GEOG 302

Lecture 1

Definitions

Environment – A combination of all surrounding conditions and influences that effect living and non-living things

Resource – a natural occurring substance that is regarded as useful for human beings

Ex. Lake: could be both. A habitat so it’s an environment, or useful for dam construction/energy so it’s a resource.

Generally, resource refers to satisfying an economic need.

Anthropocentric view – value is defined relative to human interests, wants and needs.

Ecocentric (biocentric view) – components of the environment have value based on their existence regardless of their immediate value for people.

Ecocentric view regards the intrinsic value of the environment.

Challenges in environmental management:

Complexity of physical and human systems (ex. Physical system: water shed, water system and its surrounding areas... human system: the economy, government -> all socially created and we can changed them)

Often, we cannot control things such as hurricanes but we can control social things such as inequality (foundations for houses to more wealthy people)

Uncertainty of our understanding of biophysical and human systems and the interactions between them

Continual changes in physical systems and in human perceptions, attitudes, institutions, science and technologies

Do we manage/control natural systems or human interactions with nature? Normally, we manage people and their relations with nature

In Canada, 43% forest, 0.?% urban??? Rural people much more aware of the environment and the need for good soil, clean air, etc.

Conflict in environmental management

Individuals and groups have different values, interests, priorities, understanding of the issues Unequal distribution of costs and benefits

Lecture 2

The political-Economy of Environmental Resources

Foundation of sustainable development:

1) Introductory concepts

Culture and resources

“Resources are not... they become” assumes that: No part of nature has intrinsic physical or chemical properties to make it a resource Any part of nature can become a resource if people perceive it as having utility/value

(Things only become resources when we see them as a resource)

Culture, nature and resources (diagram with humans/nature triangle)

Nature is neutral until humans need/want. Consumer behaviour is part of our culture and we turn our behaviour into resources.

Hunter/gatherers were part of a more holistic system and they didn’t see resources as we would today (there was no market system)

Views

Utilitarian, cultural (ex. Aesthetic, moral or ethical), ecological People start with different views, largely influenced by culture, about the same area (i.e.

Lake) and if we are to manage people/environment, we have to take into account all of these views

Nature human perception l-> environmental resources

Useful Valuable Life SupportMaterial benefits Non-material benefitsInputs to economy Quality experienceEx. Land, labour, energy Ex. Inspirational, recreational,

educationalEx. Clean air, and/or water, waste disposal

Management dimensions

Economic Ethnological EcologicalInputs to meet basic needs Culturally, socially and legally

acceptablePhysically and biologically possible

Resource Creation

Comes about by a change in perception Humans recognize the potential of an environmental resource due to changing lifestyles and societal

values Ex. More affluence, more free time, new technologies

Resource destruction

Resource falls into disuse (eg. Guano nitrate deposits, use inorganic fertilizers instead of organic/dung)

Devalued due to cheaper substitutes, taste and value (eg. Rubber) Physically exhausted or degraded from over sue (ex. Soil, fishery) Negative impacts of production processes (dump toxic chemicals in lakes)

Types of environmental resources

Renewable (flow) and non renewable (fund/stock) Ambient resources (ex. Aesthetic and recreational)

Type Renewability ExampleFlow resources Less susceptible to human

modificationSolar energyWater power

More susceptible to human modification

SoilForestFish

Fund or stock resources More recyclable MetalsLess recyclable(not recyclable)

Fossil fuels

*in table above, renewability goes from high to low (top-down)

EXHAUSTIBLE (non-renewable, consumed by use)Fossil fuels(renewability depends on use levels and human investment)Animals, fishPlants, forests, soilsNon-metal element mineralsAir and water quality(naturally renewable independent of use)Solar energyTidal and wind powerWater resourcesINFINITELY RENEWABLE*Above is the continuum of resources from exhaustible to infinitely renewable

Resource base

Actual resource is what is available to you under current economic and technical conditions

Potential resources are the ones that are discovered but not currently available (i.e. Tar sands too expensive or technology not there)

Possible resources is speculative, what hasn’t yet been discovered but might be there

Cycles of scarcity and abundance

Fig. 1.6

Opportunity Cost

Choices must be taken in a finite context The true cost of doing anything is giving up the opportunity to do something else you would like to

do Ex, 3 costs for students (money that could be invested, time spent, job that could have

been gotten) The cost of forgone alternatives

Ex. Land Use (Opportunity cost)

Wetland -> preserving biodiversity and wildlife habitat The opportunity cost of draining wetland to produce agricultural land is the above.

Forest -> timber revenues, employment, recreation, conservation and habitat Agriculture -> food and fibre products, employment Housing -> urban development “condos”, jobs

So in above, if you have land and use it for one of the 4, the opportunity cost is the other 3 alternatives

Ownership and control of resources

Resource regimes: social and political structures that relate to rights of access and exclusion to resources and rights to manage, withdraw, dispose of resources

Three categories of resource regimes

Resource regimes

Private property Common ownership Open accessAccess or right to extract resource

Owners or occupiers Group members Anyone

Limitation on level of extraction

Owner decides Group rules Unlimited

Private property: ex. House

Common ownership: ex. Town, lake, fisheries (coastal)

Open access: ex. Atmosphere, wind

Private-property resources

Owned by individuals or companies (titles or deeds demarcate boundaries) Products can be sold privately on the market Occasionally production and sale is state regulated

Common-property resources

Resource is restricted to defined individuals or groups ex. Certain aboriginal lands Lands may be divided for individual use by members Products may be sold separately on the market

State Ownership

Control and management in the authority of the state Ex. Public land or crown land (occasionally may be leased or sold to private individuals/companies)

Open access resources

Weak property rights with inadequate legal protection against overuse of resources Complex or no organized regulation and allocation Tend to have free or cheap usage Ex. Marine fisheries, waste assimilation capacity of certain water bodies or atmosphere

Government intervention

Use laws, regulations and market-based incentives To prevent/regulate externalities A negative externality is an activity by one agent that causes a loss of well-being to another agent

and the loss of well being incurred by the sufferer remains uncompensated To provide/protect public-type goods (ex. National security, parks, oxygen)

Characteristics of joint-consumption and non-exclusion When the good is consumed by one person, it does not diminish the amount consumed

by another person

Public-type goods

One person cannot prevent (exclude) another from consuming the resource, because the resource is (freely) accessible to all

Generally not sold on the market Ex. Clean air, water, beautiful landscapes, wildlife

Government intervention

To control monopolies, cartels, free market booms and busts in process (provide national security) To promote social justice and equity (redistribution) To lengthen time scales (prevent short-term exploitation) To ensure environmental accounting (inventories)

Lecture 3

Canada's Fisheries: Longest coastline of any country and second longest continental shelf >7 million people in coastal communities Ideal conditions

long coastline large continental shelf deep upwelling currents

Shifting baseline Data represent current degraded state

Management Federal, provincial, municipal management overlaps 1867 Constitution Act, 1868 Fisheries Act (amendments over time) 1996 revised Fisheries Act, 1997 Oceans Act, 2002 Species Risk Act

By creating these acts, they are showing that they are taking seriously the conditions of oceans with regards to sustainability

Protected marine areas: (MPA check wiki) Not included in slides 155 protected areas with a marine 'component' Under half on 1% of marine environment is protected (7% terrestrial) Challenge is to actually designate areas.

