EVERYONE knows the story of Con-stantine the Great and how the

Roman Empire became Christian afterhe won the battle of the Milvian Bridgein 312 AD, but not many know the storyof Maxentius who lost the battle. He wasthe ruler of Rome from 306 to 312, andif he had won the battle the history of theworld might have been very different.Maxentius was probably born in Syriain about 283, which means that he wasonly a young man of 23 when he tookcontrol of Italy and North Africa. He wasthe son of Maximian (Figure 1) who ruledthe western half of the Roman Empire,while Diocletian (Figure 2) ruled theeastern half. They were known as theAugusti (or emperors), and under themwere the Caesars: Constantius in thewest and Galerius in the east. This ruleby four was called the Tetrarchy. WhenDiocletian and Maximian abdicated in

305, Galerius and Constantius becameAugusti, while Maximinus, the nephewof Galerius, became Caesar in the eastand Severus, a friend of Galerius, becameCaesar in the west.Problems soon arose when Constantiusdied in York in 306 and the troops therehailed his ambitious son, Constantine,as the Augustus. (Figures 3 and 4) AlsoMaxentius was disappointed that hehad been passed over after his fatherabdicated. Galerius did not recognizeConstantine as the Augustus, but heappointed him Caesar in the west, whileSeverus became Augustus in the west. Severus was based in Milan in the northof Italy and to raise money he imposedcertain taxes on the people of Rome andannounced that the Praetorian Guardin Rome would be disbanded. The citizens

of Rome were outraged and they choseMaxentius, who lived in the outskirtsof Rome, to lead a rebellion. On 28thOctober 306 he assumed the titles ofCaesar and Princeps (Leader) and was

MAXENTIUSRULER OF ROME

by Peter E. LewisHead of Maxentius on a bronze coin.

Figure 1 – Aureus of Maximinan minted atNicomedia in 294. Hercules holds the applesof the Hesperides in his left hand. HERCVLIVICTORI means ‘to Hercules, the Victor.’(Roma Numismatics Auction 2, Lot 755)

Figure 2 – Aureus of Diocletian minted at Cyzicus in 293-4. Jupiter (Jove) holds a thunderboltin his right hand. IOVI CONSERVATORI means ‘to Jove, the Preserver.’ (Heritage Auctions,Sept. 2011, Lot 23373)

Figure 3 – Billon follis minted at Ticinum in northern Italy in 307-8. Obverse; head of Constantinewith legend CONSTANTINVS PF AVG. Reverse: Hercules strangles the Nemean lion. Legend:VIRTVS PERPETUA AVG (the continual bravery of the Augustus). This rare coin was found bymetal detector near Winchester in England in 2015. It was probably issued by Maxentius as afriendly gesture towards his brother-in-law, Constantine. (Author’s Collection)

Figure 4 – On this black-figure lekythos made bythe Painter of Athens in c. 500 BC Hercules fightsa lion as on the coin in Figure 3. Praxagoras ofAthens wrote a biography of Constantine in the4th century AD and in it he said that Constantinefought a lion as a youth, but the story is not bel-ievable. (Image courtesy Wikimedia Commons)

joined by his father who had been livingin southern Italy. In 307 Maxentius andMaximian declared themselves to beAugusti. Severus led his army from Milanto Rome to oppose them, but many ofhis soldiers defected to be with their oldgeneral, Maximian, and Severus had toretreat. Eventually he surrendered atRavenna and was later executed in Romeby Maxentius. Galerius now invaded Italy but he toohad to retreat before his whole armydefected. Maximian went to Gaul to form

an alliance with Constantine, and thepact was sealed by Constantine marry-ing his daughter, Fausta. Constantinealso assumed the title of Augustus, whichmeant there were now four Augusti andone Caesar. Maximian returned to Romelate in 307 but he quarrelled with hisson over the sharing of power. When hefailed to gain support he fled to Gaulwhere he sought asylum with his newson-in-law, Constantine.In 308 Galerius called a conferenceat Carnuntum, a city on the Danube

