Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a...

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Mechanism Design

Transcript of Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a...

Page 1: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Mechanism Design

Page 2: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Grading• 80% - participation in class +

presentation to class– Present a mechanism design paper– Compare to 2 other mechanisms

• 20% - report – review + summary

Notice: This is a seminar. You must attend all lectures!

Page 3: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Plan for the semester• This week - introduction• After that - Student presentations

Please send an email to: [email protected] to be added to the course email list

Page 4: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Introduction• Often, decisions must be taken based on the

preferences of multiple, self-interested agents– Allocations of resources/tasks– Joint plans

• Goal of Mechanism Design is to – Obtain some outcome (function of agents’

preferences)– But agents are rational

• They may lie about their preferences

• Goal: Define the rules of a game so that in equilibrium the agents do what we want

Example – tolls in roads

Page 5: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Preference aggregation settings• Multiple agents…

– humans, computer programs, institutions, …• … must decide on one of multiple outcomes…

– joint plan, allocation of tasks, allocation of resources, president, …

• … based on agents’ preferences over the outcomes– Each agent knows only its own preferences– “Preferences” can be an ordering ≥i over the

outcomes, or a real-valued utility function ui

– Often preferences are drawn from a commonly known distribution

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Examples of social choice functions

• Voting: choose a candidate among a group

• Public project: decide whether to build a swimming pool whose cost must be funded by the agents themselves

• Allocation: allocate a single, indivisible item to one agent in a group

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Mechanisms• Recall: We want to implement a social

choice function– Need to know agents’ preferences – They may not reveal them to us truthfully

• Example:– 1 item to allocate, and want to give it to the

agent who values it the most– If we just ask agents to tell us their preferences,

they may lie

I like the bear the most!

No, I do!

Page 8: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Mechanism Design Problem

• By having agents interact through an institution we might be able to solve the problem

• Mechanism:

M=(S1,…,Sn, g(¢))

Strategy spaces of agentsOutcome function

Page 9: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

A few different 1-item auction mechanisms• English auction:

– Each bid must be higher than previous bid– Last bidder wins, pays last bid

• Japanese auction:– Price rises, bidders drop out when price is too high– Last bidder wins at price of last dropout

• Dutch auction:– Price drops until someone takes the item at that price

• Sealed-bid auctions (direct revelation mechanisms):– Each bidder submits a bid in an envelope– Auctioneer opens the envelopes, highest bid wins

• First-price sealed-bid auction: winner pays own bid• Second-price sealed bid (or Vickrey) auction: winner pays second

highest bid

Page 10: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

The Vickrey auction is strategy-proof!

0

b = highest bid among other

bidders

• What should a bidder with value v bid?

Option 1: Win the item at price b, get utility v - b

Option 2: Lose the item, get utility 0

Would like to win if and only if v - b > 0 – but bidding truthfully accomplishes this!

Page 11: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Collusion in the Vickrey auction

0

b = highest bid among other bidders

• Example: two colluding bidders

price colluder 1 would pay when colluders bid truthfully

v2 = second colluder’s true valuation

v1 = first colluder’s true valuation

price colluder 1 would pay if colluder 2 does not bid

gains to be distributed among colluders

Page 12: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Runoff Voting

רוב • את לקבל המועמד נדרש מקרים בהרבה- majority)הקולות להיבחר( מנת על

• , הרבה הדבר מועמדים משני יותר יש כאשראת להוציא הוא לרוב והפיתרון קורה לא פעמים / בעדיפות/ קולות פחות הכי ו שקיבל ים המועמד

ולקיים runoff electionראשונהתהליך • לרוב הוא בחירות תהליך שקיום מכיוון

- ב, להשתמש ניתן preference ballotsיקר - ה- את לשפר מנת runoffעל

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Instant Runoff Voting

גם • נקראת plurality-with-elimination methodהשיטהכל – • של הראשונה ההעדפה הצבעות את ספור ראשון שלב