Mandates for marine areas Not included in slides Goals vary in future marine parks: species and habitat conservation Marin and migratory bird sanctuaries area managed for sustainable use recreation and education with 'to-take' zones

*We need to take into consideration all of the three e’s (economic, ecological and ethnological) when managing environment

Economic dimension: Small overall contribution to economy Basic need for relatively poor, isolated fishing communities including Aboriginal peoples Commercial fishers – 95% total value of annual production (and aquaculture) 1% of global freshwater fish are being consumed by commercial fishers The numbers aren’t bi but the fact is that for the people living in those areas, fishing is extremely

important (they don’t have any other option) (last decade 20% present decrease and money the same) Recreational fishers' expenditures include licenses, equipment, transportation lodging, bait ( about

3.2 million fishers) Role of recreational fishers is almost more important that commercial fishers because of the costs

that comes into play with the spinoffs

Ecology: Food chain (check the textbook)

Ecological dimension: (ecological concerns)Scientific uncertainty e.g., food web complexities, predator-prey relationships Scientists know little about physical and biological oceanography of ocean fishers, e.g. difficult to

study because the fish don’t sit still. Biologists often have to speculate about the species and their interactions

Migrations Involuntary transport by winds/currents of eggs or larvae. Voluntary movement of fish(to food or away from adverse environmental conditions)

Stock differentiation Are particular populations one stock or many?

Year class survivals: number of young fish that hatch and survive in a given year Mature cod can produce > 8 Million eggs/single spawning but mortality rates are > 99.9% Gaps exist between successful year classes (can take 11 to 35 years depending on the species for a

good year/to come back once the stock has been depleted) Survival depends on: ocean temperature and salinity (global warming), volume and flow rates

(dams), surface temperatures, sea ice cover (global warming/melting ice caps), food availability, predation and humans.

Ethnological dimension:Technologies and fishing methods All of science and technology is part of our culture, this is why it’s part of the ethnological dimension (1950s+) advanced , highly efficient fishing technologies, e.g. after the war, all of the military

technologies were transferred to the fishing industry (gun boats, sonar technology etc) large, long range vessels with maximum capacity and on board processing, freezing and storage electronic fish-finding technology

Bottom trawling: heavy nets are dragged along the sea floor Bycatch: not targeted fish (species not right or size too small) are caught in nets and dumped back

dying or dead into the ocean because they don’t have the license for these fish Prey switching : fleets deplete initial target species, switch to next most profitable until depleted →

serial depletion Fishing down the food chain Refocus on invertebrates (ex. Crab) to maintain catch levels

Ethnological:Local knowledge and practice Significant (but formally ignored by data collectors) Fishers guilty of consistent misreporting (e.g, harvest, by-catch and discard)Scientific practice (poor?) Shifting baseline: scientists tend to study the most recent data rather than comparing these with

historical catches

department of fisheries and oceans DFC methods lack precision.

Political practice (poor) Politicians use science selectively

Federal Government fishery management (1867) constitution act and (1868) dominion fishers and provide jurisdiction over seacoast and

inland fishers (1950s) provide subsidies and assistance programs to modernize the sector (thought fishing in

coastal communities could be more of a contributor to the economy) (1970s) amalgamation and expansion of Atlantic processing companies (improved efficiencies) (2000+) conservation challenges (should be thinking about conservation but not now... there are

more important concerns)*all of the above show a push for more fishing. The main concern is the economic dimension

Operations and regulations Regulate by entry licensees, individual quotas and TACs (Total allowable catches) for an orderly and

equitable harvest. TACs often above conservation levels For political reasons (want the vote), worried for jobs and the economy, scientific uncertainty and

choosing the highest estimate

International administration – foreign fishers NAFO (north Atlantic fishing organization) divisions (not fish stock territories) (1977 with the collapse of global fisheries) created 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone (ban

on foreign trawlers) Nose and Tail 'straddling' stokes are left to foreign fishers Look in text for map of 200-mile EEZ boundary (1994) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea(UNCLOS) Enforcement: air surveillance, patrol vessels, on-board observers, diplomatic

Addressing uncertainty in the fisheries Research on fish stocks Monitoring of catches Fishing quotas and conservation areas Co-management with Aboriginal peoples Habitat protection and restoration Public committees and management boards, promotion of stewardship and public awareness

Human impacts Excessive marine harvesting deaths due to fishing gear dumping and fuel discharge by boats/ships Oil and gas development Indirect impacts: tourist activities, pollutant discharge into water, shoreline developments, forestry

industry

East Coast fishery:

Cod fishing ( grand banks and Labrador coast) shellfish and scallops (George’s bank) industry include: inshore and offshore fisheries and fish-processing plants Capitalization → less job (more fishing) (1977) Canada claims 200-nautical mile one off Coast (1992) Moratorium on cod fishing (1993) Closing of the Atlantic groundfish fishery (1994) Atlantic Groundfish Strategy (TAGS: Transatlantic groundfish strategy) not successful

Reasons for the collapse: poor government policy foreign over fishing domestic over fishing imperfect science inappropriate incentives ( processing plants and fish workers) Switch to shell fish that have higher value but fewer licensed fishers aboriginal peoples demand greater access to licenses and fishery

Cod to lobster (1990s) Fisheries Resource conservation Council established reduce non-aboriginal licenses (1999) Marshall decision by Supreme Court conflict between fisher groups – perceived inequity over economic rights and conservation concerns

Aboriginal use of marine resources Treaties and the right to subsistence Federal rights need t be “justified” scientifically (1999) the Marshall decision Burnt Church band of Miramichi Bay resume catching and selling lobster out of season Federal rights need to be 'justified' scientifically Agreement reached

In the video, we can observe a case where different values and different stakeholders with different needs and culture come into play. What happens when resources get scarce?

