Delegation: The Key to Effective Management

Sefton DaviesMy experience working in and with organisations convinces me that the greatest skill required in senior managers is that of delegation, since it is the process of defining tasks and roles which lays the basis for effective teamwork. Even in small organisations, like families, there is a need for members to know who is responsible for what, and in large organisations the greater size makes it essential that complex process are broken down into manageable tasks which are entrusted to individual members. Yet, this process of delegation is often neglected, so that there is role confusion and overlap which lead to inefficient use of manpower and to conflict between members. The purpose of this article is to suggest ways in which such problems can be avoided.Why Delegate?Despite some managers' wish to control all aspects of management, organisations cannot be the responsibility of one person.Responsibility means making decisions for which one accepts the consequences, and it is not possible for one person to make all the decisions for everything that is happening during the complex activity of an organisation, and so means have to be found for devolving its multifarious tasks to all its members.We can illustrate the process involved by taking the example of a large school, which we all have some experience of, in which the headteacher is responsible for ensuring that the students obtain a good education. She isaccountableto the governors of the school for this, and, in the event of anything untoward happening, the governors will seek explanations from her. However, she cannot personally perform all the functions necessary to ensure success, since she cannot be in all the classrooms, etc., at the same time, so she has to limit the responsibilities she can accept, e.g., she may decide that her prime functions are for overall strategic planning, for external liaison and for staff development. All other functions she will give to her deputies. They in turn will determine what is reasonable for them to do and give all other responsibilities to heads of departments, and so on down the line until individual teachers are responsible for delivering the curriculum to the students. In this way, all the tasks needed to run the school are covered, yet no member of staff has an unmanageable load of work. Also, the headteacher has clear lines of accountability to herself from the most junior members of staff through the various levels of seniority , and in this way she can monitor how effectively the school is functioning.The particular example used above, which is of a line-management structure, is, of course, only one, though probably the most common, way of structuring the division of responsibility; another very common way uses a matrix structure. In this, a differentiation is made between process functions which are cross-organisational, and project functions which control production and which are concerned with specific activities: in a school such a structure might result in process managers for personnel, curriculum, pastoral care, physical resources, etc., and project managers for the organisation of specific subjects, like science, maths., etc. Whichever structure is used, however, the principle of delegation remains the same, i.e., responsibility is distributed from the most senior executive to the remainder of the personnel, i.e., it is a top-down process. accountability for the decisions made is from the delegatee to the delegator , i.e., it is a bottom-up process.It is important to stress, at this point, that accountability can never be delegated, i.e., the delegator remains the one who must answer for actions taken, even by delegatees. This must mean that the chief executive is always answerable for the actions of subordinates, although he may not be responsible for them. It is extremely important, therefore, that the delegation process is correctly implemented.The primary reason for delegating is, then, to ensure that all essential tasks are allocated to individuals through manageable structures, but there are other good reasons for devolving responsibility, e.g.: it allows the full creativity of all members to be used in the best interests of the organisation, since everyone has a share in decision-making. Good delegation means that everyone can contribute to effective management; bad delegation may mean that everyone is at the mercy of powerful incompetents. it encourages the development of expertise, since each person can acquire the skills and knowledge required of a specialised role. Nowadays, organisations must employ highly specialised staff because of their increasingly complex needs, e.g., in many ISKCON communities, the need for staff who are able to deal with government or the local community in preserving freedom of worship. Without delegation, it would be impossible for individuals to develop such competence. it can ensure that the person best suited to a job has control over it. Despite the beliefs of many senior managers, seniority does not necessarily confer competence, and many junior staff are better equipped than their superiors to fulfil some roles, particularly those requiring knowledge and skills in technological areas like computing. A wise manager is willing to acknowledge the superior skills of subordinates and to give them responsibility and authority in these fields. because it enables people to develop new skills and, therefore, to fulfil increasingly responsible positions within the organisation, it is an effective form of staff development: the best senior managers ensure that there is always a pool of trained staff ready for promotion, or, as one senior manager once told me, 'my main function is to train my successor'.Despite the obvious advantages of delegation, however, my experience is that it is rarely done effectively, and a major reason is fear on the part of superordinates: fear of losing power and control to subordinates, fear of being seen to be redundant, fear of losing status, fear of being seen to be less expert in some fields than their subordinates, etc. Unwillingness to delegate has serious consequences which can be seen in many organisations, e.g., high levels of managerial stress from attempting to do everything oneself. Stress is now a major problem in many organisations, resulting in inefficiency, illness and poor use of resources. Failure to distribute work through delegation leads to overload on senior staff, who are usually the very ones who need to be fit to meet the challenges of modern management. However, it is essential that managers should not see delegation as a means of offloading their stress on to others! demotivated staff, who have little of the challenge that derives from responsibility. Since they cannot contribute to successful decision-making, they will cease to care, and may even oppose or sabotage decisions imposed upon them. Apathy is a sure sign of poor delegation. role overlap and confusion, leading to the hostility which emanates from interference in one's work-the 'looking-over-shoulders' climate of some organisations. A great deal of the conflict evident in organisations derives from this lack of clarity over who does what. some work is not the responsibility of anyone in particular, which means that decisions are just not made; this is a particularly serious drawback in crisis situations, where decisions need to be made quickly and with confidence.An effective and happy organisation requires people to feel that they have a clear-cut and important role to play in organisational success, and delegation allows this to happen.What and How to DelegateAny part of a manager's work can be delegated, from a major area of concern, which is delegated as a job description, to a small task requiring little time and few resources. However small the task, however, the delegation process is the same. It entails defining: the task, the accountability required of the delegatee, the responsibilities being given to the delegatee, the authority which is awarded to the delegatee.THE TASK.Whether the delegated task is a short-term minor piece of work or a major part of the delegator's job, it must be worthwhile, i.e., it must contribute in a clearly visible way to the success of the organisation. Good organisations define their mission clearly, ensuring that all members share its values and objectives; they then determine all the tasks which need to be done in order to achieve it and these tasks are given to the most suitable members. Unless there is this clear definition of the task, and the delegatee fully understands its importance, there cannot be the commitment necessary to success. Some features of good task definition are : clearly defined outcomes, e.g., ' the work will produce a clear statement of policy regarding recruitment ', clear indication of the time frame, e.g., 'the report will be produced by December 31', a statement of the monitoring procedures to be used, e.g., 'review meetings will be held on the first Monday of each month until completion', a definition of the use to be made of the product, e.g., 'the report will be submitted to the Management Board for its approval'.ACCOUNTABILITY.A delegated task represents part of the delegator's job which she would otherwise do and, since she remains answerable to her superiors for its success or failure it is necessary for her to know how well that work is being done. A wise delegator will therefore ensure that the task parameters are carefully defined, so that the delegatee cannot unilaterally make decisions which prejudice a successful outcome, and that there is periodic monitoring to ensure that the work is being carried out in the agreed fashion. It may be that this monitoring can also be delegated, e.g., the delegatee may be required to produce regular reports to a committee, but the delegator needs to keep contact with the progress of the work, so that she can answer for it to her superiors.RESPONSIBILITY.Delegation implies giving to the delegatee the power to make all the decisions needed for success. Since the delegator remains accountable for the outcomes of the task, it is very important that the boundaries of responsibility are clearly defined, but once this has been done, the delegatee should be allowed to do the work without any interference. Far too often, the delegator is unable to do this, and friction arises, leading to: demotivation of staff, who complain that they are not allowed to do anything without supervision and interference, lack of learning opportunities for staff, since they are unable to make their own mistakes and to learn from them, a reluctance on the part of staff to undertake additional tasks because they are a source of discontent.In delegating a task, therefore, it is important to make absolutely clear: the policy framework within which the task is being delegated, the precise outcomes required (see above), how far the delegatee can interpret events and how far they must conform to set rules, what circumstances would require reference to a superior for authorisation, what form the accountability monitoring will take.AuthoritySince, when you delegate a task, you are asking someone else to do your work for you, it is only fair that they should also be given the resources you would have to do it. This transfer of resources is called authority. Probably the most frequent complaint made against managers is that they give responsibility without authority, i.e., they require a subordinate to undertake a task without transferring the means to succeed. In order to delegate effectively, therefore, it is critical that you should transfer to the delegatee: the financial resources needed. A major task should carry its own budget, therefore, and the delegatee should have the power to spend money as required by the task, without constant reference to a superior. Since accountability remains with the superior, however, it may be necessary to have periodic reviews of the financial situation to ensure that the terms of the authorisation are being met; this can be achieved by a requirement to submit accounts on a regular basis. the material resources needed, e.g., materials, accommodation, technical aids. Clearly there are limits on availability, but within these, the delegatee should have all the back-up which would be available to the delegator is the task were not delegated. technical support in the form of secretarial assistance, technical services, etc. The degree to which these are available needs to be clarified, e.g., the number of hours of secretarial help that can be called upon, political power in the form of the authority to require other personnel to participate in the task exactly as they would if the delegator were to do it. This would enable the delegatee to form committees, to run pilot projects, to delegate sub-tasks, etc., and to represent the delegator to outside agencies. This is probably the authority that most senior managers find difficulty in delegating, and I am familiar with some who require all mail to be signed personally, or to brief their delegatees on what they are allowed to say at meetings with outside agencies; such interference can only weaken the authority of the delegatee and lead to conflict.Following-Up a Delegated TaskGood leaders use delegation as a means of developing their staff's expertise, and an important element in this is the follow-up to a completed task or the progress review of an ongoing one. In either case, the delegatee is entitled to receive feedback from you in the following ways: public acknowledgement of the work done. This can be in the form of a statement to other colleagues through a staff bulletin or by announcement at a staff meeting. personal thanks for having done your work for you. praise for aspects of the work which were particularly well done. This is extremely important because of the motivation which it creates, yet it is not often done. constructive feedback on aspects of the work which you, with your greater experience, might have done differently. This is not the same as criticism! It entails making suggestions about how the work might be done differently if it were to be repeated and allows time for discussion of any aspects of the work, so that the delegatee might learn from the experience.An Example of a Delegated RoleBelow is an example of a job description, taken from a school in Wales, which encapsulates the principles outlined above. How many of your staff have such an explicit statement?THE POST OF DEPUTY HEAD TEACHER (PASTORAL)The incumbent will, in addition to the teaching duties and other duties agreed from time to time with the Headteacher exercise the following functions:Responsibilities1. To develop, in association with the Pastoral Committee, appropriate programmes of tutorial support for pupils.2. To coordinate the work of tutorial staff throughout the school in cooperation with the Heads of Year.3. To report to the Headteacher through the Senior Management Team on all matters relating to the pastoral support of pupils.4. To liase with Heads of Department in providing support for staff and pupils in ensuring optimum conditions for pupil learning, e.g., in assessment, option choices, work experience etc.5. To prepare, in association with the Pastoral Committee, and for approval by the Senior Management Team, appropriate rules for pupil behaviour.6. To organise the supervision of pupils outside normal classroom hours in order to maintain approved school rules for pupil behaviour.7. To organise an appropriate system for counselling support of pupils and their parents in all matters concerning pupil academic and personal progress.8. To act as arbiter in disputes between staff and pupils, and/or their parents.9. To liase with external support agencies in maintaining good community relations, in supporting pupils and their parents, and in maintaining the school ethos and reputation.10. To maintain, in liaison with the administrative staff, appropriate records concerning the welfare and support of pupils, as agreed with the Senior Management Team.Authority11. The Deputy Head (pastoral) will have full rights of membership of the Senior Management Team and the following other committees:12. (S)he will be able to call on the services of administrative staff, through the Administrative Officer, for secretarial help for up to hours per week.13. (S)he will have full authority to spend such monies as are allocated out of school funds, subject only to a monthly review of accounts.14. (S)he will have full authority to deploy staff, and to delegate responsibilities to them, within the staffing policy laid down by the Senior Management Team.15. (S)he will have the right to discuss with the Headteacher any matters concerned with these duties and to seek his/her support in the proper exercise of the responsibilities delegated above.Accountability16. In all these matters, the Deputy Head (Pastoral) will be accountable solely to the Headteacher.