רוב. ) יש למועמד אם עדיפות( majorityמועמד הצבעות של , . הכי עם המועמד את הוצא אחרת המנצח הוא אזי ראשונה

. ראשונה עדיפות הצבעות פחות• . הראשונה – העדיפות קולות את מחדש ספור שני שלב

רוב ) בעל מועמד וקיים הצבעות( majorityבמידה של , . , את הוצא אחרת כמנצח עליו הכרז ראשונה עדיפות

. ראשונה עדיפות הצבעות פחות הכי עם המועמד• - ' , מועמד שיימצא עד התהליך על חזור וכו ארבע שלוש שלב

רוב ) .majorityבעל ראשונה( עדיפות הצבעות של

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דוגמה21 15 12 7 מצביעים מספר

שבי נולי אוזה בץ ראשונה עדיפות

בץ בץ נולי אוזה שניה עדיפות

נולי אוזה בץ נולי שלישית עדיפות

אוזה שבי שבי שבי רביעית עדיפות

לפחות – להשיג יש ראשון הצבעות 28סיבובלצורך מועמד עבור ראשונה .majorityעדיפות

, הצבעות של כזו כמות עם מועמד שאין מכיווןהמועמדים מרשימת בץ את נוריד

Page 15: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

דוגמה21 15 12 7 מצביעים מספר

שבי נולי אוזה אוזה ראשונה עדיפות

נולי אוזה נולי נולי שניה עדיפות

אוזה שבי שבי שבי שלישית עדיפות

לפחות – להשיג יש שני עדיפות 28סיבוב הצבעותלצורך מועמד עבור מכיוון. majorityראשונה

, את נוריד הצבעות של כזו כמות עם מועמד שאיןהמועמדים מרשימת נולי

Page 16: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

דוגמה21 15 12 7 מצביעים מספר

שבי אוזה אוזה אוזה ראשונה עדיפות

אוזה שבי שבי שבי שניה עדיפות

לאוזה – כעת שלישי עדיפות 34סיבוב של קולותבבחירות זוכה והיא ראשונה

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Plurality-with-Elimination•? בשיטה הבעיה מה

• - ה שיטת plurality withלפיelimination של ברוב צורך ולכן 15יש

את Rנוציא

Number of voters 7 8 10 41st choice A R C A

2nd choice R C A C

3rd choice C A R R

Number of voters 7 8 10 41st choice A C C A

2nd choice C A A C

Page 18: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Plurality-with-Elimination• - ש נניח - 4כעת ל להצביע שהתכוונו מהמצביעים

A - ש מגלים ראשונה ולכן Cבעדיפות לנצח הולך - ל שלהם הראשונה העדיפות הצבעת את משנים

C

• - ה שיטת יש plurality with eliminationלפישל ברוב את 15צורך נוציא Aולכן

Number of voters 7 8 10 41st choice A R C A

2nd choice R C A C

3rd choice C A R R

4C

A

R

Number of voters 7 8 10 41st choice R R C C

2nd choice C C R R

Page 19: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Plurality-with-Elimination

בבחירות • זכה Rכעת• - ה את סותר The Monotonicityהדבר

Criterion:הבחירה – שמשתנה Xאם מה וכל בבחירות לזכות צפויה

שמעדיפים ballotב- הבוחרים במספר גידול Xהואאזי ראשונה הבחירה Xבעדיפות להישאר צריך

המנצחת• - ה, עיקרון גם - Condorcetבנוסף ב) המנצח

head to head ) ( במקום נבחרה אוזה מתקיים לאבץ(

Page 20: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Economic Search

One-sided search Two-sided search

Search in discrete “steps” Cost associated with search At each step decision if to terminate search or continue

Page 21: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Reducing Search Costs

“If search costs become low enough… resulting in a socially optimal allocation” [Bakos 1997]

“Reducing buyer search costs represents an important special case of the general problem of reducing market fragmentation” [Vaishnavi+Kuechler 2003]

But … can search costs also improve market performance?