Non-natives angry because natives are allowed to fish earlier in the season

Natives want to create a livelihood Non-natives want to protect theirs

Lecture 4

Forestry

Canadian context 45% of Canada's land area is forested 10% world's forests 1/4 temperate rain forests 1/3 boreal forests provides about 20% of global trade in forest products

*Look at Fig. 9.1 Canada’s physical makeupTable 1: Canada’s Forests

Total Land 921.5 million hectareTotal forest (other wooded land) 402 million hectare (43.6%) or 22% of totalPotential commercial 294.8 million hectareManaged forest (timber production) 147.7 million hectareHarvested forest/year 0.9 million hectare (0.4%)

British Columbia forests: Douglas Fir and Western Red CedarBoreal forests cover the rest of CanadaMixed Wood Plains, east of Canada (southern Quebec)

Economic dimension: 'status' industry (globally): extremely dependent on US for export

#1 in world for newsprint production and export (demand should decrease) #1 for softwood lumber and wood pulp exports (mainly to USA) #2 for production of softwood lumber and wood pulp (plywood)

relatively large contribution to Canada’s economy (balance of trade) indirect contribution: transportation, tree planting, advertising in terms of quantities, there hasn’t been that much decrease but what exists now are transformed

forests where the habitats might not be as healthy

Economic: >300 communities are totally dependent on forestry and about 600 are partially dependent non-timber forest products (NTFPS) (e.g., wild rice, mushrooms , berries, maple syrup. Nuts, herbs,

medicines, ornamental cuttings seeds, furs and hides) tourism and recreation

Table 2: EconomicForest Industry 84$BExports 42B$Contribution to balance of trade 32B$Contribution to GDP 3%Direct employmentDirect and Indirect Jobs

323 600822 400

Non-timber products 725 M

*Not that many jobs in the forest industry because of mechanization

Ecological dimension: energy flows (photosynthesis) look at textbook for energy and cycles biogeochemical cycles (rocks to soil) climatic conditions (forests regulate atmospheric gases) hydrological cycles (trees act as filters to slow down the rain) filter air and water prevent soil erosion provide for biodiversity

Ethnological dimension: (forests used by and for...) Aboriginal cultural commodities, e.g., hunting, trapping, fishing, gathering and ceremonial general population, e.g., recreation, education, tourism.

Resource regimes: federal and territorial governments (manage 14% of land) provincial (78%) private owners (8%) (mostly in the Atlantic region) the limit and levels of extraction, and rights of access, are the two issues that resource regimes

settleAccess and limits (two characteristics that define resource regimes): governments establish tenure arrangements on 'public land' with private companies (regulations,

guidelines and enforcement) AAC (annual allowable cut is mainly clear-cut) > ½ regenerates naturally and remainder is replaced

Logging methods: Silvicultural systems:

Establishment of forest stands through a variety of activities, including harvesting, reforestation, and site preparation (human intervention?)

e.g., clear-cutting and selection as a method Clear-cutting: the removal of all trees in a cut block in one operation regardless of species and size;

the objective is to create a new , even-aged stand, which will be regenerated naturally or through replanting (similar in principle to trawling)

In Canada, the main method is clear-cutting Selection method: Periodic harvest of selected trees of various ages in a stand (valuable, leaning,

broken or damaged) Leaves an uneven-aged stand with gaps for natural seeding

General trends: old forestry and new forestry (clear-cutting and selection): Clear cutting

Advantages:o emphasizes short-term economic maximizationo genetic simplification and manipulation to homogenize the species grown

o cost-effective: wood products have uniform qualities, new seedlings quickly take root in the sunlight, safest harvesting method (worker injury)

Impacts: from clear-cutting:o loss of diverse forest products (short term)o loss of biodiversity and wildlife habitato elimination of early/late successional stages, fallen trees and other vegetationo Physical translocation from site of nutrients stored in the bodies of treeso increased rates of nutrient loss through leaching to the hydrological systemo Compaction, erosion, landslideso compacted soils encourage overland flow with high erosive powero exposes large banks of unprotected topsoil → steep slope erosion if heavy precipitation →

silting in watersheds and flooding of fish habitatso Removes substrate(soil for see plants) for future re-growtho regularity of spacing (optimizes growth) → abrupt boundaries, fragments forest, exposes

more edges (might not be productive for animals in terms of exposing them to wind/rain)o heavy use of chemical inputso aesthetically unpleasing

Selection Advantages:

o Recreation and scenic valueo Continuous supply of mature treeso Biodiversity loss is minimized (habitat is cleaned up a bit but otherwise untouched)

Disadvantages of selection:o complex and costlyo More roads per unit areao Only for shape-tolerant tree specieso May result in forest degradation over time if valued trees are taken first (kind of like serial

degradation)

*the following not included in the slideso Natural (in general)o Fire

-leaves biomass (nutrients) on siteo leaves irregular shaped openings and gradual boundaries-> reseedingo leaves vegetation in wet areas-> habitat for wildlife + seed sourceo kills pathogenso releases nutrients to soilo helps break up rocks ( soil formation) + stimulates growth of nitrogen-fixing plants

( maintains soil fertility)o encourages growth of coniferous species by stimulation cone opening

New forestry goals emphasizes long-term site productivity maintains ecological diversity with longer rotation periods by diversifying the range of trees and

forest 'products'

retains non-commercial species, early and late successional species (nitrogen fixers, physical support, nutrient and water accumulators)

New Forestry reinvests organic matter and nutrients by sang (stump or stub) that remains after a branch has been

torn off) retention and stem-only harvesting minimizes chemical inputs attends to forest patches (wildlife habitat) as well as river-bank and in-stream habitats (fish habitat) supports local communities (economic, recreational, wildlife)

Video: In BC (slow Canada valley), issues with landslide and logging, citizens trying to prevent clear-cut logging

Lecture 5

Protected Areas

Definition (Protected areas): A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed through legal or other effective means to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated scosystem services and cultural values don’t need to know this by heart

*on exam, might ask to give a definition (one with only 1 or 2 lines) and an exampleCanadian context include small ecological reserves to vast multiple-use areas authorities range from municipalities, provinces and federal

Protected area plan 39 terrestrial physiographic regions (part of Canada that has a geologic history that is similar, ie.

Mountain building, plate tectonics, weathering etc... all physical and not cultural) currently about 7% of the land area of Canada will be necessary to set aside for these national parks 29 marine conservation areas

Difficult to set aside these marine protected areas because these resources are being used (as opposed to some of the land conservation areas) and there are issues between the native and non-natives

Ecological aspect of the parks: Maintaining biodiversity, natural systems, as well as study and understand these systems

Social aspect of the parks: Maintain something that is beautiful, spiritual (pristine), recreational activities, provide as an outdoor classroom, provides an economic incentive for people to be concerned

provincial and territorial areas; ENGO (environmental non-government organization, ex. World Wildlife Fund) conservation areas gather funds and invest in conservation

13 World Heritage sites goal to protect 12% of land base

Protected Marine Areas <1% of marine environment is protected as opposed to 7% terrestrial Challenge is to designate areas

Mandate for marine areas Goals vary:

Species and habitat conservation Marine and migratory bird sanctuaries Areas managed for sustainable use ($) Recreation and education with ‘no-take’ zones

Timing issues: Moratorium on cod fisheries in the 1990s... not only are the fish stock depleting but now the government is saying that there will be protected areas, which resulted in many of the citizens being against it

Economic job creation (e.g, managers, guides, services) entry fees, recreational revenues, taxes, rents (ex. Set up a golf, ski course in a national park)

Ecological baseline to compare with changes outside parks (gives people an example of what things should be

restored to) Sites of ecological 'capital' (e.g., genetic diversity of species) air and water purification (pollutants... trees acts as filters for pollution) wildlife habitat research and education

Ethnological scenic beauty and wildlife viewing recreational Aboriginal culture

National parks (1885) Banff national park (economic/tourism) (1930) National Parks Act (protection mandate) (1988) National Parks Act Amendments and new policies (1994 to present) ecological integrity*look at Figure 11.7: Administrative penetration model rise in environmental period in the 1970s when they noticed the declining fish stock (EEZ 200 mile zone creation)

Active management habitat restoration wildlife corridors reintroduction of extirpated species prescribed burning (instead of natural fires) culling hyper-abundant species controlling people

Management issues External threats

surrounding and global influences (e.g., air pollution, water contamination, climate change) timber cutting, mining and agricultural practices along the boundaries.

