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MatterEvery thing in the universe is made up of matter
Changes in matter are essential for all life processes
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Composition of Matter
Matter = anything that occupies space & has mass.
Mass = the quantity of matter an object has.
Weight = the pull of gravity (less weight on the moon).
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AtomFundamental unit of matter
Discovered by Democritus 3000yrs ago
Proved by John Daltons in his Atomic theory
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Proton :Positive charge ( in nucleus) ( id Number of element)
Neutron: neutral charge ( in nucleus)
Electron :negative charge ( outside nucleus)
Protons + neutrons = atomic weight
Most of mass of atom is in nucleus
Most space of atom is electron cloud
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Wolverine: made of protons, neutrons, electrons
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All P, N, and E are the same.
Yet, the number of P, N, and E in an atom changes its properties.
Also, the type and number of elements in a molecule also changes the properties of the substance.
A Wolverine = Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons
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Element
A substance which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical reactions
Composed of building blocks called Atoms 92 naturally occurring elements About 98% of an organisms mass is
composed of just 6 elements: Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen Nitrogen Calcium Phosporus
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Isomers
Isomers – compounds with the same formula but different forms.
Glucose is the main source of energy for cells.Fructose is found in fruits and is the
sweetest of the monosaccharides.Galactose is found in milk.
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Chemical compound : consists of 2 or more different elements combined in a fixed ration ex H2O
Chemical formula: short hand method for describing chemical composition of a compound
Chemical reaction: when atoms combine or break apart from other atoms
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Molecules Molecule is the simplest part of a
substance retaining all of the properties and can exist in free state. Examples are sugar C6H12O6, water H2O, oxygenO2, hydrogen
H2, etc.
C6H12O6 and H2O are also compounds.
O2 and H2 are not compounds.
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Bonds:
Chemical bonds : forces of attraction due to outer shell electrons
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Types of Bonds:
1. Covalent bonds
2. Ionic bonds
3. Hydrogen bonds
4. Van Der Waals forces5. Hydrophobic interactions
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Ionic Bonds
Gaining and losing electrons ( metal and nonmetal)
Ionic compounds in water tend to dissociate into free ions for other chemical reaction.
Dissolved ionic compounds are in all aqueous solutions of living things, and are critical to normal operation of body/cell systems
(Example: Na and Cl ions are vital to nerve and muscle cell functions)
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covalent bond
The covalent bond involves a sharing of electrons between two nonmetals.
The sharing of electrons can be an equal sharing ( nonpolar), or an unequal sharing (polar)
Polarity = uneven pattern of electrical charge in molecules such as water.
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- Water’s biological functions stem from its polar chemical structure.
- The covalent bond sharing of electrons between O and H is not equal.
- Oxygen has 8 positive protons to attract the electrons closer than hydrogen’s one.
- - The polar structure makes water a very effective solvent, for other polar substances.
(sugars, proteins, & ionic compounds like NaCl)-
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Hydrogen Bonding
the type of bond attracting water molecules to one another.
Weak bonds that gain strength in numbers
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Ionic Bondinghttp://nutrition.jbpub.com/images/images/3.3.gif
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Van der Waals Forces:
Caused by temporary shifts in charges due to electron interactions
Molecules must be very close
Important in enzymatic reaction
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Hydrophobic interactions
Means water fearingVery weak bonds
formed between molecules that are insoluble in water
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Chemical Reactions
NaI + KCl -------- NaCl + KI
Reactants products
Types: 1. Syntheis Rxn (anabolic): combination of 2 or
more atoms to form a new molecule
Ex 2H2 +O2-----2H2O
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Chemical Reactions
2. Decomposition reaction (catabolic rxn): opposite of synthesis rxn
Ex 2H2O ------ 2H2 + O2
3. Exchange reaction: A combination of both types of bonds both broken and formed
Ex NaI + KCl -------- NaCl + KI
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Mixtures
The combined substances combined keep their original chemical properties
Types:
1. solution: combination of solvent and solute
Solvent: material in greater amount
Solute: material in lesser amount
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2. Suspension: The material mixed in a suspension will settle out with time. Ex. Salt water
3. colloid: mixtures in which like solutions, particles don’t settle out over time
Ex warm water and geletin powder
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Acids and bases
Acids: substances which when
dissolved are hydrogen donors (proton donors)
Base: substances which when
dissolved are hydrogen acceptors (proton acceptors)
Also called alkaline
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Acids and bases
Acid Properties:1. Sour taste2. Contain
hydrogen3. Turn litmus
paper red4. React wit
base to form salt and water
Base Properties:
1. bitter taste
2. Contain OH
3. Turn litmus paper blue
4. slippery
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PH Scale
Ranges from 0 t0 14
Less than 7 = acid greater than 7= base
7= neutral
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Beware of the DIRECTION of the scale on different charts
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Litmus paper = a chemical indicator used to measure or test pH levels (changes color).