Page 22: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

One Sided Search• Infinite influx of

searches/queries• k agents• Utility: uniform in

[0,1]

Optimal strategy: sample all agents

Maximize social welfare throughput

Low efficiency

Page 23: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Throughput

• 2 serves:Search cost Individual

UtilityExpected Duration

Throughput

0 0.66 2 0.66

0.5 0 1 0

0.25 0.28 1.3 0.44

0.02 0.62 1.8 0.7

Page 24: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Throughput• 10 servers:

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

search cost (c)

Throughput

Individual utility

Page 25: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

The benefits of limited information

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Sequential Two Sided Search

• Infinite supply of mates• One mate per step (no parallelism)• Search cost – C

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Benefits of Limited Information (1)

• Assume:– Utility: random on {0,1}– Search cost: 0.2

Visible types: Strategy: only

accept type “1” mate Expected

duration: 4 Utility: 1-0.8=0.2

Invisible types: Strategy: accept

anyone Expected duration:

1 Utility: 0.5-0.2=0.3

Page 28: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Benefits of Limited Information (2)

• Assume:– Utility: uniform on [0,1]– Search cost: 0.2

Visible types: Strategy: reservation

value – 0.263 Utility: 0.263

Invisible types: Strategy: accept

anyone Expected duration:

1 Utility: 0.5-0.2=0.3

Page 29: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Benefit of Limited Information

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Visible

Invisible

Search cost

Utility

Page 30: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Ultimatum Game• Two players divide a “pie”.• Player 1 offers share of the pie to Player

2.• Player two either accepts the offer or

rejects.• If offer is rejected, both players gets

nothing.• If offer is accepted players consume

respective shares.• The higher proportion of “pie” player

gets the better off he is.

Page 31: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Ultimatum Game• “p” - share offered to Player 2• Backward induction

– Solution to subgame of Player 2:– Accept if p>0 and Both Accept and

Reject if p=0• Unique solution: {p=0, Accept}

pP1

P2

Accept

Reject

1-p,p

0,0

Page 32: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Centipede Game• Two players• Two actions – Stop, Continue• Increasing size of the pot

P1 P1 P1 P2P2P2

20 12 31 23 42 34

53c c cc c c

s s ss s s

Page 33: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Centipede Game• Last subgame: Player 2 stops

P1 P1 P1 P2P2P2

20 12 31 23 42 34

53c c cc c c

s s ss s s

Page 34: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Centipede Game• Last subgame: Player 2 stops• Then Player 1 stops as well

P1 P1 P1 P2P2P2

20 12 31 23 42 34

53c c cc c c

s s ss s s

Page 35: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Centipede Game• Last subgame: Player 2 stops• Then Player 1 stops as well• Player 2 stops

P1 P1 P1 P2P2P2

20 12 31 23 42 34

53c c cc c c

s s ss s s

Page 36: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Centipede Game• Last subgame: Player 2 stops• Then Player 1 stops as well• Player 2 stops• Player 1 stops

P1 P1 P1 P2P2P2

20 12 31 23 42 34

53c c cc c c

s s ss s s

Page 37: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Centipede Game• Last subgame: Player 2 stops• Then Player 1 stops as well• Player 2 stops• Player 1 stops• Player 2 stops

P1 P1 P1 P2P2P2

20 12 31 23 42 34

53c c cc c c

s s ss s s

Page 38: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Centipede Game• Last subgame: Player 2 stops• Then Player 1 stops as well• Player 2 stops• Player 1 stops• Player 2 stops• Player 1 stopsP1 P1 P1 P2P2P2

20 12 31 23 42 34

53c c cc c c

s s ss s s

Page 39: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Centipede Game

• In reality players stop after some rounds– Altruism– Errors– Low financial motivation

• Larger punishments if opponent terminates the game motivate players to stop in earlier stages of the game.

– Bounded rationality• Chess masters terminate game at first stage.