Fragmentation (e.g., roads) break-up of a natural matrix

Patch dynamics (connectivity) patches (protected area) connected to corridors (natural vegetation) and matrices (other land

uses) to assist flow of species, energy and materials Island biogeography

natural vegetation surrounded by human-modified landscapes animal and bird species may become isolated breeding populations → genetic inbreeding and

susceptibility to extinction Minimum Viable Population

need corridors of natural habitat, e.g., would link Yellowstone to Canadian Rockies into Yukon and Alaska

Species needing protected areas K-strategists (low reproduction rate, habitat specialization, long live? Ex. bear)

summit predators – feed at the top of the food chain and sometimes suffer from toxins lower down on the food chain (bears)

species that concentrate spatially (any disaster could wipe-out the species, whether human or natural since they’re concentrated ex. oil spills)

migratory birds and long-distance migratory mammals (caribou, fox) large bodied species (elephants)

Ecosystem health and stress ecology requirements of functional ecosystems stress include: tourism facilities; exotic vegetation invasion; major transportation routes in parks

o most stressful to least: visitor/tourism facilities, transportation, urbanization, exotic vegetation, sport fishing, dams, solid waste, human disturbance, petrochemical pollution, pesticides, sewage... and from outside the park: forestry, agriculture etc.

Assessing value in parks need to include human presence in conservation strategies and balance interests of all

stakeholders difficult to assess the value on parks because it doesn’t have an economic/market value (ex.

Beauty)

First Nations Amendment to the National Parks Acct (1972) → special designation of a national park reserve

(without prejudice to future land claims) Justice Berger: in the 1970’s said that before anything could be done (oil pipelines) land claims

made by aboriginal people had to be resolved. Only once this is done (resolved) co-management for parks can occur.

Aboriginal support for conservation on their lands is strong; occasional conflicting goals, e.g., hunting

Banff National Park (case study) most of Banff park is rock and ice rare montane zone is most ecologically productive (2-5% of park) 70% of montane zone is developed >4 M visitors/year, thousands of employees, hundreds of millions of dollars/annum managed by federal, provincial, municipal administration

EXAM HERE

Lecture 6

Minerals and Energy

Minerals: a naturally occurring substance formed by geological processes and has certain characteristic chemical composition, an ordered atomic structure and specific physical characteristics

Nonrenewable resources take millions of years to form

e.g., coal, oil, natural gas certain metals can be recycled (uses significant amounts of energy)

Renewable resources can be renewed naturally or by humans within a relatively short period of time e.g., water, air, fish, animals, plants, soil independent of human activity, e.g., solar radiation, wind power, tidal energypage 460 in the text (figure 13.1) flow and stock

Economic Minerals and products ------------------ not on test 80% mineral and metal production is exported (2006) value of production of metals and minerals (including fuels) is >77 billion 50% of the worlds mining companies are based in Canada (2007) 363,000 people were employed in the industry (mining, smelting, refining, mineral processing

and manufacturing) (2005) metal and recycling value of $4.8 billion-------------------- not in test

Ecological air, soil, water quality and food webs can all be negatively affected by the mining process and from

contaminants associated with the industry potential for cumulative effects with other nearby natural or industrial activities threat to human and ecosystem health (e.g., mining operations, nuclear energy production) shadow effects caused with development of roads that disrupt wildlife migration patterns

Mining and mineral processing impacts acid mine drainage: piles or tailings contain sulphide minerals (rock has iron sulphide, which

produces sulphuric acid with oxygen, which is then transported by water and rain) tailing dam failures (so all the material that has been buried underwater, to prevent sulphuric acid

from forming, spreads to other areas) sulphur dioxide emissions (during the smelting process)

Ethnological tradeoffs between productivity and human health and safety boom and bust nature of industry leads to shutdowns or permanent closures disruption to Aboriginal communities as some try to maintain their traditions and cultural vitality

lining standards and values

Energy Canada is the one of the largest user of primary energy globally

distances, climate, industrial base, relatively low energy prices, high living standards heavy dependence on fossil fuels (partly because we are producing them)

*not tested: Canada produces, from most to least: gas, petroleum...

Economic Contribution to GDP (6%) 75B direct employment 1.5% 250k service stations and wholesale trade in petroleum productions (99k) .6% exports of 85B (21%)

Ecological Production (exploration, exploitation, processing) and distribution (e.g., oil, gas, coal, nuclear) Alteration of ecosystems including habitats (e.g., dam operations)

Ethnological Living standards and values Energy consumption increased 10% b/n 90 and 03 energy efficiency improved by 14% b/n 1990 and 2004 (less green house gas emissions)

Anticipation energy supply and demand: hard path to energy planning Forecasting (traditional method) keep doing the same thing

supply-side of energy policy and development (focus on reserves, what’s there today) uses past and present trends to project forward status quo is maintained (predictive and probable, supply and demand is based on the past) relies on continued use of non-renewable energy resources accepts existing delivery systems

o i.e. large-scale, complex, sophisticated technologies for oil, hydro, nuclear and natural gas

accepts centralized decision making and controlo e.g. current institutional and policy arrangements for energy development

e.g. forecasting: highlights security of the energy supply; economic efficiency; sustained economic growth, and provides little attention to environmental issues, energy conservation, land claims by First Nations

Anticipating energy supply and demand: soft path to energy planning Backcasting (alternative method)

demand side of energy policy and development uses a distant vision of the future and projects back to today 'what ought to be' (prescriptive, feasible and desirable) relies on increased use of renewable energy resources focuses on feasibility and consequences of more efficiency in energy use and decreased demand seeks decentralized energy generation and control, small-scale development with demand

reduction

o e.g., demand-side changes with priority to improving energy efficiency and conservation

o e.g., energy supply is accepted or rejected based on long-term environmental impacts

Future will have both forecasting and backcasting avoid massive overbuilding, unnecessary environmental damage and financial debt

VideoPeople were originally opposed to the pipeline. The discussion initiated land claims by aboriginals, who wanted to control their land. Now, many people want the pipeline want installed because it could provide for many jobs (direct and associated). They want to be protected from the bust and boom from gas exploration. Today, there are much less people that are living off the land. They work as labourers, technicians, normal jobs rather than hunting and trapping. Others are concerned about the money that it will bring and think that the aboriginals are not ready for that much money... It would bring social problems such as spending it all on drugs and alcohol. Prime minister says we shouldn’t deny economic development.Many people’s opinions have changed. They think that they have a right to control their land and associated resources for economic purposes.

In Fort Providence land claims haven’t been settled yet. Want to settle those before agreeing to the pipeline shouldn’t be rushed into making the decision. Some fear that they will lose their culture in exchange for a paycheck.