Questions to ask yourself about delegationGive truthful answers to these questions and then think carefully (i) what causes your response and (ii) what are its implications. You might like to discuss your answers with colleagues.1. Do you operate a policy of 'if you want a job done well, do it yourself'?2. Do you try to do everything yourself?3. Would you trust your senior staff to do your job as well as you, given time and support? If not, why not?4. Could some of your staff do it better? How do you feel about that?5. Do you do a great deal more work than your colleagues? Why?6. Do you feel stressed? What are the reasons?7. How would you feel if you had spare time? What would you do with it?8. Do you give others jobs you dislike doing?9. If you were ill for six months, could your next-in-command do your job effectively? What does this tell you about your management style?10. Do you not delegate because some people might become too powerful ?11. Do you ask or tell staff to do tasks?12. Do you discuss with those staff precisely what the job entails, ask their views and negotiate what is expected of them?13. Do you give the delegatee your full powers to do the job?14. Do you inform others what authority you are giving the delegatee?15. Do you check up on delegatees? For what reasons? Are they valid?16. If the completed job meets your specifications would you implement it without modification?17. Do you ever take credit for the work done by junior staff?18. Are you jealous of any of your subordinates?19. How would you feel if you kept losing senior staff through promotion?20. Do you give adequate constructive feedback and praise?THINK ABOUT YOUR ANSWERSAND DO SOMETHING ABOUT THEMBack to Vol. 2, No. 2 ContentsBack to Top

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Meaning of Delegation of Authority

Delegation of authority is one vital organizational process. It is inevitable along with the expansion and growth of a business enterprise.Delegation means assigning of certain responsibilities along with the necessary authority by a superior to his subordinate managers. Delegation does not mean surrender of authority by the higher level manager. It only means transfer of certain responsibilities to subordinates and giving them the necessary authority, which is necessary to discharge the responsibility properly. Delegation is quite common in all aspects of life including business. Even in the college, the principal delegates some of his authority to the vice-principal.

In delegation, an attempt is being made to have meaningful participation and cooperation from the subordinates for achieving certain well-defined results. Due to delegation, the routine responsibilities of the superior are reduced. As a result, he concentrates on more urgent and important matters. Secondly, due to delegation, subordinate becomes responsible for certain functions transferred to him. Delegation is a tool, which a superior manager uses for sharing his work with the subordinates and thereby raising his efficiency.

Delegation is not a process of abdication. The person who delegates does not divorce himself from theresponsibility and authoritywith which he is entrusted. He remains accountable for the overall performance and also for the performance of his subordinates. Delegation is needed when the volume of work to be done is in excess of an individual's physical and mental capacity.

Delegation involves the following three basic elements:a. Assignment of duties to subordinates,b. Granting of authority to enable the subordinates to perform the duties assigned, andc. Creation of obligation on the part of subordinate to perform duties in an orderly manner.

Definitions of Delegation of Authority

i. According toF.C. Moore, "Delegation means assigning work to the others and giving them authority to do so."ii. According toO. S. Miner, "Delegation takes place when one person gives another the right to perform work on his behalf and in his name and the second person accepts a corresponding duty or obligation to do that is required of him."iii. According toLouis Allen, "Delegation is the dynamics of management, it is the process a manager follows in dividing the work assigned to him so that he performs that part which only he, because of his unique organizational placement, can perform effectively, and so that he can get others to help him with what remains."

Objectives of Delegation of Authority

1. To reduce the excessive burden on the superiors i.e., executives and managers functioning at different levels.2. To provide opportunities of growth and self development to junior executives.3. To create a team of experienced and matured managers for the Organisation. It acts as a technique of management and human resource development.4. To improve individual as well as overall efficiency of theOrganisation.

Process of Delegation of Authority

Delegation process involves four distinct stages. The process of delegation moves through these stages. The following figure shows the stages in the process ofdelegation of authority.

Four Stages In Process of Delegation of Authority

(A) Assignment of duties to subordinates Before delegating, the delegator has to decide precisely the duties which are to be delegated to the subordinate or a group of subordinates. The authority is delegated accordingly and the subordinate is told what is expected from him. The usual practice is to list the functions to be performed by the subordinate. If necessary, targets to be achieved by the subordinate are also spelt out. Subordinates may be assigned tasks either in terms of activities or results. The manager (delegator) must communicate clearly his expectations. Competent and responsible employees may be given general guidelines about what needs to be accomplished. Their less competent and responsible counter-parts need more specific guidelines. In brief, in the first stage of delegation process, duties are assigned to the subordinate.

