a useful guide to the researcher and keep him abreast of work being done on

his/her own field. e.g. annual Review of Psychology, Sociology of education abstracts,

Psychological bulletin, Educational Administration abstracts, Indian journal of Applied

Psychology, Education Quarterly, Journal of Higher Education etc.

Encyclopedias: These serve as a store house of information and usually contain well-

rounded discussion and selected bibliographies that are prepared by specialist. They are

arranged in alphabetical order, by subject and for each field of research, they present a

critical evaluation and summary of the work that has to be done. In addition, these suggest

the research needed in the field and provide a selective bibliography. e.g. A Cyclopedia of

education, Encyclopedia of Modern Education, Encyclopedia of educational Research etc.

Education Indexes: Many education indexes are published monthly or annually. E.g.

Canadian Education Index, British education Index etc.

Handbooks and Periodicals: Information about new ideas and developments often appear

in Annual Handbooks of Universities and Periodicals. They provide a medium for

dissemination of educational research and exchange of experience among research

workers, teachers, scholars and others interested in educational research.

Thesis and dissertations: These and dissertations are preserved by universities that award

the authors their doctoral and masters’ degrees. An annual list of theses and dissertation is

issued to various agencies. E.g Dissertation Abstracts International, A survey of Research

in Education, 1973 etc.

Newspapers: Many articles of particular interest to a researcher may be located through

newspapers. Current newspapers provide up-to –date information on speeches, seminars,

conferences and new trends while old newspapers preserve records of the past events,

movements and ideas, movements and are useful in historical inquires.

Govt. Documents: These are rich in statistical data, research studies, official reports, laws and

policies which are not available in other places. These are available in national, regional, state

as well as local government offices.

Q. 10 Short Notes:

1. Note taking:

Note taking is an indispensable part of writing a research paper. Notes record information from

the related literature that researcher will use while writing research. Therefore, it is necessary to critically evaluate the texts or articles he/she reads and to make reasonable choices about what

will and will not be useful for the research. Otherwise, he/she will be overloaded with

information and spend too much time sifting through notes.

To take effective notes, the researcher must do the following:

1. Understand the information. Before he/she can use information, he/she must understand it. Taking notes is a good way to develop knowledge and comprehension of a subject; it is not

just a mechanical process of recording data. Reading a source, making decisions about what is useful for the research, and writing the notes on index cards or in a notebook gain insight related to the subject of research.

2. Select the information: The information to be used in a paper must be gathered from a variety of sources, such on-line websites, blogs, search engines and off-line sources like

Encyclopedias, Newspapers, Government Documents, etc. such that they contain information only relevant to the topic. Therefore, when the researcher takes notes, he/ she must sort out the material that is needed from other information surrounding it in the text.

3. Record the information: To efficiently use the information from the sources, he/she must record it in such a way that it can be easily sorted, reorganized, and incorporated into your

paper. This means that he/she should choose a style of recording that best suited to the individual’s temperament and that lists all necessary information-- title, author, publisher, etc., which will needed later for the bibliography.

The researcher then uses own words and take notes that briefly summarize (commonly known as

paraphrasing) the most important points of each source. Notetaking should be as clear and concise as possible, where details are omitted. Researcher needs to stick to main points rather than

involved discussion or digressions.

Record notes either on index cards or in a notebook.

2. Card making:

They are index cards (you can also use notebook pages, a word processing document or database document) on which you put all of the information you will need about all the sources you use.

They will help you to:

identify the sources of quotations and ideas for citing your sources later (giving credit to your sources).

find sources again if you need them.

make your works cited (a list of the sources from which you used borrowed material in your project).

4. Types of Hypothesis:

Once the problem is selected and defined, derivation of hypothesis is an important part of the

research process. Etymologically, hypothesis is made up of two words, hypo- less than and thesis- less certain. The Hypothesis is a presumptive statement of proposition or a reasonable guess, based upon available evidence, which the researcher seeks to prove through the study.

Hypothesis can be defined as a tentative or working proposition suggested as a solution to the

problem under consideration. The hypothesis is a powerful tool in research process to achieve dependable knowledge. It helps the researcher to relate theory to observation and observation to

theory.

Researchers have classified hypothesis as:

C. i) Directional Hypothesis test the differences or relationships between variables, e.g. There is positive relationship between an individual’s attitude towards experimentation and his

achievement in learning of physics subject.

ii) A research hypothesis that does not specify the direction of expected differences or relationships is a non- directional hypothesis. E.g. There is difference in the anxiety level of adolescent girls of

high IQ and low IQ.

D. The researcher can also express the hypothesis in the declarative form, the null form and the question form.

iv) Declarative hypothesis is appositive statement about the outcome of the study, e.g. ‘The academic achievement of extrovert students is significantly higher than that of introvert students’. Here the researcher makes a prediction based on theoretical formulations of

what should happen if his research is correct. v) Null Hypothesis is a statement that no relationship exists between variables under the

study. E.g. ‘There is no significant difference between the academic achievement of high school athletes and that of non- athletes. The researcher can reject the null hypothesis if there is significant statistical evidence to prove otherwise. Hence it is also

called testing Hypothesis or statistical hypothesis. Null hypothesis is rejected only when the quantity of chance is 1 time out of 100 or 0.01 percent.

vi) Question form of Hypothesis is question asked as to what the outcome will be, instead of stating what outcome is expected. E.g. will teaching children through programmed learning decrease their test anxiety?

The question form is less powerful than the declarative or null form as a tool for obtaining valid

information.