Buffers = chemical substances that neutralize small amounts of either an acid or a base added to a solution. Enzymes can only function within a very narrow range of pH, so buffers are used in living systems to control pH.
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WaterWater Aqueous (Water) Solutions are crucial for the chemical
reactions of living things.
Earth’s Distance from the Sun is perfectly designed for water. Closer to the sun and water would boil off of earth Farther away and water on Earth would freeze.
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The Water of Life
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Water
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Properites of water
Hydrogen Bonding = the type of bond attracting water molecules to one another.- The positive region of one water molecule is attracted to the negative of another.- It is a weak bond, that’s easily broken, yet strong enough to produce two special forces:*
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Cohesion = attractive force between particles of the same kind (water to water).(Ex: thin “skin” on the surface of water that spiders walk upon)
Adhesion = attractive force between unlike substances, like capillarity in plants.
Capillarity allows water to move upward through narrow tubes like plants. (The water molecules are attracted by the sides of the tube and pulled upward.)
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Temperature Moderation:
Water helps maintain homeostasis! Water changes temperature slowly, since it must gain or lose a
large amount of energy.
When heated, most of the initial thermal energy simply breaks the hydrogen bonds.
Only after these bonds are broken do the molecules increase in motion and temperature.
Human body is 70% water, which helps keep us from getting too hot or cold.
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Water has the highest specific heat of any common substance, 1 calorie/gm °C = 4.186 J/gm °C. This provides stability of temperature for land masses surrounded by water, provides stability for the temperature of the human body, makes it an effective cooling agent, and many other benefits. The high heat of vaporization of water makes it an effective coolant for the human body via evaporation of perspiration, extending the range of temperatures in which humans can exist.
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Carbon CompoundsOrganic Compounds = contain carbon atoms
covalently bonded to other elements.
- A carbon atom has four electrons in the outer energy level.
- So it can form four covalent bonds with other elements.
- They form either straight chains, branched chains, or rings.
- The covalent bonds can be the sharing of single, double, or triple pairs of electrons.
* This is shown by corresponding lines
(-) (=) in chemical shorthand.
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How Important is Energy ?- on average a person. . .
Can live about 30-40 days without food.
Can live about 3-4 days without water.
Can live about 3-4 minutes w/o oxygen.
Can live about 3-4 seconds w/o energy (ATP).
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Energy Currency:* Life processes require a constant supply of energy.
* The energy is available to cells in the form of chemical energy in certain compounds.
* ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is a very important energy compound for cells.
* When the covalent bond of the third phosphate group (-PO4
-) is broken, it releases much more energy than was required to break the bond. This energy is used by the cell to drive chemical reactions for the cell to function.
The hydrolysis of ATP yields ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) (“Di” = two phosphates)
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ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate
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Molecules of Life Four main classes of essential organic compounds.
CarbohydratesLipidsProteinsNucleic acids.
All are built from C, H, O, yet each compound has unique properties.
The atoms merely occur in different ratios.
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1. Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates = organic compounds of C, H, O. The ratio is about two H per one O, while the C
atoms vary. Carbohydrates exists as Monosaccharides,
disaccharides, or polysaccharides. a. Monosaccharides = a monomer of a
carbohydrate. (a simple sugar) Most common are glucose, fructose, and galactose. They all have the same formula C6H1206, yet each has
a different structure, which determine slightly different properties of the compounds.