(B) Transfer of authority to perform the duty In the second stage of delegation process, the authority is granted by the delegator to his subordinate (delegate). Authority must be delegated strictly to perform the assigned duty. The performance of duties suffers serious setback when required authority is not delegated along with the duty. In brief, the transfer of authority should be adequate considering the duties assigned to the subordinate.

(C) Acceptance of the assignment In this third stage of delegation process, the subordinate/delegate has to accept or reject the task assigned to him in the first stage along with the authority given in the second stage. If the delegates refuse, the delegator has to make fresh plan of delegation or may consider some other subordinate who is capable and is willing to accept the assignment. On the other hand, the process of delegation will move to the fourth and the last stage, if the first delegates accept the assignment of work accompanying the authority.

(D) Creation of Obligation / Accountability / Responsibility The fourth stage in the, delegation of authority is the creation of obligation on the part of the subordinate to perform duties assigned to him in a satisfactory manner by using the authority given.When subordinate accepts a task and the authority is given, an obligation is created. He has to perform the assigned task by using the authority granted to him. A subordinate is also responsible/accountable for completing the assigned work. He is held answerable to a superior for the satisfactory performance of that work assigned. The delegator has to help his subordinate as and when necessary as he is responsible to his superior/organisation.

Advantages / Importance of Delegation of Authority

1. Relieves manager for more challenging jobs : Delegation makes it possible for the managers to distribute their workload to others. Thus, managers are relieved of routine work and they can concentrate on higher functions of management likeplanning, organising, controlling, etc.2. Leads to motivation of subordinates : Subordinates are encouraged to give their best at work when they have authority with responsibility. They take more initiative and interest in the work and are also careful and cautious in their work. Delegation leads tomotivationof employees and manpower development.3. Facilitates efficiency and quick actions : Delegation saves time enabling tile subordinates to deal with the problems promptly. They can take the decisions quickly within their authority. It is not necessary to go to the superiors for routine matters. This raises the overall efficiency in an Organisation and offers better results in terms of production, turnover and profit.4. Improves employee morale : Delegation raises the morale of subordinates as they are given duties and supporting authority. They feel that they are responsible employees. The attitude and outlook of subordinates towards work assigned becomes more constructive.5. Develops team spirit : Due to delegation, effective communication develops between the superiors and subordinates. The subordinates are answerable to superiors and the superiors are responsible for the performance of subordinates. This brings better relations and team spirit among the superiors and subordinates6. Maintains cordial relationships : The superiors trust subordinates and give them necessary authority. The subordinates accept their accountability and this develops cordial superior-subordinate relationships.7. Facilitates management development : Delegation acts as a training ground for management development. It gives opportunity to subordinates to learn, to grow and to develop new qualities and skills. It builds up a reservoir of executives, which can be used as and when required. Delegation creates managers and not mere messengers.The advantages of delegation will not be available easily and automatically. They will be available only when the process of delegation moves smoothly. Problems may develop, if the delegation is not introduced with proper planning and in proper spirit. For example, the authority given to subordinate is inadequate or the subordinate is not competent to discharge the responsibilities assigned or the superior fails to monitor the whole process of delegation effectively. In all such cases, the delegation will be ineffective and the expected advantages will not be available to the Organisation and also to concerned parties.

Obstacles / Barriers to Effective Delegation of Authority

(A) Obstacles / Barriers on the Part of Manager / Superior / Delegator

1. Unwillingness of the manager to delegate authority : Some superiors/managers tend to think that they can do the job better when they themselves handle the job. The attitude that 'I can do it better myself' on the part of superior acts as an obstacle to delegation. Some managers (superiors) who are autocratic and power worshippers feel that delegation will lead to reduction of their influence in the Organisation. A manager may feel that if he has a competent subordinate and if he delegates authority to the subordinate, quite likely he will outshine him (manager) and may be promoted.2. Fear of competition : A manager may feel that if he has a competent subordinate and if he delegates authority to the subordinate, quite likely he will outshine him. Fear of subordinate's excellence may come in the way of delegation.3. Lack of confidence in subordinates : A manager may hesitate to delegate authority, if he feels that his subordinate is not competent to deal with the problem and take decisions. Evenfear of losing controlover the subordinates acts as an obstacle to delegation. In addition,fear of being exposeddue to personal shortcomings may act as an obstacle in the process of delegation.4. Lack of ability to direct : Sometimes, a manager may experience difficulty in directing the efforts of his subordinates because of his inability to identify and communicate the essential features of his long-range plans and programmes.5. Absence of controls that warn of coming troubles : An Organisation might not have developed the controlling techniques to know in advance the serious problems lying ahead. It may happen due to concentration of power in the hands of few people. As a result, manager may resist delegation.6. Conservative and cautious temperament of the manager : If a manager has a conservative and over-cautious approach, there will be psychological barrier in the way of delegation. A manager avoids delegation as he feels that something may go wrong even when the instructions given are clear and the subordinates are reliable.7. Desire to dominate subordinates : Managers (Superiors) normally, have a desire to dominate the subordinates functioning under their control. They feel that their domination will reduce if the powers are delegated to subordinates. They also feel that due to delegation, the subordinates will know their managerial deficiencies. In order to maintain their superior status and in order to dominate the subordinates, they avoid delegation itself.

(B) Obstacles / Barriers on the Part of Subordinates ( Why Subordinates Resist Delegation? )

1. Too much dependence on the manager for decisions : Some subordinates avoid responsibility even when the superior/manager is prepared to delegate authority. They want the manager to tackle problems and take decisions. A subordinate who is not confident about his performance/ability will certainly try to shirk responsibility even though his superior is prepared to delegate functions and authority.2. Fear of criticism : Subordinates express unwillingness to accept delegated authority because of the fear of criticism in the case of mistakes. They fear that they may be criticized by others if they commit mistakes. Such subordinates have the following feeling in their mind, "Why should I stick my neck out for my boss?"3. Lack of information : A subordinate may hesitate to accept a new assignment, when he knows that necessary information to perform the job is not likely to be made available to him. He is reluctant to accept delegated functions and authority as he feels that he will not be able to perform well due to inadequate information available.4. Absence of positive incentives : Positive incentives like recognition of work and rewards go a long way in building up the morale of subordinates. In the absence of such incentives in the form of recognition, appreciation or monetary benefit, a subordinate may not be prepared to accept delegation of authority.5. Absence of self-confidence : A subordinate may lack self-confidence about his ability to take quick and correct decisions. He may not like to accept new challenging functions as he lacks self-confidence. Thus, lack of self-confidence on the part of subordinates is one obstacle which comes in the way of delegation of authority.6. Difficulty in decision-making : A subordinate may not have the skill and the expertise to take quick and correct decisions. He prefers to go to his superior (boss) and ask for his guidance or opinion. Such psychology acts as a cause for non-acceptance of delegation. A subordinate avoids delegation due to such mental tension or inferiority complex.7. Poor superior-subordinate relations : Absence of cordial relations in between the superior and the subordinates hampers the process ofdelegation of authority. The attitude of the superior towards subordinate may not be friendly but hostile. There may be undue interference in the work assigned to the subordinate. Even the good work of subordinate may not be appreciated by the superior. Such situation creates unfavorable attitude of subordinate towards delegation. He avoids delegation as and when offered.8. Undue interference by superior : A superior should not interfere in the duties delegated to the subordinate. He may offer guidance as and when asked for. Some superiors interfere in the work of his subordinate and try to control him often and again. In the absence of legitimate freedom, the subordinate becomes uneasy and prefers to remain away from the process of delegation.9. Fear of being exposed : Some subordinates may have inferiority complex. They feel that they have limited capacity to accept the challenges which are bound to come out to delegation. They feel that their inability to deal with new problems will be exposed due to delegation. This fear acts as an obstacle to delegation.