Lecture 7

Sustainable development

Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

At the crossroads of Environment, Economy and Society

Principles and strategiesThe Brundtland Report (1987) 6 basic principles

1) meet basic human needs food, shelter, healthy air, security, clean water, health care, education and employment2) realize equity and justice (ethnological) basic human rights such as right to live, right to have a voice, right to vote3) achieve self-determination (ethnological) decentralized and accessible management legitimacy of different forms of knowledge (scientific, aboriginal, local or traditional)4) protect integrity of biophysical systems (ecological) maintain ecological diversity conserve, enhance and protect nature use precautionary principle5) integrate conservation and development trade-offs among 3 management dimensions sustainable production and consumption6) keep options open for future generations flexible, adaptable management

How to integrate economic development and conservation? Should growth be quantitative or qualitative? (i.e. Economic or asthetics)

Ex: resource depletion increases GNP Whose goals? Industrial or non0industrial countries? What scale is appropriate? Local, regional, global, or planetary?

Perspective on sustainability Sustainability is not an end state but a trajectory to be negotiated continuously What needs to be sustained is:

the capacity for renewal and evolution in ecosystems the capacity for innovation and creativity in social systems (human agency, allowing for an

environment that encourages

The ecosystem approach Sustainable Development vision is the base Focuses on the (goals of the ecosystem approach):

whole system (human and physical) interrelationships among components dynamic nature of ecosystems concepts of limits (limits mean carrying capacity, resilience, sustainability) natural geographic units (e.g., watersheds) rather than political boundaries

long term health of 'environment'

Challenges of the ecosystem approach

1-Defining boundaries currently impossible to predict impacts (ex: flooding) at all scales and time frames ecosystem to select not obvious yet developments tends to affect the entirety (mid-1990s) Environment Canada was restructured to reflect ecosystem approach → weakened in-

depth capacity Bioregions (picture)

2-Establishing 'limits' *limits are NOT boundaries* threshold (what represents ecological integrity)

In essence, ecosystem management aims to restore forests to some biological condition that reflects fewer human, but just what condition is a matter of arbitrary selection. In Europe, the distinction between forests before and after human settlement is virtually impossible to make and as a result, determining desired forest condition is more difficult. Should forests there be returned to...? text

baseline data, indicators (?) what is original or natural state? (e.g., ecosystems are in a constant state of flux) how to continually monitor the health of the system State of the Environment Reports (inventories about air quality, fisheries, forests) looking for

healthy state

3-Ecological carrying capacity Definition: maximum population size that a given ecosystem can support for an indefinite period of

time or on a sustainable basis Carrying capacity has been extended when the level of use beyond which unacceptable impacts

occur to the environment (e.g., water/air/soil/vegetation/wildlife) scientific and social values aspects (scientific numbers but also socially accepted values)

4-Social carrying capacity Same definition about maximum population size (above) maximum supportable load is generally associated with a purpose or goal (social values)5-Values and traditions ecosystem idea is not consistent with the values, institutions and practices shaping current resource

management e.g., banking, taxation, insurance and property law Ecosystem approach imposes constraints upon single purpose approaches to the environment6-Imperfect science complexity, uncertainty and turbulence of ecosystems incomplete research on physical systems constantly changing information for human and physical systems

7-Complexity of ecosystems Diversity of species interacting with physical and chemical variables e.g., a forest has thousands of species of organisms Variables are connected in a web of interrelations that are fundamentally no-linear

Ecosystems are open ones through which energy flows and within which material cycles

8- Ecosystem principles stochastic processes means order without absolute predictability (ex: social systems and hazards...

we know the processes but there are many paths that can be taken so it’s hard to forecast)

Problems of PredictionThe structure and dynamics of all ecosystems... text

Implications for management precludes 'perfect-planning', ex:

ideas of boundaries and limits are 'vague' principles such as diversity, stability and resilience are informative but too general to be

practically applicable precludes perfect planning highlights the need for:

networking, multiple stakeholders, a participatory approach planning style for complexity, uncertainty and chaos

humans must manage their interaction with ecosystems inter-agency networking and biophysical rather than administrative boundaries highlights need for a more regional, multi-stakeholder and participatory approach local support needed for long-term effectiveness

Lecture 8

Stakeholders and Participatory ApproachesEx of stakeholders in forest case study: Slocan valley committee, loggers, community, government (minister of forestry), forestry companies, fisheries and associated peopleEx of stakeholders in fishing case study: aboriginal fishers, non-aboriginal fishers, communities (&individuals), scientists, local government, media, legalEx of Banff stakeholders: hotel industry (&all economic interests), tourists, biologists (speaking on behalf of the wildlife), town of Banff, park ranger, employees of the park

Why this method? Circumstances of high uncertainty call for dialogue and mutual learning (need to find ways to make

things a little more certain) learning is necessary to make the transition to sustainable development de-centralize management

StakeholdersActive formally organized associations (international institute for SD) have resources to research, monitor and make submissions e.g., business and community groups, ENGOs, mediaInactive silent majority (public) who rely on professionals and associations

Barriers to participation inadequate notice (communication) insufficient money (opportunity cost) incomplete or inaccessible information (education/information) lack of real opportunity to influence decisions

Why share power (local input/participation in the form of meetings) better result as local problems/issues are defined more effectively access information outside scientific realm broaden range of issues/alternatives considered identify socially-acceptable solutions allows for more action with less public spending (local monitoring) more open, democratic management increases transparency and credibility of the process an environmental education tool facilitate implementation, i.e., create sense of ownership for plan and reduce future conflict governments and planners come and go but communities have continuity contributes to social change (values and traditions)

Why not share power lack of trust and respect, e.g., experts think public is apathetic, dull and inadequately skilled public often lacks knowledge of the management issues 'experts' cannot communicate with locals time required is disproportionate to benefits (costly, time consuming, tortuous)

responsibility of elected and/or paid positions (have the information, skill, time and resources) codified restrictions and legal commitments

Timing for public input Normative most important stage for public participation

decisions are taken as to 'What should be done' Strategic

decisions are taken to determine 'what can be done' Operational

decisions are taken to determine 'what will be done'

Purposes of alliances to share resources, funds, information, work etc for planning and delivery of programs and projects measure of participation goes from 'inform and educate' to 'real power sharing and involvement'

Types of strategic alliances (for environmental management) Contributory (example donations)

'public' provides sponsorship, funding ,expertise little or no direct operational participation little or no decision-making

Operational (example: have the idea and get help implementing it, work with a group but no direct decision making) collaboration is higher share work and information but not decision-making participants influence decisions through involvement real power retained by provider of financial resources, e.g., government

Consultative NOT DONE- advisory- control retained by public agency- public exerts real influence through the political costs of ignoring their advice

Collaborative (if all of the Slocan valley community formed an alliance with other stakeholders, or between government and aboriginals) real decision-making is shared mutually compatible objectives share resources, e.g., information, labour, money power shared depends on legalities (if there is a law involved, where only the government can

change something rather than the community, like on crown land) decisions usually by consensus (time consuming)