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Carbohydrates continued
b. Disaccharides = two monosaccharides combined by a condensation reaction. * Table sugar is a double sugar
composed of fructose and glucose. c. Polysaccharide = complex molecule
composed of three or more monosaccharides. Glycogen = a polysaccharide used by
animals to store glucose. It consist of 100’s of glucose molecules
strung in a complex branched chain. Starch = polysaccharide used by plants
to store glucose.
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Disaccharide
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Proteins Proteins = organic, macromolecule compounds
composed mainly of C, H, O, N. Amino Acids = the monomer building blocks of
proteins. There are 20 basic amino acids, which all share a
basic structure. Each w/ central C atom, covalently bonded to
four other atoms (or functional groups).1. Single Hydrogen atom
2. Carboxyl group – COOH
3. Amino Group –NH2
4. R Group, which is the main difference among the different amino acids.
- The R group can be as simple as a single hydrogen or more complex.
- The different R group gives it a different shape, which allows it to perform different roles.
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Amino Acids have:Central Carbon & Four Functional Groups
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2. Proteins continued Dipeptide = two amino acids form a covalent bond in a
condensation reaction. Peptide Bond = the covalent bond between the amino acids.
Polypeptide = many amino acids bonded together one at a time.
Protein = one or more polypeptides. Some proteins have hundreds of amino acids, bent and folded
upon themselves, due to hydrogen bonding among the amino acids.
Protein shape determines its function, and the shape can changed by conditions.
(Heat turns egg white from clear and runny, to stiff and opaque.) * Enzymes (most are proteins) Enzyme reactions depend
on a physical fit between the enzyme molecule and the substrate (the reactant being catalyzed). The linkage with an enzyme probably causes the weakening of chemical bonds in the substrate, which reduces the activation energy. Change in temperature or pH of the solution affects the
enzyme’s effectiveness.
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Dipeptide
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Enzyme-Substrate Model
Substrate
Enzyme
Products
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3. Lipids 3. Lipids = large non-polar organic molecules that do
not dissolve in water. Lipids store more energy than other organic molecules, due to
many C-H bonds
Fatty Acids = unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids. The ends of the fatty acid molecule have very different
properties. The carboxyl end (-COOH) is polar and attracted to water
(hydrophilic).
The hydrocarbon end (C-H) is nonpolar and called hydrophobic.
Unsaturated lipids – have one or more pairs of carbon atoms joined by double bonds.
Saturated lipids have no double bonds between their carbon atoms.
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Fatty Acid
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Complex Lipids: Complex Lipids: three classes of lipids important to
living organismsa. Triglycerides = 3 molecules of fatty acid joined to 1 of the
alcohol glycerol.
b. Phospholipids = have 2 rather than 3 fatty acids joined by the glycerol.
- Cell membranes are composed of a bilayer made from a double row of phospholipids, arranged with their hydrophobic “tails” facing each other. Since lipids do not dissolve in water, the membrane is a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell.
c. Wax = a type of structural lipid, consisting of a long fatty-acid chain joined to a long alcohol chain.
** Steroids = lipids that are NOT composed of fatty acids, but of four fused carbon rings. Each carbon ring has various function groups attached to it. Many animal hormones, like testosterone are steroids.
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4. Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids = very large and complex molecules that store
information in the cell. Similar to a computer’s binary code of zeros and ones. Nucleic acids use four compounds to store hereditary
information. The order of arrangement of these four determines the code. DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid, contains the information for all
cell activities, including cell division. (Designed Not Accidental)
RNA = Ribonucleic Acid, stores and transfers information for making proteins.
Both DNA and RNA are polymers, composed of thousands of linked monomers.
Nucleotides are the monomers. Each is composed of three main components:a. Phosphate groupb. Five-carbon sugarc. Ring-shaped nitrogen base
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DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid, contains the information for all cell activities, including cell division.
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Nucleotides are the monomers. Each is composed of three main components:
a. Phosphate group
b. Five-carbon sugar
c. Ring-shaped nitrogen base
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Nucleotide
Phosphate
Deoxyribose (sugar)
Nitrogen Base
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