twenty-five miles from Vienna, to resolvethe confusion. Maximian attended andagreed to abdicate once again as Augus-tus in the west. It was decided that hisplace should be taken by Licinius, acomrade-in-arms of Galerius, and thatConstantine should be demoted to Cae-sar. Maxentius was declared a publicenemy. After the conference Maximianretired to Gaul which was under Con-stantine’s control. The next crisis confronting Maxentiusoccurred late in 308: the governor ofthe province of Africa, Lucius DomitiusAlexander, rebelled against him. (Figure5) Rome depended on Africa for its grainsupply, so Maxentius sent his general,Rufius Volusianus, on an expedition toCarthage to quell the revolt. It was suc-cessful: Alexander hanged himself andAfrica was restored to Maxentius. Coinsissued in 310 celebrate this victory andthe 5th anniversary of his reign. On thereverse the goddess Victory writes on ashield and the legend VICTORIAAETERNA AVG N means “the eternalvictory of our Augustus.” (Figure 6)Sadly in 309 Maxentius’ young son,Romulus, died. He had been born in about294 and his mother was the daughter ofGalerius, which meant that he was the

Figure 5 – Billon follis of Lucius Domitius Alexander minted at Carthage in 308-10. Victory holdsa wreath and a palm. The reverse legend means ‘the victory of Alexander, our Augustus.’(Münzen & Medaillen Auction 92, Lot 296)

Figure 6 – Reverse of a billon half-follis of Maxentius minted at Rome in 310. Victory inscribesVOT X on a shield while a bound captive sits at her feet. VOT X indicates the vow that Maxentiusmade to the gods for ten years of power. (Gitbud & Naumann Auction 11, Lot 686)

Figure 7 – Billon follis of Maxentius minted at Ostia in 309-10. Obverse: head of Romulus withthe legend DIVO ROMVLO N V BIS CONS (to the divine Romulus, most noble youth, twice consul).Reverse: domed brick temple with eagle on top. This brick building was erected on the AppianWay but it no longer exists. (Jean Elsen & ses Fils, Auction 98, Lot 444)

Figure 8 – Billon follis of Maxentius minted atOstia in 311. Obverse: head of Romulus withthe legend IMP MAXENTIVS DIVO ROMVLO NV FILIO (Emperor Maxentius to the divineRomulus, the son, most noble youth). Reverse:domed temple with 6 columns and eagle ontop. This temple still stands in Rome next to thebasilica of Maxentius. (Paul-Francis Jacquier,Auction 38, Lot 560)

grandson of two emperors. He had beennamed after Galerius’ mother, Romula.When he died Maxentius was grief-stricken. He had the lad deified and builttwo temples in his honour. (Figures 7, 8and 9). The name, ‘Romulus’, was alsosignificant because the founder andfirst king of Rome was called ‘Romulus’.In fact the city was named after him.The name of his son summed up whatMaxentius was about. He wanted torestore Rome to its former glory and hestood for the old traditions and religionof Rome. This is reflected in his coinage.

Because the city’s traditional role as thecapital of the empire had been slowlyeroding as power tended to concentratein the east Maxentius embarked on abuilding program erecting a great basil-ica, parts of which still stand. (Figure10) He rebuilt the temple of Roma andVenus, which had been partially des-troyed by fire in 307. It was the largesttemple in Rome. Coins showing Romaenthroned in her temple were issued ingreat numbers. (Figure 11) On some ofthem Maxentius is shown entering thetemple and receiving a globe from the

goddess. (Figures 12 and 13) Parts of thetemple still stand (Figure 14) and amaz-ingly a large globe made of chalcedonywas unearthed by an archaeologist inRome in 2005. It was attached to the topof a sceptre and was part of Maxentius’imperial regalia which had been buriedto keep it from Constantine. The sceptrewas displayed in the Museo NazionaleRomano, and images of it are on theInternet. Type “Maxentius regalia” intothe search engine. In keeping with his conservative policyhe issued coins showing the mythologi-

Figure 9 – Temple of the divine Romulus in Rome. It was unfinished when Maxentius died in 312but both temples of Romulus were completed by Constantine and presumably dedicated to thefounder of Rome, not Maxentius’ son. (Wikimedia Commons)

Figure 10 – Remains of the Basilica of Maxentius beside the Sacred Way in Rome. It was next tothe temple of Romulus. It would have been a business and trading centre as well as a place forcourt hearings. (Wikimedia Commons)

Figure 11 – Reverse of a billon follis of Maxen-tius minted at Rome in 307 AD showing Romain her temple. (Author’s Collection)

Figure 13 – Figure 12 with colour added. At thetime the temple would have been brightlypainted and the emperor would have lookedresplendent in his purple cloak and military dress.