Principles of Effective Delegation of Authority

1. Knowledge of Objectives : Before delegating authority, the subordinates should be made to understand their duties and responsibilities. In addition, knowledge of objectives and policies of the enterprise should be provided to them. This will enable them to discharge their roles purposefully in the process of delegation.2. Parity of Authority and Responsibility : This principle of delegation suggests that when authority is delegated, it should be commensurate with the responsibility of the subordinate. In fact, the authority and responsibility should be made clear to the subordinate so that he will know what he is expected to do within the powers assigned to them. There should be proper balance/parity or co-existence between the authority and responsibility. A subordinate will not function efficiently, if authority given to him is inadequate. On the other hand, if the excess authority is given, he may misuse the same. For avoiding this, the subordinates who are assigned duties should be given necessary/ adequate authority enables them to carry out their duties.3. Unity of Command : This principle of delegation suggests that everyone should have only one boss. A subordinate should get orders and instructions from one superior and should be made accountable to one superior only. This means 'no subordinate should be held accountable to more than one superior'. When a subordinate is asked to report to more thanone boss, it leads to confusion and conflict. Unity of command also removes overlapping and duplication of work. In the absence of unity of command, there will be confusion and difficulty in fixing accountability.4. The Scalar Principle : The scalar principle of delegation maintains that there should be clear and direct lines of authority in the Organisation, running from the top to the bottom. The subordinate should know who delegates authority to him and to whom he should contact for matters beyond his authority. They (subordinates) should also know what is expected from them. This principle justifies establishment of the hierarchical structure within the Organisation.5. Clarity of Delegation : The principle of clarity of delegation suggests that while delegating authority to subordinates, they should be made to understand the limits of authority so that they know the area of their operation and the extent of freedom of action available to them. Such clarity guides subordinates while performing their jobs.6. Absoluteness of Responsibility : This principle of delegation suggests that it is only the authority which is delegated and not the responsibility.The responsibility is absolute and remains with the superior. He cannot run away from the same even after delegation. Even when the manager delegates authority to his subordinate, he remains fully accountable to his superiors because responsibility cannot be divided between a superior and his subordinate. No superior can delegate responsibilities for the acts of his subordinates. He is responsible for the acts and omissions of his subordinates.7. Use of Exception Principle : This principle of delegation indicates that when authority is delegated, it is expected that the subordinate will exercise his own judgment and take decisions within the purview of his authority. He is to be given adequate freedom to operate within his authority even at the cost of mistakes. He should refer the problems to the top level management only when he is unable to take decisions. Unnecessary interference in the work of delegates should be avoided. This normal rule can be given up under exceptional circumstances. Here, the superior can interfere in the work of his subordinate and even withdraw the delegated duties and authority. The superior takes this decision under exceptional circumstances.8. Completeness of Delegation : This principle of delegation suggests that there should be completeness in the process of delegation. The process of delegation should be taken to its logical end. Otherwise, there will be confusion of authority and accountability.9. Effective Communication Support System : This principle suggests that there should be continuous flow of information between the superior and the subordinates with a view to furnishing relevant information to subordinate fordecision-making. This helps him to take proper decisions and also to interpret properly the authority delegated to him. Delegation system may not work smoothly in the absence of effective communication between the superior and subordinates.10. Reward for Effective Delegation : This principle suggests that effective delegation and successful assumption of authority should be rewarded. This will facilitate fuller delegation and effective assumption of authority within the Organisation. Reward for effective delegation will provide favorable environmental climate for its fair introduction.

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FEATURED Worlds Top 10 Most Poisonous Venomous Deadliest Snakes Balayam Nail Rubbing Exercise Cures Alopecia, Hair Loss, Bald What is Credit Card? Meaning Definition Size Anatomy Glossary Difference Between Primary and Secondary Data Top Inventions and Discoveries by Scientists - A to Z List - Science Stages in Evolution of Business from Local to Global How to Improve Human Relations? Measures How To Prepare For Successful Job Interviews ? Best Interview Tips How To Summarize Passage ? Summarization Skills Techniques Essay on Most Memorable Day of My Life Basic Principles of Insurance - Examples of Insurance Principles Indian Money Market - Features, Drawbacks and Recent Reforms Concept of Marketing Research (MR) Marketing Research ProcessMANAGEMENT Management Functions And Process, Management Thought Planning First Primary Important Function Of Management Management By Objectives (MBO) - Peter Drucker MBO Decision Making Process In Management - Problem Solving Authority, Responsibility and Accountability In Management Principle of Delegation of Authority - Importance of Delegation Organisation - Organizational Structure - Organisational Chart Decentralisation Advantages and Limitations of Decentralization Managerial Leadership - Leader Qualities - Leadership Theories Human Resource Management - Human Resource Development Motivation Motivational Factors Incentives Theories of Motivation Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - The Theory of Human Motivation Frederick Herzberg's Two Factor Theory - Motivation Hygiene Factors Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y - Employee Motivation David McClelland's Achievement Motivation, Manifest Need Theory Marketing Mix and 4 P's of The Marketing - Management Article What is Market Segmentation ? Importance In Modern Marketing 5 M's of Advertising - Features of The Advertising Management Quality Control Total Quality Management TQM Quality CirclesBANKING What is a Bank ? Introduction, Definition and Features of Bank Different Types of Banks - What are Various Kinds of Banks ? Commercial Banks - Definitions, Primary Secondary Functions Balance Sheet of Commercial Bank - Liabilities and Assets How to Open Bank Account ? 7 Steps To Open Bank Account What are the Advantages of Opening Bank Account ? Saving Account Bank - Meaning, Features and Advantages of It Fixed Deposit Account of Bank - Meaning, Features, Advantages What is Current Bank Account ? Its Features and Advantages Recurring Deposit Account In Bank - Meaning and Features What is a Cheque ? Definition - Kinds and Types of Cheques What are Features of Cheques ? Main Characteristics of Checks What is Crossing of Cheque ? Different Types of Check Crossing Automated Teller Machine (ATM) - The Advantages of ATM Machine E-Banking - Online Banking - Main Advantages of E-Banking Principles of Good Lending Every Banker Follows - Loans Different Forms of Advances by Commercial Banks - Loan Types Duties and Responsibilities of Computer Operator in Bank Nationalisation of Banks in India - Introduction Objectives Demerits Narasimham Committee Report I 1991 II 1998 - Recommendations New Economic Reforms of the Banking Sector In India - Brief Functions of Reserve Bank of India (RBI) - Credit Policy of RBI

Meaning of Delegation of Authority

Delegation of authority is one vital organizational process. It is inevitable along with the expansion and growth of a business enterprise. Delegation means assigning of certain responsibilities along with the necessary authority by a superior to his subordinate managers. Delegation does not mean surrender of authority by the higher level manager. It only means transfer of certain responsibilities to subordinates and giving them the necessary authority, which is necessary to discharge the responsibility properly. Delegation is quite common in all aspects of life including business. Even in the college, the principal delegates some of his authority to the vice-principal.Delegation of AuthorityIn delegation, an attempt is being made to have meaningful participation and cooperation from the subordinates for achieving certain well-defined results. Due to delegation, the routine responsibilities of the superior are reduced. As a result, he concentrates on more urgent and important matters. Secondly, due to delegation, subordinate becomes responsible for certain functions transferred to him. Delegation is a tool, which a superior manager uses for sharing his work with the subordinates and thereby raising his efficiency.

Delegation is not a process of abdication. The person who delegates does not divorce himself from the responsibility and authority with which he is entrusted. He remains accountable for the overall performance and also for the performance of his subordinates. Delegation is needed when the volume of work to be done is in excess of an individual's physical and mental capacity.