AlliancesCo-management (example of a collaborative alliance) levels of integration, power and responsibility sharing for local- and state-level management

systems goal is to encourage community-based development

Case study – Skeena River watershed (stakeholders: aboriginal fishers, commercial fishers, sport fishers, government... Issues: sustainability, aboriginal rights?, distribution of how much fish each group is allowed to take)

Most favourable elements for success (of co-management)Preconditions presence of a real or imagined crisis in the depletion or degradation of a resource (in the depletion

of the salmon fish resource) willingness of local users to contribute financially or in kind for rehabilitation efforts (fishers agree

and each group makes an operational contribution ) opportunity for negotiation or experimentation (everybody wants to solve the problem because the

government was going to shut down the fishery anyways)

Conditions (contract) agreements are reached which are formalized, legal and multiple-year - MOUs (memorandum of

understanding) agreement that the government would stop closing it down when they panic needs trust, government trusts that the community will manage it well and fishers trust that

government will help with payments

Mechanisms: (need mechanisms to) to return some wealth produced by co-management to communities for equitable representation and power to conserve and enhance resource and integrity of local cultural system (understand aboriginal need

for ceremonials) to facilitate information passage internally (among the group) and externally (to other people) to negotiate

Spatial scale relatively small area (e.g., watershed) where benefits can be readily identified and appreciated by

participants number of participants or groups in location is relatively small for effective communication government bureaucracy is relatively small and mandate is local or regional

Predisposed groups already have a cohesive social system (e.g., kinship, ethnicity, fishers) can effectively define their boundaries, membership, access to resources and sanctions

Human factor dedicated person or core group (good projects always have a good leader) compatibility (common interest in resource) adaptability and flexibility commitment and co-operation respect, trust, integrity, patience and perseverance

Lecture 9

Geog lecture 8May 14

Adaptive Management

Implications for management: (not included here)precludes 'perfect-planning'highlights need for:-networking, multiple stakeholders, a participatory approach-planning style for complexity, uncertainty and chaos

Precautionary principle: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

Three different approaches to the precautionary principle (most stringent to the weakest)

1) Cautious approach (conservative position): you approve an activity if...a) it has no danger to the ecological systemb) does not reduce the environmental quality c) it is confined within the boundaries that permit complete reversibility

2) Liberal: if an activity is judged risky, it requires the use of the best available technology and a safety margin which keeps concentrations below specified levelsEx: rio declaration, june 1992, principle 15

3) Weak: requires the best available technology which does not pose undue expense (given economic needs)

Goals (of the principle): recognize the uncertainty of knowledge anticipate potential harmful impacts and avoid harm

Weaknesses (of the principle): too vague and general as a regulatory standard not specified: how much caution; when to apply; what types of precautionary actions warranted; at

what price? PP does not provide a guarantee of no serious harm as problems can be 'unanticipated' (CFCs and

DDTs – at the time that they were tested, they were judged to be safe but some effects were not anticipated, ie. persistency and buildup )

Planning for complexity and uncertainty certain physical and social systems may be understood yet are fundamentally unpredictable (stock

market, storm and other physical hazards, population growth, other social factors)

Decision making and ignorance: (when you don’t really know what you’re doing but you have to do something) Hedging: choose 'least bad worse outcome'; maintain status quo; technologies as solutions (ex.

Flooding some people intentionally to save others) Flexing: choose ''best possible outcome;' maintain flexible options; monitor and modify

Planning styles:Comprehensive interpretation (ex. planning to come to McGill) diligently study all components and relationships fine tune models, analysis and planning weakness: impractical, long procedure; solutions cause new problems; often frustrating process

Integrative interpretation focuses on key components and linkages more rapid, realistic, action oriented

Adaptive environmental management (it’s a style, it’s not the best)Context incomplete knowledge of systems complexity, uncertainty, turbulence synergism(interaction between two substances that produces a greater effect than the effect of

either one alone, ex when sulphur combines with oxygen in mining to get sulfuric oxide) or cumulative effects (are the consequence for the accumulation of numerous individual activities or actions, ex air pollution or global warming) can push a system beyond restoration

need long-term vision for projects precautionary principle

Goal (of adaptive management) - to develop more resilient policies and management practices rather than to try to eliminate the uncertainty of systems

Adaptive management Characteristics action oriented

experiment, monitor, evaluate, modify iterative process that uses feedback accumulated experience provides departure point for new initiatives

prepares and benefits from the unexpected (expect the unexpected) trial and error (learn by doing) errors provide information for future actions uses reasonableness and caution

seeks resilience not stability change is viewed as positive

co-operative, supportive structures neither hierarchical nor mechanistic flexible to local needs and circumstances

holistic integrative approach interest groups collaborate

*in adaptive management, you purposely experiment to adapt rather than simply reacting and adapting

Is AM practical?Not always desirable approach (general) insufficient direction (not hierarchical enough, no clear goals/rules) confusion, misunderstanding

or conflict rules are not clear → resistance (ex salaries are normally linked to bonuses so when you don’t have

a specific set of task, you can’t tell if someone is getting preferential treatment) avoidance of heavy controls → high resource costs in 'learning by doing'

Active adaptive management (type of adaptive management) 'experiments' to test hypotheses about their effects on a particular environmental system (e.g., try

different cutting to see how the bears response) alternative policies and practices are compared by active experimentation (ex changing quotas, how

much selective and clear-cut in one place)

Active AM: is it practical? Being experimental, is not appropriate where:

risks to environment or society are high problem is curable (ex oil spills. Just clean it up) remedy is unique managers are accountable for failure

AM works best when: there is mandate to take action in the face of uncertainty (ex fisheries, something has to be done

and people agree so there is room for some AM. Also, bears and the berries in the forestry industry) there is sufficient stability to measure long-term outcomes managers and decision-makers are aware that they are experimenting mechanisms are available to transfer results to policy and management practice managers and planner work in a co-operative environment

EXAM HERE

Lecture 10

Environmental Assessment

Environmental assessment: a systematic process of determining and managing the potential impacts of proposed human actions on the environment

EA context (1950s+) technical (do we have the technology to do it) and financial (is it economically feasible?)

criteria for large projects (bridges, highways, mining) not-quantifiable values are minimized equity issues tend not to be addressed public opposition to mega-projects grows

Birth of EIA (1969) USA's NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act)(legal approach) (1973) Canada's EARP (Environmental Assessment and Review Process) (administrative approach)

guidelines to avoid court conflicts that were time consuming discretionary powers → some disregard for EIA provisions (going ahead with things that the public

isn’t comfortable with) (1995) CEAA (Canadian Environment Assessment Act)

Characteristics of major projects substantial capital investment cover large areas and employ many workers wide-ranging impacts (ex: hydroelectric dam, building railroads... social, economic, physical)

Significant impacts e.g., infrastructures for: energy – transport – manufacturing – industrial developments – waste

disposal sites e.g., activities that are: extractive – processing – leisure – housing settlements

Environmental components physical ( atmosphere, climate, water, soil, geology, flora and fauna) human (health, landscape, cultural heritage, demographic, economic, social, housing, services,

energy)