5. Characteristics of Research:

Research is a search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to establish novel facts, usually using scientific methods. The system that a researcher follows to

find out the facts that are hidden and not known to people, determines the validity, genuineness and reliability of research. A research is biased or fake if there is no validity or reliability in the research process. To undertake researches in different fields there are variety of procedures

and tools set by experienced researcher.

Characteristics of Research:

Certain terms are very commonly used in research and the success of any research depends on these terms. These terms determine whether a research is free of biases, prejudices and subjective

errors or not.

1. Reliability is a subjective term which can not be measured precisely but today there are instruments which can estimate the reliability of any research. Reliability is the repeatability

of any research, research instrument, tool or procedure. If any research yields similar results each time it is undertaken with similar population and with similar procedures, it is called to be a reliable research. Suppose a research is conducted on the effects of separation between

parents on class performance of the children. If the results conclude that separation causes

low grades in class, these results should have to be reliable for another sample taken from similar population. More the results are similar; more reliability is present in the research.

2. Validity is the strength with which we can call a research conclusions, assumptions or propositions true or false. Validity determines the applicability of research . Validity of the

research instrument can be defined as the suitability of the research instrument to the research problem or how accurately the instrument measures the problem. Some researchers say that validity and reliability are co-related but validity is much more important than

reliability. Without validity research goes in the wrong direction. To keep the research on-track define your concepts in the best possible manner so that no error occur during

measurement.

3. Accuracy is also the degree to which each research process, instrument and tool is related to each other. Accuracy also measures whether research tools have been selected in best

possible manner and research procedures suits the research problem or not. For example if a research has to be conducted on the trans-gender people, several data collection tools can be

used depending on the research problems but if you find that population less cooperative the best way is to observe them rather than submitting questionnaire because in questionnaire either they will give biased responses or they will not return the questionnaires at all. So

choosing the best data collection tool improves the accuracy of research.

4. Credibility comes with the use of best source of information and best procedures in

research. If you are using second-hand information in your research due to any reason your research might complete in less time but its credibility will be at stake because secondary data has been manipulated by human beings and is therefore not very valid to use in

research. A certain percentage of secondary data can be used if primary source is not available but basing a research completely on secondary data when primary data can be

gathered is least credible. When researcher give accurate references in research the credibility of research increases but fake references also decrease the credibility of research.

5. Generalizability is the extent to which a research findings can be applied to larger

population. When a researcher conducts a study he/she chooses a target population and from this population he takes a small sample to conduct the research. This sample is

representative of the whole population so the findings should also be. If research findings can be applied to any sample from the population, the results of the research are said to be generalizable.

6. Empirical nature of research means that the research has been conducted following rigorous scientific methods and procedures. Each step in the research has been tested for accuracy and

is based on real life experiences. Quantitative research is more easy to prove scientifica l ly than qualitative research. In qualitative research biases and prejudice are easy to occur.

7. Systematic approach is the only approach for research. No research can be conducted

haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are set of procedures that have been tested over a period of time and are thus suitable to use in research. Each research therefore should

follow a procedure.

8. Controlled-in real life experience there are many factors that effect an outcome. A single event is often result of several factors. When similar event is tested in research, due to the

broader nature of factors that effect that event, some factors are taken as controlled factors

while others are tested for possible effect. The controlled factors or variables should have to be controlled rigorously. In pure sciences it is very easy to control such elements because

experiments are conducted in laboratory but in social sciences it becomes difficult to control these factors because of the nature of research.

5. Methods to control Extraneous variables.

Extraneous Variables are undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the variables that a researcher is examining. These are variables the influence the outcome of an experiment, though they are not the variables that are actually of interest. These variables are

undesirable because they add error to an experiment. A major goal in research design is to decrease or control the influence of extraneous variables as much as possible.

e.g. An educational psychologist has developed a new learning strategy and is interested in

examining the effectiveness of this strategy. The researcher randomly assigns students to two groups. All of the students study text materials on a biology topic for thirty minutes. One group

uses the new strategy and the other uses a strategy of their choice. Then all students complete a test over the materials. One obvious confounding variable in this case would be pre-knowledge of the biology topic that was studied. This variable will most likely influence student scores,

regardless of which strategy they use. Because of this extraneous variable (and surely others) there will be some spread within each of the groups. It would be better, of course, if all students came

in with the exact same pre-knowledge. However, the researcher has taken an important step to greatly increase the chances that, at least, the extraneous variable will add error variance equivalently between the two groups by randomly assigning students to the two groups.

Random assignment is a powerful tool though it does nothing to decrease the amount of error that

occurs as a result of extraneous variables, in only equalizes it between groups. In fact, even if the experimenter gave a pre-knowledge test ahead of time and then assigned students to groups, so

that the groups were as equal as possible on pre-knowledge scores, this still would not change the fact that students would differ one from the other in terms of pre-knowledge and this would add "error variance" in the experiment.

The thing that makes random assignment so powerful is that greatly decreases systematic error –

error that varies with the independent variable. Extraneous variables that vary with the levels of the independent variable are the most dangerous type in terms of challenging the validity of

experimental results. These types of extraneous variables have a special name, confounding

variables.

One of the most common types of confounding occurs when a researcher does not or cannot randomly assign participants to groups, and some type of individual difference (e.g., ability,

extroversion, shyness, height, weight) acts as a confounding variable. For example, any experiment that involves a comparison of men and women is inherently plagued with confounding variables,

the most commonly cited of which is that the social environment for males and females is very different. This does not mean that there is no meaning or value in gender comparison studies, or other studies in which random assignment is not employed, it simply means that we need to be

more cautious in interpreting the results.