Delegation involves the following three basic elements:Assignment of duties to subordinates,Granting of authority to enable the subordinates to perform the duties assigned, andCreation of obligation on the part of subordinate to perform duties in an orderly manner.

squareDefinitions of Delegation of Authority

According to F.C. Moore, "Delegation means assigning work to the others and giving them authority to do so."According to O. S. Miner, "Delegation takes place when one person gives another the right to perform work on his behalf and in his name and the second person accepts a corresponding duty or obligation to do that is required of him."According to Louis Allen, "Delegation is the dynamics of management, it is the process a manager follows in dividing the work assigned to him so that he performs that part which only he, because of his unique organizational placement, can perform effectively, and so that he can get others to help him with what remains."

squareObjectives of Delegation of Authority

To reduce the excessive burden on the superiors i.e., executives and managers functioning at different levels.To provide opportunities of growth and self development to junior executives.To create a team of experienced and matured managers for the Organisation. It acts as a technique of management and human resource development.To improve individual as well as overall efficiency of the Organisation.

squareProcess of Delegation of Authority

Delegation process involves four distinct stages. The process of delegation moves through these stages. The following figure shows the stages in the process of delegation of authority.Stages In The Delegation Of Authority

squareFour Stages In Process of Delegation of Authority

(A) Assignment of duties to subordinates Before delegating, the delegator has to decide precisely the duties which are to be delegated to the subordinate or a group of subordinates. The authority is delegated accordingly and the subordinate is told what is expected from him. The usual practice is to list the functions to be performed by the subordinate. If necessary, targets to be achieved by the subordinate are also spelt out. Subordinates may be assigned tasks either in terms of activities or results. The manager (delegator) must communicate clearly his expectations. Competent and responsible employees may be given general guidelines about what needs to be accomplished. Their less competent and responsible counter-parts need more specific guidelines. In brief, in the first stage of delegation process, duties are assigned to the subordinate.

(B) Transfer of authority to perform the duty In the second stage of delegation process, the authority is granted by the delegator to his subordinate (delegate). Authority must be delegated strictly to perform the assigned duty. The performance of duties suffers serious setback when required authority is not delegated along with the duty. In brief, the transfer of authority should be adequate considering the duties assigned to the subordinate.

(C) Acceptance of the assignment In this third stage of delegation process, the subordinate/delegate has to accept or reject the task assigned to him in the first stage along with the authority given in the second stage. If the delegates refuse, the delegator has to make fresh plan of delegation or may consider some other subordinate who is capable and is willing to accept the assignment. On the other hand, the process of delegation will move to the fourth and the last stage, if the first delegates accept the assignment of work accompanying the authority.

(D) Creation of Obligation / Accountability / Responsibility The fourth stage in the, delegation of authority is the creation of obligation on the part of the subordinate to perform duties assigned to him in a satisfactory manner by using the authority given. When subordinate accepts a task and the authority is given, an obligation is created. He has to perform the assigned task by using the authority granted to him. A subordinate is also responsible/accountable for completing the assigned work. He is held answerable to a superior for the satisfactory performance of that work assigned. The delegator has to help his subordinate as and when necessary as he is responsible to his superior/organisation.

squareAdvantages / Importance of Delegation of Authority

Relieves manager for more challenging jobs : Delegation makes it possible for the managers to distribute their workload to others. Thus, managers are relieved of routine work and they can concentrate on higher functions of management like planning, organising, controlling, etc.Leads to motivation of subordinates : Subordinates are encouraged to give their best at work when they have authority with responsibility. They take more initiative and interest in the work and are also careful and cautious in their work. Delegation leads to motivation of employees and manpower development.Facilitates efficiency and quick actions : Delegation saves time enabling tile subordinates to deal with the problems promptly. They can take the decisions quickly within their authority. It is not necessary to go to the superiors for routine matters. This raises the overall efficiency in an Organisation and offers better results in terms of production, turnover and profit.Improves employee morale : Delegation raises the morale of subordinates as they are given duties and supporting authority. They feel that they are responsible employees. The attitude and outlook of subordinates towards work assigned becomes more constructive.Develops team spirit : Due to delegation, effective communication develops between the superiors and subordinates. The subordinates are answerable to superiors and the superiors are responsible for the performance of subordinates. This brings better relations and team spirit among the superiors and subordinatesMaintains cordial relationships : The superiors trust subordinates and give them necessary authority. The subordinates accept their accountability and this develops cordial superior-subordinate relationships.Facilitates management development : Delegation acts as a training ground for management development. It gives opportunity to subordinates to learn, to grow and to develop new qualities and skills. It builds up a reservoir of executives, which can be used as and when required. Delegation creates managers and not mere messengers.The advantages of delegation will not be available easily and automatically. They will be available only when the process of delegation moves smoothly. Problems may develop, if the delegation is not introduced with proper planning and in proper spirit. For example, the authority given to subordinate is inadequate or the subordinate is not competent to discharge the responsibilities assigned or the superior fails to monitor the whole process of delegation effectively. In all such cases, the delegation will be ineffective and the expected advantages will not be available to the Organisation and also to concerned parties.

squareObstacles / Barriers to Effective Delegation of Authority

square(A) Obstacles / Barriers on the Part of Manager / Superior / Delegator

Unwillingness of the manager to delegate authority : Some superiors/managers tend to think that they can do the job better when they themselves handle the job. The attitude that 'I can do it better myself' on the part of superior acts as an obstacle to delegation. Some managers (superiors) who are autocratic and power worshippers feel that delegation will lead to reduction of their influence in the Organisation. A manager may feel that if he has a competent subordinate and if he delegates authority to the subordinate, quite likely he will outshine him (manager) and may be promoted.Fear of competition : A manager may feel that if he has a competent subordinate and if he delegates authority to the subordinate, quite likely he will outshine him. Fear of subordinate's excellence may come in the way of delegation.Lack of confidence in subordinates : A manager may hesitate to delegate authority, if he feels that his subordinate is not competent to deal with the problem and take decisions. Even fear of losing control over the subordinates acts as an obstacle to delegation. In addition, fear of being exposed due to personal shortcomings may act as an obstacle in the process of delegation.Lack of ability to direct : Sometimes, a manager may experience difficulty in directing the efforts of his subordinates because of his inability to identify and communicate the essential features of his long-range plans and programmes.Absence of controls that warn of coming troubles : An Organisation might not have developed the controlling techniques to know in advance the serious problems lying ahead. It may happen due to concentration of power in the hands of few people. As a result, manager may resist delegation.Conservative and cautious temperament of the manager : If a manager has a conservative and over-cautious approach, there will be psychological barrier in the way of delegation. A manager avoids delegation as he feels that something may go wrong even when the instructions given are clear and the subordinates are reliable.Desire to dominate subordinates : Managers (Superiors) normally, have a desire to dominate the subordinates functioning under their control. They feel that their domination will reduce if the powers are delegated to subordinates. They also feel that due to delegation, the subordinates will know their managerial deficiencies. In order to maintain their superior status and in order to dominate the subordinates, they avoid delegation itself.

square(B) Obstacles / Barriers on the Part of Subordinates ( Why Subordinates Resist Delegation? )

Too much dependence on the manager for decisions : Some subordinates avoid responsibility even when the superior/manager is prepared to delegate authority. They want the manager to tackle problems and take decisions. A subordinate who is not confident about his performance/ability will certainly try to shirk responsibility even though his superior is prepared to delegate functions and authority.Fear of criticism : Subordinates express unwillingness to accept delegated authority because of the fear of criticism in the case of mistakes. They fear that they may be criticized by others if they commit mistakes. Such subordinates have the following feeling in their mind, "Why should I stick my neck out for my boss?"Lack of information : A subordinate may hesitate to accept a new assignment, when he knows that necessary information to perform the job is not likely to be made available to him. He is reluctant to accept delegated functions and authority as he feels that he will not be able to perform well due to inadequate information available.Absence of positive incentives : Positive incentives like recognition of work and rewards go a long way in building up the morale of subordinates. In the absence of such incentives in the form of recognition, appreciation or monetary benefit, a subordinate may not be prepared to accept delegation of authority.Absence of self-confidence : A subordinate may lack self-confidence about his ability to take quick and correct decisions. He may not like to accept new challenging functions as he lacks self-confidence. Thus, lack of self-confidence on the part of subordinates is one obstacle which comes in the way of delegation of authority.Difficulty in decision-making : A subordinate may not have the skill and the expertise to take quick and correct decisions. He prefers to go to his superior (boss) and ask for his guidance or opinion. Such psychology acts as a cause for non-acceptance of delegation. A subordinate avoids delegation due to such mental tension or inferiority complex.Poor superior-subordinate relations : Absence of cordial relations in between the superior and the subordinates hampers the process of delegation of authority. The attitude of the superior towards subordinate may not be friendly but hostile. There may be undue interference in the work assigned to the subordinate. Even the good work of subordinate may not be appreciated by the superior. Such situation creates unfavorable attitude of subordinate towards delegation. He avoids delegation as and when offered.Undue interference by superior : A superior should not interfere in the duties delegated to the subordinate. He may offer guidance as and when asked for. Some superiors interfere in the work of his subordinate and try to control him often and again. In the absence of legitimate freedom, the subordinate becomes uneasy and prefers to remain away from the process of delegation.Fear of being exposed : Some subordinates may have inferiority complex. They feel that they have limited capacity to accept the challenges which are bound to come out to delegation. They feel that their inability to deal with new problems will be exposed due to delegation. This fear acts as an obstacle to delegation.