Purposes of EA encourage integrative management identify and evaluate externalities optimize planning and improve decision making a negotiation tool (public/private developer and public)

Certain actions under the ceaa act which trigger and EIA: when the federal government is a proponent, sewage disposal, road construction, bridge building, granting land to a mining company,

Key elements of EA a strong legislative foundation

a broad definition of the environment (looking at the entire ecosystem including people physical and human)

a process to identify best options a process that limits ministerial discretion (ministers are elected and didn’t necessarily study in

environmental management) a fair and open process a process with enforceable terms and conditions for the approval of an activity a process that addresses monitoring and auditing

Principles for EA prevention: initiate early in the planning process transparency: provide information to decision-makers and stakeholders at every stage of the

planning cycle monitoring: project implementation, operation, closure (sound barriers?), post-audit (what

happened compared to what was promised)

The main steps to EIA CEAA)Needs identification proposal description screening preliminary assessment EIA required or not scoping (public involvement) detailed assessment mitigation (redesign) reporting review (public involvement) decision making approved (monitoring and EIA audit) or not (redesign and resubmit)… don't have to worry about this

Evaluating an EIA1) Effectiveness information contributes to decision making predictions are accurate proposed mitigation and compensation achieve objectives

2) Efficiency (time and money) timely decisions costs of EIA process are reasonableness average is 1% of project costs

3) Fairness all stakeholders have equal opportunity to influence the decision people directly affected have equal access to compensation

EIA goals (to conclude this part...) EIA is a means to an end (SD) (helps us think about it but don't produce it necessarily) a tool to incorporate environmental considerations alongside the technical, financial and political

considerations trade-offs are necessary

Challenges in EIAWhat initiatives are assessed? Primarily large projects class assessments (frequent, recurring)

should also be for policies (not a law but sends out a message, ex: thinking green) and programs (something like the processing plants in the Atlantic fisheries being amalgamated)

When should EIA be done? Early in planning and prior to project approval jointly with economic, technical and feasibility analyses should be seen as an incentive not a hurdle

How to determine the significance of impacts? Partly scientific or technical mainly by prevailing societal values and place intangible features

What to do regarding incomplete understanding of ecosystems? Disagreement among scientists (concepts, terms, measurements) → different interpretations of the

same date absence of baseline and longitudinal data need integration of scientific and local knowledge

How should cumulative effects be handled? tend to focus on direct impacts of single actions need to assess “space-crowding” ex: multiple oil sands project in watershed)

What should be the nature of public involvement? Process should be open and transparent enhances credibility and broadens the range of issues/alternatives considered public can help devise mitigation measures can contribute to social change

What about mitigation and compensation? Need to prevent/minimize adverse impacts but direct causal relationships are difficult to prove monitoring and mitigation become tools to counter damage 'after the fact' where mitigation is not possible, compensation must be considered

Importance of monitoring improves knowledge of resilience and recuperative powers of ecosystems ensures mitigation has actually occurred tracks public concerns and addresses fears but is time consuming and expensive as impacts may take years to appear

Emerging Directions cumulative effects assessment Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), ex: policies, programs, plans (not just projects) EIA globally

Lecture 11

Environmental dispute resolution

Conflict arise due to differences in perceptions, values, interest and needs in pluralistic societies Conflict can be positive if there is a need to question the status quo and consider new approaches

Issues Substantive issues: ex. Resource use, projects, policies, regulation, jurisdiction. Procedural issues: ex. Who should be involved, when, how

Dispute resolution Disputes are hard to settle as costs and benefits are rarely distributed equitably intangibles (health, no market price, hard to quantify) can be hard to evaluate and compare Many diverse views and interpretations are often involved

What if conflicts appear irreconcilable? (don’t need to know)Conflicting interests that are perceived to mutually exclusive present a special problem. The wildness versus industrial development issues... are examples of this phenomenon.... Negotiation, from this perspective, will likely be perceived as offering nothing and may be perceived as exposing the wilderness advocate to mollification and manipulation.

Resolving disputes (Options) traditionalPolitical elected individuals decide, on the advice of specialists may not be equitable if powerful lobby groups with more resources or access to elected officials

influence decisions (and corruption may exist)Administrative bureaucrats decide (mainly 'routine' decision) results depend on the citizen's ability to 'be heard' appeal to higher authority is often possibleJudicial courts have the power to impose and enforce participation and sanctions decisions are based on facts, precedents(similar cases), procedures and argument an adversarial, time consuming and expensive approach that produces 'winners and losers'

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) facilitates consensus decision making (everybody agrees) by disputing parties (avoids judicial path)

ADR characteristics underlying belief that stakeholders are in the best position to identify and settle the issue face-to-face discussion is considered to be more productive voluntary commitment exists to solve the problem consensus (unanimity) or a mutually agreeable settlement is preferred over an imposed decision attend to interest and needs over positions and precedents (greater flexibility) use of constructive communication and improved understanding as compared to negative criticism

and defending interests use of persuasion rather than coercion achievement of long lasting settlements effective sharing and use of information

Types of ADRPublic consultation (participation) can be part of an administrative or political approach various formats (e.g., formal meetings) least effective Negotiation the goal is for parties to find mutually acceptable agreement two or more parties meet voluntarily to attempt to settle what each shall give and take or perform

and receive in a transaction between them (everybody will give up something and will gain something)

a participatory process in which a group reflects in concert towards a decision mutually agreed upon closure to the issues no external person or group provides assistanceMediation has characteristics of negotiation plus involvement of a neutral third party (a mediator) usually initiated when the parties no longer believe they can handle the conflict on their own mediations helps to: identify points of contention, correct miscommunication, clarify ambiguous

messages, point out when differences in interpretations have arisen mediator serves as a go-between mediator meets with groups together or separately depending on the level of animosity between

them mediator acts as facilitator and fact finder to help parties reach a mutually acceptable agreement mediator usually has no authoritative decision-making power (i.e., no real power to develop or

impose an agreement)Arbitration unlike mediation, the third party acts as an arbitrator with the power to make a decision which may

be binding if 'binding', the parties agree to abide by the settlement beforehand if 'non-binding', The stakeholders can accept or reject the decision the parties tend to work hard to agree to avoid the imposition of the agreement by the third party usually the parties participate in the selection of an arbitrator

How are mediation and arbitration alike? (confidential, informal, both involve a neutral third party, both require voluntary participation from the disputing parties)Different: arbitration normally a final decision on the case, legally bindingIn mediation you can leave at any time whereas in arbitration, once the decision is made it’s legally binding

Conditions for effective ADR acknowledgement of a dispute motivation to solve the issue by ADR full stakeholder representation scope of compromise

'Positional' compared to a 'Principled' approachPositional approach the parties arrive for negotiations having already decided on a desirable solution attempt to persuade or coerce others to accept their terms and solutions

alternatives are constrained (little flexibility) tends to produce a win/lose situation