Page 40: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

משותף חיפוש

בתוצאות • ושיתוף מוצר מחיר חיפוש•: השיתופי המקרה

לדגום – שניתן החנויות מספר הגדלתבחיפוש – השותפים מספר הגדלתהחזק – השותף בחירתהשותפים – בין תקשורת

הם • כשהסוכנים קורה -selfמהinterested?

Page 41: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

, אחת תקופה מחפשים שני

בין – • אחיד מתפלגים המחירים - 0הנחה 1ל הדגימה – • cמחירערכי • ידגמו – cעבור הסוכנים שני קטנים

מחירערכי • ידגום – cעבור לא סוכן אף גדולים

מחיראחרת:•

טהור" – מ שהסתברותי" )– מ (mixedש

Page 42: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Preference elicitation• Sometimes, having each agent communicate all

preferences at once is impractical• E.g. in a combinatorial auction, a bidder can have a

different valuation for every bundle (2#items-1 values)• Preference elicitation:

– sequentially ask agents simple queries about their preferences,

– until we know enough to determine the outcome

Page 43: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Benefits of preference elicitation

• Less communication needed• Agents do not always need to determine all of their

preferences– Only where their preferences matter

Page 44: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Binary Lottery

• , בעיה נוצרת תועלת על מתבססות אנשים שהחלטות מכיווןפונקציית – בהיעדר מחשב ומערכות סוכנים והערכת בפיתוח

, המערכת את להעריך ניתן כיצד המשתמש של התועלתהמפותחת?

השיעור – • מתחילת ההגרלות סוכן לדוגמהutility elicitationהפיתרון – •• - ה... מנגנון אם מה ?elicitationאבל מדייק לא שלנו• - ה – binary lottery (Roth and Malouf, 1979)מנגנון

גישת לקבע לנו , risk-neutralמאפשר קשר ללא אנשים אצלשלהם האינהרנטיות הסיכון להעדפות

– - ה ( payoffsהמרת ניתן ) בה הגרלה של לוטו כרטיסי או לנקודותגדול בפרס לזכות

Page 45: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

Equity: Bbet x

p 1-p

p 1-p

Equity: B+αxbet xL

p 1-p

Equity: B-xbet xR

Equity: B+α(x+xL)bet xLL

p 1-p p 1-p p 1-p p 1-p

Equity: B+αx-xL

bet xLR

Equity: B-x+αxR

bet xRL

Equity: B-(x+xR )bet xRR

Equity:B+α(x+xL+xLL)

Equity:B+α(x+xL)-xLL

Equity: B+α(x+xLR)-xL

Equity: B+αx-(xL+xLR)

Equity:B+α(xR+xRL)-x

Equity:B+αxR-(x+xLL)

Equity: B+αxRR-(x+xR)

Equity: B+ (x+xR+xRR)

bet x

p 1-p

α x - x

דוגמא

: ≤ הסופית ההגרלה עבור שתאסוף האחוזים לב 100שים

Page 46: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

פורמלית הצגהכספי • פרס Xבחר• - ה את כנקודות payoffקבע המשתמש מתוך, qשל

[Q,0האינטרוול ]הערך • קביעת כספי, qלאחר פרס יקבל המשתמש

- q/Qבהסתברות Xבגובה (q/Q-1בהסתברות )0ו •: זה במקרה התועלת תוחלת

q/Q(U(x))+(1-q/Q)(U(0))• - ש , xמכיוון במספר לינארית שהתועלת הרי קבוע

! שנקבל הנקודותתועלת – פונקצית עם תשלום Uמשתמש מקבל אשר כלשהי

- ) כ ) להתנהג תמיד זה במקרה צריך הגרלה כרטיסי בנקודותrisk neutral לנקודות הנוגעות להגרלות ביחס

Page 47: Mechanism Design. Grading 80% - participation in class + presentation to class –Present a mechanism design paper –Compare to 2 other mechanisms 20% -

בשיטה הבעיתיות

את • מבינים לא שאנשים הוכיחו מחקרים... השיטה בבסיס שעומד הרעיון