squarePrinciples of Effective Delegation of Authority

Knowledge of Objectives : Before delegating authority, the subordinates should be made to understand their duties and responsibilities. In addition, knowledge of objectives and policies of the enterprise should be provided to them. This will enable them to discharge their roles purposefully in the process of delegation.Parity of Authority and Responsibility : This principle of delegation suggests that when authority is delegated, it should be commensurate with the responsibility of the subordinate. In fact, the authority and responsibility should be made clear to the subordinate so that he will know what he is expected to do within the powers assigned to them. There should be proper balance/parity or co-existence between the authority and responsibility. A subordinate will not function efficiently, if authority given to him is inadequate. On the other hand, if the excess authority is given, he may misuse the same. For avoiding this, the subordinates who are assigned duties should be given necessary/ adequate authority enables them to carry out their duties.Unity of Command : This principle of delegation suggests that everyone should have only one boss. A subordinate should get orders and instructions from one superior and should be made accountable to one superior only. This means 'no subordinate should be held accountable to more than one superior'. When a subordinate is asked to report to more than one boss, it leads to confusion and conflict. Unity of command also removes overlapping and duplication of work. In the absence of unity of command, there will be confusion and difficulty in fixing accountability.The Scalar Principle : The scalar principle of delegation maintains that there should be clear and direct lines of authority in the Organisation, running from the top to the bottom. The subordinate should know who delegates authority to him and to whom he should contact for matters beyond his authority. They (subordinates) should also know what is expected from them. This principle justifies establishment of the hierarchical structure within the Organisation.Clarity of Delegation : The principle of clarity of delegation suggests that while delegating authority to subordinates, they should be made to understand the limits of authority so that they know the area of their operation and the extent of freedom of action available to them. Such clarity guides subordinates while performing their jobs.Absoluteness of Responsibility : This principle of delegation suggests that it is only the authority which is delegated and not the responsibility. The responsibility is absolute and remains with the superior. He cannot run away from the same even after delegation. Even when the manager delegates authority to his subordinate, he remains fully accountable to his superiors because responsibility cannot be divided between a superior and his subordinate. No superior can delegate responsibilities for the acts of his subordinates. He is responsible for the acts and omissions of his subordinates.Use of Exception Principle : This principle of delegation indicates that when authority is delegated, it is expected that the subordinate will exercise his own judgment and take decisions within the purview of his authority. He is to be given adequate freedom to operate within his authority even at the cost of mistakes. He should refer the problems to the top level management only when he is unable to take decisions. Unnecessary interference in the work of delegates should be avoided. This normal rule can be given up under exceptional circumstances. Here, the superior can interfere in the work of his subordinate and even withdraw the delegated duties and authority. The superior takes this decision under exceptional circumstances.Completeness of Delegation : This principle of delegation suggests that there should be completeness in the process of delegation. The process of delegation should be taken to its logical end. Otherwise, there will be confusion of authority and accountability.Effective Communication Support System : This principle suggests that there should be continuous flow of information between the superior and the subordinates with a view to furnishing relevant information to subordinate for decision-making. This helps him to take proper decisions and also to interpret properly the authority delegated to him. Delegation system may not work smoothly in the absence of effective communication between the superior and subordinates.Reward for Effective Delegation : This principle suggests that effective delegation and successful assumption of authority should be rewarded. This will facilitate fuller delegation and effective assumption of authority within the Organisation. Reward for effective delegation will provide favorable environmental climate for its fair introduction.

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Organisation - Organizational Structure - Organisational ...Human Resource Management - Human Resource DevelopmentManagement Functions And Process, Management ThoughtLinkwithinDelegation of Authority Principles and Importance of DelegationFeed of Kalyan City Life BlogsquareTranslation

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Newer Posts Newer PostsOlder Posts Older PostsHome HomeNEW COMMENTSThis blog is very helpful to understand bureaucrac...this article is very helpful to me as a student of...NEW ARTICLESMeaning and Definition of Human RelationsFive Essentials of Human RelationsHow to Improve Human Relations? MeasuresDifference Between Primary and Secondary Data in 16 points

CATEGORYAdministrative LawAdvertisingBankingBloggerBusiness DevelopmentC ProgrammingCommunication SkillsDistinguish BetweenEconomicsEducationFinanceIndustrial PsychologyJavascriptKalyan CityManagementMarketing ResearchPhotosProduction PlanningSnakesFINANCEWhat is Finance? Meaning Definition Features of FinanceWhat is Financial Planning? Meaning Types of Financial PlansWhat is Financial Management? Meaning Definition Scope ArticlesWhat is Corporate Finance? Meaning - What it Includes?What is Credit Rating? Meaning and Articles on Credit Rating