Figure 12 – Reverse of a billon follis of Maxen-tius minted at Aquileia in 307 AD. Diameter 24mms. It shows Maxentius entering the templeto receive a globe from Roma. His left foot ison a bound captive. (Author’s Collection)

cal twins, Castor and Pollux. (Figure 15)In 496 BC when the Romans defeatedthe Etruscans the twins were said tohave appeared and taken part in thebattle. In the Roman Forum they had amagnificent temple, three columns ofwhich still stand. (Figure 16) The twinsare usually shown with horses, andtheir temple was especially sacred tothe Equestrian Order, of which PontiusPilate had been a member. Coins showing Romulus, the founderof Rome, and his twin brother Remus asinfants being suckled by a she-wolf werealso issued. (Figure 17) They were partof the foundation myth of Rome. Havingbeen abandoned to die they were suckledby a wolf, and Romulus eventually wenton to found Rome. The image of the wolfand twins was symbolic of the city anda bronze statue of them stood in Rome.(Figure 18) They had appeared on a coinas early as 270 BC, and in a variant ofthe myth Hercules was the father of thetwins and he appears on the obverse ofthe coin. (Figure 19) The city’s foundationmyth was important for the Romans,and the image of the wolf suckling thetwins appears even on coins of Constan-

tine I and his sons issued during theperiod 330-346. Recently, Dr Greg Jenks,Dean of St George’s College in Jerusalem,informed me that there might be a par-allel between the story of Romulus andRemus and the story of Jesus and Johnthe Baptist as recorded in Luke’s gospel.In the former Romulus displaces hisbrother and goes on to found Rome, whilein the latter Jesus displaces his cousinand goes on to found Christianity.

Figure 14 – Ruins of the temple of Roma and Venus in Rome. The idols of the goddesses must have been enormous. (Wikimedia Commons)

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Figure 15 – Reverse of a billon follis of Maxen-tius minted at Ostia in 309-12. It shows Castorand Pollux holding the bridles of their horses.(Author’s Collection)

TO BE UPDATED

Figure 16 – The three columns of the temple ofCastor and Pollux beside the Roman Forum.(Wikimedia Commons)

Maxentius also issued coins featuringHercules, who was a popular hero inGreco-Roman mythology. (Figure 20) Hewas renowned for achieving the imposs-ible, and his appearance on these coinswas particularly appropriate because

Maxentius had achieved the impossibleby repelling invasions by two emperors,Severus and Galerius. Moreover, Max-entius claimed Hercules as his ancestor,because when the Tetrarchy was setup, the Augusti adopted themselves

into a divine family. Diocletian chose thesupreme god, Jupiter (Figure 2), whileMaximian chose his semi-divine son,Hercules (Figure 1). The Augusti con-sidered themselves to be the represen-tatives of these deities, and Maximianadopted the name ‘Maximianus Her-culius’. On a gold medallion Maxentiusis shown as Hercules. (Figure 21) But this Hercules was unable to repel

Constantine’s invasion in 312. Maxentiuswas defeated at the Battle of the Mil-vian Bridge and drowned in the TiberRiver. Constantine took control of Romeand later claimed that he had won thebattle in the name of Christ, but his coinsshow that he continued to worship thesun god, Sol, for many years after thebattle. (Figure 22) Today some Christianscholars consider that Constantine’svictory was the worst thing that everhappened to Christianity because thereligion founded by Jesus became estab-lished, i.e. it was incorporated into thestructure of the state. Constantine hadcorrectly judged that by embracing thepopular new religion he would be ableto unify and control the Roman Empire.Although this might seem a worthy aimit enabled him to promote his own ideol-ogy, which was not Christian at all. In hisbook, Constantine versus Christ, AlistairKee argued that “his religion was notChristianity. Christianity was enlisted inhis own personal crusade to gain controlof the Empire and in the process Chris-tianity was transformed.” Power andwealth became the idols for the people.According to Kee, “Constantine did notbecome a Christian, but he was able totempt the church to forsake its faith inthe Crucified One. He showed them thatthe time for that kind of faith was over.”They should ‘grow up’ and live in ‘the realworld.’