Principled approach stress is on working with other parties to develop a creative solution that will meet the needs of all

parties

Steps for a 'principled approach' separate the people from the problem be 'soft' on the people and 'hard' on the problem go beyond personalities or style (idiosyncrasies) and focus on the issue focus on common interests rather than positions invent options for mutual gain

Lecture 12

Canadian Environment policy

Legal foundations of Canadian environmental policyConstitution Act (1967) Sections 91 and 92 (federal and provincial government) No guarantee to a clean, healthy environment Jurisdictional powers overlap on environmental issues (ex: resource development on crown land,

land is federal but resource is provincial)

Section 91- Federal powers Responsible for: sea coast and inland fisheries, navigation and shipping, federal lands and waters

Fisheries Act (keep toxic waste out, maintain fisheries habileit → they would pay for cleanup), the navigable waters protection Act, The arctic waters Pollution Prevention Act and Northern Inland Waters Act

The Canadian Environmental Protection Act (1988), based on the POGG (peace, order and good government) that provides: national standers for the control of toxic substances federal regulation of environment impacts on federal lands

International obligation (e.g., Migratory Birds Convention Act and the International River improvement Act)

*for exam, general questions: what is the federal obligation?

Section 92 – Provincial powers local works and undertakings (ex: bridges, roads, local projects) property and civil rights in provinces matters of a local or private nature provincially owned lands and resources (1982 amendment) the provinces are also assigned exclusive jurisdiction over:

development, conservation and management of non-renewable resources forestry and hydroelectric facilities pollution control and an environmental assessment regulatory regime

Summary Sections 91 and 92 empower federal and provinces to make laws in relation to many classes of

subjects Federal and provincial laws operate concurrently unless they are in direct conflict in which case the

doctrine of 'paramountcy' gives federal law precedence and provincial law in inoperative to the extent of the conflict

Canadian courts use flexible interpretation for determining the scope and application of powers In reality, a balancing of political powers more than proper legal interpretation Tendency for federal abdication of regulatory power and delegation of administrative or

enforcement authority to the provinces

Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982) added to the Canadian constitution No explicit reference to a right to a healthy environment

But suggests individuals have the right not to be deprived of life, liberty and security Substantive rights may include a clean environment (health) Procedural rights may include notice of regulatory initiatives, financial assistance to make one’s

case, access to actual decision-makers and information

Canadian Environmental Protection Act (1988) (federal) (1999) CEPA revised and proclaimed in force in 2000 (pollution) stronger focus on compliance rather than enforcement strong statements on environmental values and sweeping powers for controlling toxic substances shared responsibility with provinces, industry and public

Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (1995) (federal) Federal government leans towards sharing authority with provinces and territories by harmonization

efforts and delegation of administration with: industry (voluntary initiatives) First nations (self-government and land claims agreements) the public (greater participation guarantees)

desire to avoid conflict and litigation (going to court)

First Nations Indian, Inuit, Métis Historical context aboriginal peoples were “friends” of the British when they were fighting the

French and this is why it isn’t the same in the USA, talked into giving away their land in treaties in exchange for gifts, also disease and alcohol came with the Europeans, which decimated the population

Relationship between the government of Canada and aboriginal peoples: have special rights, in order to keep these rights, you have to marry within your group, can’t go to university, have land or join military to have this status

First nations and the LawThe Royal Proclamation (1763) title through use and occupancy created a process for extinguishing title to Crown and 'fiduciary' responsibility (relating to or

involving confidence of trust) Essentially, the procalamtion indicates that the colonial authorities recognized the importance of

negotiating land treaties with first nations and in protecting the area of aboriginal use (from settlement). Generally agreed even by... don’t need to know

The Constitution Act (BNA Act of 1867) federal government responsible for Indians and reserves

The Indian Act (1876) states who is recognized as Indian conditions to be enfranchised or disenfranchised (1985) enfranchised process deleted and registration began

The Constitution Act (1982) Guarantees Aboriginal and treaty rights of First Nations (includes Indians, Inuit and Métis)

Treaty rights and land claims recognized Crown's fiduciary responsibility remains

Resource rights and treaties Treaties are legally binding agreements between recognized independent governments Historical treaties (1780-1924) Land as “home” if you don’t own land (don’t have the concept), how can you sell it? Modern treaties comprehensive or specific

First Nations access to rights and resources right to hunt, trap and fish and certain water uses Aboriginal rights have been elevated to constitutional status

Aboriginal rights conflicts exist between management objectives and regulations' effects on aboriginal right to food

and ceremonial needs or a denial of a preferred means of expressing their rights aboriginal rights are priority after federal management rights (i.e., little infringement on aboriginal

rights as possible, right to compensation, right to consultation) aboriginal land claims and management agreements also specify rights and obligations relative to

resource management in affected lands federal policy on land claims recognizes the inherent right to self-government of Aboriginal peoples First Nations have entrenched rights that allows for a higher standard than other stakeholder CEPA (1999) -puts Aboriginal participation on par with Federal ministers and Provinces on National

Advisory committee

Lecture 13May 22

lecture 12Integrative management

Integration 'to make into a whole... to put or bring together parts into a whole'

Integration is a means to achieve the SD vision

*integration in environmental manaement- a systems perspective- There was a period in academia where disciplines were divided to develop expertise. Now we need a systems approach – bring them back together- Integration of interests..- areas of application: coasts, oceans, watersheds, forestry, protected areas, agriculture, regional planning

Integration in environmental management a multi-faceted concept Similar to a system perspective Integration of interests, demands, disciplines, stakeholders Type, methods, degree of integration can vary

Integration in approaches and applications e.g., multiple use, ecosystem approach, adaptive management, participatory, EIA Main areas of application: watersheds, forestry, protected areas, coasts and oceans, agriculture,

regional planning

Integration Environmental management focuses on how humans consume natural resources and mange their

relationship with nature For integration to occur, collaboration and coordination are necessary

Fragmentation as opposed to integration Fragmentation occurs due to differences in:- interests- jurisdictions- resource regimes- social systems- ecological systems- information base

Key dimensions of integration Scientific, quantitative and modeling approaches (biophysical and technical) Consultation, participation and institutional approaches (social) Tension between the two above

Goal of integration

To understand the interrelatedness of the social, cultural, economic and ecological dimensions of resource and environmental problems

Reality Economic (production and consumption) is separated from ecological (physical ecosystems) Ecology tend to be a secondary concern to economic

Challenges Different disciplinary forms of education and research lack of clear concept and criteria for application Poorly integrated institutional arrangements (government is separated into ministers with conflict) Practical problems, e.g., data access, monitoring, jurisdictional conflicts, legal, social and economic

pressures, political agendas Complexity and uncertainty of biophysical and socio-economic-political systems Scale local level or global in scope?

What needs to be integrated Disciplines (integrated research framework) information (scientific, local) Spatial-ecological units (watersheds, bioregions, ecozones) Governments (local, provincial, national, regional) Agencies (tend to be disciplinarily and sectorally specialized) Interests/sectors (economic, ecological, ethnological) Perceptions, attitudes, values

Evaluation Integration is a means to achieve the SD vision For SD, need more communication and cooperation among sectors/government