FEATUREDWorlds Top 10 Most Poisonous Venomous Deadliest SnakesBalayam Nail Rubbing Exercise Cures Alopecia, Hair Loss, BaldWhat is Credit Card? Meaning Definition Size Anatomy GlossaryDifference Between Primary and Secondary DataTop Inventions and Discoveries by Scientists - A to Z List - ScienceStages in Evolution of Business from Local to GlobalHow to Improve Human Relations? MeasuresHow To Prepare For Successful Job Interviews ? Best Interview TipsHow To Summarize Passage ? Summarization Skills TechniquesEssay on Most Memorable Day of My LifeBasic Principles of Insurance - Examples of Insurance PrinciplesIndian Money Market - Features, Drawbacks and Recent ReformsConcept of Marketing Research (MR) Marketing Research ProcessMANAGEMENTManagement Functions And Process, Management ThoughtPlanning First Primary Important Function Of ManagementManagement By Objectives (MBO) - Peter Drucker MBODecision Making Process In Management - Problem SolvingAuthority, Responsibility and Accountability In ManagementPrinciple of Delegation of Authority - Importance of DelegationOrganisation - Organizational Structure - Organisational ChartDecentralisation Advantages and Limitations of DecentralizationManagerial Leadership - Leader Qualities - Leadership TheoriesHuman Resource Management - Human Resource DevelopmentMotivation Motivational Factors Incentives Theories of MotivationMaslow's Hierarchy of Needs - The Theory of Human MotivationFrederick Herzberg's Two Factor Theory - Motivation Hygiene FactorsDouglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y - Employee MotivationDavid McClelland's Achievement Motivation, Manifest Need TheoryMarketing Mix and 4 P's of The Marketing - Management ArticleWhat is Market Segmentation ? Importance In Modern Marketing5 M's of Advertising - Features of The Advertising ManagementQuality Control Total Quality Management TQM Quality CirclesBANKINGWhat is a Bank ? Introduction, Definition and Features of BankDifferent Types of Banks - What are Various Kinds of Banks ?Commercial Banks - Definitions, Primary Secondary FunctionsBalance Sheet of Commercial Bank - Liabilities and AssetsHow to Open Bank Account ? 7 Steps To Open Bank AccountWhat are the Advantages of Opening Bank Account ?Saving Account Bank - Meaning, Features and Advantages of ItFixed Deposit Account of Bank - Meaning, Features, AdvantagesWhat is Current Bank Account ? Its Features and AdvantagesRecurring Deposit Account In Bank - Meaning and FeaturesWhat is a Cheque ? Definition - Kinds and Types of ChequesWhat are Features of Cheques ? Main Characteristics of ChecksWhat is Crossing of Cheque ? Different Types of Check CrossingAutomated Teller Machine (ATM) - The Advantages of ATM MachineE-Banking - Online Banking - Main Advantages of E-BankingPrinciples of Good Lending Every Banker Follows - LoansDifferent Forms of Advances by Commercial Banks - Loan TypesDuties and Responsibilities of Computer Operator in BankNationalisation of Banks in India - Introduction Objectives DemeritsNarasimham Committee Report I 1991 II 1998 - RecommendationsNew Economic Reforms of the Banking Sector In India - BriefFunctions of Delegation in the School Setting: Is it a Safe Practice?^mdCheryl Resha, EdD, MSN, RNAbstractDelegation of nursing tasks to unlicensed assistive personnel (UAPs) in school settings continues to be a necessary, yet challenging practice. Although the practice of delegation to UAPs in schools, as in other healthcare settings, is necessary due to limited resources and increasing healthcare needs, it remains essential to provide students with healthcare that is safe and high in quality. Therefore, school nurses must understand delegation decisions and processes and develop the skills necessary to train and supervise UAPs. This article will discuss theneed for delegation; thefactors necessary for safe delegation; thebenefitsandchallengesassociated with delegation; and theimplications of delegationfor practice in school settings, including policy development, the rights of delegation, education for delegation, and the building of relationships that support delegation.Citation:Resha, C., (May 31, 2010) "Delegation in the School Setting: Is it a Safe Practice?"OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in NursingVol. 15, No. 2, Manuscript 5.DOI:10.3912/OJIN.Vol15No02Man05Key words:delegation, safety, school nurses, supervision, unlicensed assistive personnelDelegation is defined as the ability of the nurse to transfer the responsibility of a nursing task to an unlicensed person while the nurse continues to be accountable for the outcomes (American Nurses Association [ANA], 2007). Delegation of nursing tasks in school settings is a necessity given the multitude of school nursing responsibilities, the increase of health needs among students in the 21stcentury, and the limited number of school nurses available to meet these needs. A variety of factors influence this growing need, yet barriers to the safe and effective practice of delegation continue to challenge school nurses and concern others.One such concern is the lack of an adequate number of school nurses to provide quality care in schools. The nationally recommended nurse to student ratio is 1 nurse to 750 well students (National Association of School Nurses [NASN], 2010). However, it is well documented that school nurses often cover more than one school building and have nurse to student ratios as high as 1:4,000 (NASN).According to the ANA and the National Council of State Boards of Nursing [NCSBN] (2006):Delegation is a process that, used appropriately, can result in safe and effective nursing care. Delegation can free the registered nurse to attend to more complex patient care needs, develop the skills of nursing assistive personnel and promote cost containment for the healthcare organization (Conclusion, 1)....the process of delegating nursing care often includes complex legal and clinical issues...However, the process of delegating nursing care often includes complex legal and clinical issues related to the necessary education and supervision of unlicensed personnel. This is especially true in school settings where the school nurse may be the only healthcare professional in the building (Selekman, 2006), and where there is no cookie-cutter recipe or "one-size fits all" solution to delegation issues that arise in these settings. Nonetheless, there are principles, standards of care, regulations, and laws to guide the school nurse in delegating some of the care needed.This article will discuss the need for delegation; the factors necessary for safe delegation; the benefits and challenges associated with delegation; and the implications of delegation for practice in school settings, including policy development, the rights of delegation, education for delegation, and the building of relationships that support delegation. TheTablebelow provides definitions related to delegation that will be used throughout this article.Table. Definitions Related to School Nurse Delegation

AccountabilityThe state of being responsible or answerable (ANA, 2005).

DelegationThe transfer of responsibility for the performance of a task from one individual to another while retaining accountability for the outcome (ANA, 2005).

Nursing ProcessThe professional, systematic approach to ensuring complete care. The process consists of various steps including assessing, diagnosing, planning, implementing, and evaluating the care provided (ANA, 2005).

Unlicensed Assistive PersonnelIndividuals who are trained to function in an assistive role to the registered professional nurse in the provision of student care activities as delegated by and under the supervision of the registered professional nurse (National Association of School Nurse Consultants [NASSNC], 2000).

School NurseA registered professional nurse who is licensed by a state as a registered nurse and who meets the states minimum qualifications as a professional school nurse (National Association of School Nurses [NASN, 2002;Schwab & Gelfman, 2001).

SupervisionThe active process of directing, guiding, and influencing the outcome of an individuals performance of a task (ANA, 2005).

Needfor Delegation in the School SettingThe need for delegation of nursing tasks in the school setting is greater today than ever before due to the following factors identified by NASN (2006a), NASSNC (2000), and Spriggle (2009). unfunded mandates, such as health screenings and immunization reporting, that pull the school nurse away from direct care; shortage of qualified nursing staff in schools, i.e., lack of nurses that meet the state requirement to work as a school nurse; budgetary constraints that limit the schools ability to hire and retain qualified staff; staffing patterns that assign one nurse to multiple school buildings thereby leaving buildings without nurses at various times; and federal and state requirements, such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1975, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, requiring that school health services for complex student health needs, such as providing care to ventilator-dependent children, be provided so that students can access their education.As mentioned above, two major federal laws have greatly influenced the need for health services in the school setting. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 was established as a civil rights provision that prohibits the discrimination, on the basis of handicap, by agencies and organizations (including most schools) if they receive federal funds. It requires these agencies to provide individuals with access to programs, buildings, and services; and it prohibits exclusion of a student based solely on a handicap. To be eligible for service under Section 504, a student needs to have a physical or mental health impairment that substantially limits a major life function, such as eating, seeing, hearing, and/or walking. Additionally, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act was initially adopted in 1975 to provide federal funds to states that provide for a free, appropriate education in the least restrictive environment to students who qualify as disabled under this law (Schwab & Gelfman, 2001, p. 63). In return for these funds states are required to provide special education and related services, including complex school health services, so that all students have access to the education offered by the school (Schwab & Gelfman).Due to...federal requirements many children who are now attending schools rely on assistive medical equipment, such as ventilators, pacemakers, and insulin pumps.Due to these federal requirements many children who are now attending schools rely on assistive medical equipment, such as ventilators, pacemakers, and insulin pumps. In addition, many children also require skilled nursing care, such as gastrostomy tube feedings, nebulized treatments, intermittent catheterizations, and administration of various medications (ANA, 2007). NASN (2006b) has concluded that the registered professional school nurse is the healthcare provider who has the knowledge, education, experience, and authority to manage and provide the full range of these health services in these educational settings. School nurses are in a position to use their expert assessment skills to address a myriad of health conditions and behaviors and who, when safe and determined by the school nurse as appropriate, have the ability to delegate some nursing functions to unlicensed assistive personnel (UAPs). This growing need to provide skilled nursing care increases the need to properly utilize trained UAPs, while continuing to provide safe and high quality healthcare in the school environment.FactorsNecessary for Safe and Effective Delegation...delegation is not appropriate for all students, all nursing tasks, and/or all school settings.In order to provide safe healthcare in the school setting, school nurses need to understand the legal parameters, e.g. their state Nurse Practice Acts, rules, and regulations; along with clinical parameters, such as the standards of practice and professional health-related position statements developed by professional organizations, including, among others, the American Nurses Association, the National Association of School Nurses, and the American Academy of Pediatrics, for delegating nursing tasks and responsibilities to UAPs. In addition, the individual nurses critical thinking skills are of utmost importance in providing safe care. The NASSNC (2000) has stated that the RN (registered nurse) must determine which student care activities may be delegated, under what circumstances it is appropriate to delegate aspects of student care, and by whom the...care can safely be provided. Based on the guiding principles set forth by ANA (2005), NASSNC, and NCSBN (1995), it is clear that delegation is not appropriate for all students, all nursing tasks, and/or all school settings.For delegation to be safe and effective, it is essential for school nurses to have appropriate education related to delegation, including an understanding of state nurse practice acts and regulations and formal opinions on what nursing responsibilities and tasks can and cannot be delegated to UAPs (AAP, 2009;ANA, 2007; Gordon & Barry, 2009;Spriggle, 2009). It is also important to recognize that the regulation of nursing practice varies greatly from state to state. Some states have clear statements and regulations; others have vague or no statements at all; and still other states do not allow any delegation of nursing responsibilities to UAPs. For example, the Connecticut General Statute (C.G.S.), Section 20-87a defines the practice of nursing by an RN as:The process of diagnosing human responses to actual or potential health problems, providing supportive and restorative care, health counseling and teaching, case finding and referral, collaborating in the implementation of the total healthcare regimen, and executing the medical regimen under the direction of a licensed physician, dentist or advanced practice registered nurse (C.G.S., Chapter 378, Section 20-87a).No reference to delegation is included in this statutory language; however, the Connecticut Board of Examiners for Nurses has issued two declaratory rulings that delineate delegation. These declaratory rulings,Licensed Practice Nurses(1989) andDelegation by Licensed Nurses to Unlicensed AssistiveIf school nurses examine only their Nurse Practice Acts and not their states declaratory rulings, they may miss important rulings they need to be aware of before delegating...Personnel(1995) set clear guidance on what can and cannot be delegated to UAPs in Connecticut. If school nurses examine only their Nurse Practice Acts and not their states declaratory rulings, they may miss important rulings they need to be aware of before delegating school nursing tasks to others.