The fascinating question in all thisis, “What if Maxentius had won the Battleof the Milvian Bridge?” As his coins haveshown, he was conservative in his viewsbut he did not persecute Christians.According to Professor Frend in his book,The Early Church, Maxentius “had shownextreme tolerance toward the quarrel-ing factions of Roman Christians, andhad restored liberty to the Church bothin Rome and Africa.” Eusebius, the syco-phantic bishop of Caesarea, who was afriend of Constantine and wrote a history

Figure 17 – Silver argenteus of Maxentius minted at Rome in 310-312. Obverse: facing bust ofMaxentius. Facing busts were rare before the middle of the 4th century and unexpected on acoin of Maxentius whose propaganda was traditional not innovative. Reverse: wolf and twinswith legend TEMPORVM FELICITAS AVG N (the happiness of the times of our Augustus).(Numismatik Lanz München Auction 100, Lot 505)

Figure 18 – Bronze statue in the Capitoline Museum in Rome. It was thought to be the originalstatue dating from the 5th century BC, but recent studies suggest the wolf was made in the 13thcentury and the twins in the 15th century AD. (Wikimedia Commons)

Figure 19 – Silver didrachm minted at Rome in 270-265 BC. On the obverse Hercules has hisclub on his right shoulder and the paws of the Nemean lion tied around his neck. (NumismaticaArs Classica Auction 84, Lot 763)

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of the church, conceded that Maxentiusstopped the persecution of Christianswhich had been severe when Diocletianand Galerius were Augusti, but he wenton to say that Maxentius only pretendedto be good while underneath he was acruel tyrant. In his history he wrote thatMaxentius “commanded his subjects todesist from persecuting the Christians,pretending to piety with a view to appearmuch more mild and merciful than theformer rulers. But he by no means proved

to be in his actions as he was expected.He sunk into every kind of wickedness,leaving no impurity or licentiousnessuntouched, committing every speciesof adultery and fornication.” But didMaxentius really sink into every kind ofwickedness? In judging Maxentius wemust remember that Constantine neededan excuse for invading Italy and havingthe citizens of Rome oppressed by amurderous villain was a very suitableone.

Maxentius was tolerant of the newreligion which might have been able todevelop along the lines intended by itsfounder without the straight-jacket im-posed on it by Constantine. The Churchwould have been free to speak with itsprophetic voice. As Kee states, “Withthe establishment of Christianity theprophetic, critical dimension loses itscentral place which it had in the teach-ing of Jesus.” In his book, A New Historyof Early Christianity, published by YaleUniversity Press in 2009, Charles Free-man wrote, “The carpenter’s son who haddied as a rebel on the cross now riskedbeing forgotten in the transformation ofChristians from outsiders to insidershoused in rich buildings and tied in withthe successes of the empire in war.” Thecoins of Maxentius remind us of a timewhen Christians were only a smallminority but they could speak out forjustice and peace in a way that they couldnot do in the subsequent centuries underthe successors of Constantine.

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Figure 20 – Aureus of Maxentius minted at Rome in 307. Hercules stands on the reverse and the legendmeans “To Hercules, companion of our Augustus.” (Numismatica Ars Classica Auction 49, Lot 453)

Figure 21 – Gold medallion (= 4 aurei) of Maxentius minted at Rome in 308. Maxentius is shownas Hercules on the obverse, but on the reverse he wears the clothes of a senator and is holdingthe globe he received from Roma. It celebrates his upcoming consulate with his son, Romulus,and was probably a bonus promised to officers in his army. It sold at auction in 2006 forUS$429,752. (Numismatica Ars Classica Auction 34, Lot 83)

Figure 22 – Solidus of Constantine minted at Sirmium in 320. Reverse: Sol presents Victory ona globe to Constantine. SOLI COMITI AVG N means “To Sol, companion of our Augustus.” It iseasy to see why some early Christians equated Christ with the sun god. (Numismatica Ars Clas-sica Auction 34, Lot 209)

THE seventh coin in Tuvalu’s Endan-gered & Extinct Series has been

released. The 40.60 mm, 1 oz .9999 finesilver proof dollar celebrates Australia’sGolden Bell Frog, (Litoria aurea). The gold and green critter is a nativeto south-eastern Australia where itsnumbers have declined markedly in thepast 10 years. Efforts to protect thespecies have included moving the locationof the tennis courts for the 2000 SydneyOlympics when a population was foundliving at the proposed site.The new coin was designed by Downies’David Bowler and struck by The PerthMint. Mintage is 5,000. It is availablefrom Downies: www.downies.com.

Image courtesy and © Downies 2016� � �

Endangered Golden Bell Frog

Fronts TuvaluSilver Dollar