Even with formal education regarding delegation, school nurses may lack experience in delegation and hence may not be comfortable delegating responsibilities or tasks to UAPs. According to ANA and NCSBN (2006) the development of delegation skills occurs over time and with experience. New registered nurses, whether in a school or an inpatient setting, are still developing their basic skills and may lack the knowledge or expertise needed for skillful delegation of nursing activities. Even more mature or seasoned school nurses may lack the confidence needed to delegate competently to UAPs.Benefitsof Delegation in the School SettingThe literature provides support for the contribution UAPs make in schools when there is adequate training and supervision for the UAP (Hanson, Randolfi, & Olson-Johnson, 2002;Selekman, 2006). Many school nurses, too, believe that UAPs can meet important student healthcare needs provided their role is clearly defined and within the scope of the individual UAPs competence and proficiency. School nurses have the responsibility for a wide range of nursing activities, including direct care, case management, coordination of care, health screenings, health teaching, promoting a healthy and safe environment, as well as recording and documenting immunizations, physical examination data, and health insurance status (AAP, 2008;NASN, 2006b;NASSNC, 2000). Within these various roles and responsibilities, there are many opportunities for a school nurse to safely and effectively utilize UAPs. Depending on state laws and individual UAP competency, nursing tasks in school settings, including medication administration; health screenings for vision and hearing; gastrostomy tube feedings; intermittent catheterizations; and clerical tasks, such as documenting immunizations and health assessments, may safely be delegated to UAPs....school nurses... viewed delegation as an opportunity for the school nurse to engage in other nursing responsibilities, such as health education or caring for students with more complex healthcare needs.The complexity of care needed by some children can pose challenges to school nurses. Some of these medically fragile children need to have a one-to-one staff person with them at all times to monitor their health status. In these situations, a UAP might be the appropriate person to monitor such students. With the proper protocol and an individualized plan of care delineated by the school nurse, the UAP could be responsible for observing the student throughout the day; providing routine care; identifying potentially life-threatening situations; and seeking the school nurse to conduct any necessary assessments or adjustments to the plan of care based on the students condition. In these situations, too, UAPs can become an essential component of the nursing care plan.According to Spriggle (2009), school nurses that received education in delegation view the use of delegation in a positive manner because it affords them time in the classroom for health teaching and direct student contact. Tetuan and Akagi (2004) noted that school nurses who had not had any education in delegation did not view it as an opportunity for them to provide health education to students but rather as a potential threat that might lead to the elimination of school nurse positions. Both studies indicated that school nurses who were educated and experienced in delegation viewed delegation as an opportunity for the school nurse to engage in other nursing responsibilities, such as health education or caring for students with more complex healthcare needs. Health education in the school setting often includes individual teaching to students and their families; group education to students on a broad array of topics, such as tobacco and alcohol prevention; and health education for teachers and administrators regarding the educational implications of the common student health needs and accompanying interventions.Challengesin DelegationAs noted above, delegation may be a solution in situations when there are less than the optimal number of school nurses available and/or growing numbers of students with healthcare needs as long as adequate training is provided for UAPs. One of the delegation challenges is to provide this needed training. This training should include an understanding of student health needs, the task to be performed, the expected outcomes, and any potential side effects. All training for UAPs must include practice in performing each task and a demonstration of competence prior to giving the UAP responsibility for the task. The school nurse is the person responsible for ongoing training of the UAPs, for monitoring the students responses to the care provided by the UAP, and for evaluating the UAPs performance. This supervision and monitoring of UAPs is generally taken to include periodic on-site visits for which the nurse is physically present or immediately available to assess the students response to the care and provide feedback to the UAP providing the care. The school nurse might provide supervision by making a monthly visit to observe a particular UAP obtain a blood glucose level on a young student, record the results, and decide whether any additional action is necessary based on the blood glucose results.RNs err when they allow UAPs to perform tasks for which they have not been prepared...Delegation can be a solution only when the UAPs have been well prepared to carry out a specific task and thoroughly understand their responsibilities in doing so. Situations in which an RN is asked to delegate to a UAP without evidence that the UAP is proficient in performing the task and understands the responsibilities inherent in performing this task poses a risk to the student and to the RNs professional standing. For example, if a student routinely requires daily treatments for asthma and the UAP is not competent in monitoring the students response to the treatment, early indicators of respiratory distress might be missed by the UAP, resulting in acute respiratory distress for the student and the RN being held liable for the outcome of this inappropriate delegation.The high ratio of school nurse to students in some school districts, as well as hiring nurses part time in a school system or asking a nurse to cover multiple school buildings, may limit the use of delegation as an option for some school nurses as the nurse would not be able to provide the close supervision required when delegating nursing tasks and responsibilities to UAPs.Another challenge to delegation is that school administrators often do not understand the legal and regulatory parameters which guide delegation in the nursing arena, and especially in school settings. Nor do they understand the complexity of delegating care in school settings which, as NASN (2006a) has noted, is more complex in the non-traditional healthcare settings, such as in a school, than in the more traditional healthcare settings.Some schools lack policies regarding who can care for students with health needs when the nurse is not available. This leads to inappropriate delegation by administrators to principals, teachers, office or cafeteria staff, social workers, psychologist, and/or coaches whose primary function and scope of practice does not include providing nursing care (Schwab & Gelfman, 2001;Tetuan & Akagi, 2004). The school nurse needs to remind administrators and other personnel that only an RN can delegate health-related tasks to others. The school nurse needs to have input into all delegation of nursing responsibilities (NASN, 2005;Spriggle, 2009).Inappropriate delegation occurs because non-nurse personnel do not realize that nursing tasks commonly performed in the home setting by a student or caregiver take on a more complex dimension in the school setting. Parents and school administrators may be confused as to why what appears to be a simple task is held to a much different and higher standard at school (NASN, 2006a). Additionally, parents and school administrators often do not understand that there is a requirement for medical orders for any health-related procedures in the school setting; that nurses are held to higher protocol standards than a parent would be (e.g., the use of gloves in the school setting versus simply washing hands before a procedure in the home), and that a students response to a given intervention at school may differ from the students response in the home setting. Tetuan and Akagi (2004) have stated that administrators visualize the nurses role as performing tasks and not making judgments, thereby assuming anyone can be trained to perform the duties of the school nurse (p. 356). Administrators, teachers, and parents need help in understanding that the role of the school nurse is not simply to perform a task but also to assess both the situation and the student and to develop the right plan of care for each particular student.The need to address the publics lack of understanding regarding delegation in school settings is essential for providing safe nursing care in schools.Delegation of nursing tasks by non-nurses, such as school administrators, can create litigious situations for both schools and school nurses. InMitts v. Hillsboro Union High School District, 1987, the courts asked the Oregon Board of Nursing for a formal opinion on the delegation of intermittent catheterization of a student with spina bifida by a school principal to a school health assistant, despite the presence of a school nurse on staff. The Board found that (a) the school principal was practicing nursing without a license when he assumed responsibility for assessing, planning, and delegating healthcare for this student, and(b) that the health assistant was unlawfully practicing nursing by following the principals assignment. The school nurse in this situation was disciplined for failing both to follow a standard of care and to conduct a nursing assessment on the appropriateness of delegation (Schwab & Gelfman, 2001). The need to address the publics lack of understanding regarding delegation in school settings is essential for providing safe nursing care in schools.A third challenge to delegation in the school setting is that the primary mission and purpose of schools is not th