Materials and Design 34 (2012) 444–451

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Materials and Design

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Friction welding of ductile cast iron using interlayers

Radosław Winiczenko a,⇑, Mieczysław Kaczorowski b,1

a Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Department of Production Engineering, Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Polandb Warsaw University of Technology, Institute of Mechanics and Design, Narbutta 85, 02-524 Warsaw, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 11 April 2011Accepted 25 August 2011Available online 1 September 2011

Keywords:A. Ferrous metals and alloysD. WeldingF. Microstructure

0261-3069/$ - see front matter � 2011 Elsevier Ltd. Adoi:10.1016/j.matdes.2011.08.038

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 225 934 624; faxE-mail addresses: rwinicze@poczta.onet.pl (R. W

wip.pw.edu.pl (M. Kaczorowski).1 Tel.: +48 228 494 280; fax: +48 228 483 379.

a b s t r a c t

In this paper, ductile cast iron–austenitic stainless steel, ductile cast iron–pure Armco iron and ductilecast iron–low carbon steel interlayers were welded, using the friction welding method. The tensilestrength of the joints was determined, using a conventional tensile test machine. Moreover, the hardnessacross the interface of materials was measured on metallographic specimens. The fracture surface andmicrostructure of the joints was examined using either light stereoscope microscopy as well as electronmicroscopy. In this case, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy(TEM) were applied. The results of the analysis shows that the joint has the tensile strength comparedto that of basic material. In case of ductile cast iron, it is possible to reach the tensile strength equals even700 MPa. It was concluded that the process of friction welding was accompanied with diffusion of Cr, Niand C atoms across the ductile cast iron–stainless steel interface. This leads to increase in carbon concen-tration in stainless steel where chromium carbides were formed, the size and distribution of which wasdependent on the distance from the interface.

� 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Akata and Sahin [1] investigated the effect of dimensional dif-

The joining of dissimilar materials plays a critical role inadvanced manufacturing technology, since different propertiesare required within any particular application, the properties ofwhich cannot be obtained by a single material. Depending on themanufacture and operating function, different materials are usedfor individual elements of a machinery component or structureto achieve an optimum of economical manufacture and mechanicalproperties.

Friction welding is one such solid-state welding process widelyemployed in such situation. Main advantages of friction weldingare high material saving, low production time and possibility ofwelding of dissimilar metals or alloys. For example engine pistons,mainly for truck applications can be friction welded. In generalthere are two different types of material combinations-the firstbeing a combination of steel and aluminum and the second ductilecast iron with mild steel. For the past 50 years friction welding hasbeen used no only in the automotive industry but also in manyother heavy and light engineering applications. Typical examplesinclude electrical, hydraulic, tool and oil industry applications.

Many studies about the friction welding of dissimilar materialshave been conducted by various researchers:

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: +48 225 934 618.iniczenko), m.kaczorowski@

ferences in friction welding of AISI 1040 specimens. Next year,Sahin and Akata [2] conducted an experimental study on thefriction welding of medium carbon and austenitic stainless steelcomponents. Sahin [3] investigated the tensile strength of austen-itic-stainless steels friction welding joints. Sahin also studies [4]friction welding of medium-carbon steel and austenitic-stainleessteel componets. Sahin et al. [5] conducted an experimental studyon joining of serve plastic deformed aluminum materials with fric-tion welding method. Sahin [6] joined stainless steel and coppermaterials with friction welding. Sunay et al. [7] investigated the ef-fects of casting and forging processes on joint properties in frictionwelded AISI 1050 and AISI 304 steels. Taban et al. [8] joined alumi-num and AISI 1018 steel with friction welding. Arivazhagan et al.[9] investigated AISI 304 stainless steel to AISI 4140 low alloy steeldissimilar joints by friction welding. Özdemir et al. [10] investi-gated effect of rotational speed on the interface properties offriction-welded AISI 304L to steel. He found that tensile strengthof joints was markedly affected by joining rotational speed se-lected. Özdemir [11] have also observed that the width of the fullplastic deformed zone (FPDZ) has an important effect on thestrength of the friction welded samples. Sathiya et al. [12] joinedsimilar AISI 304/AISI 304 and AISI 430/AISI 430 with friction weld-ing. Their friction processed joints were subjected to mechanicaland metallurgical investigations. The mechanical properties andmicrostructure of friction welded joints between AISI 4140 andAISI 1050 steel was observed by Celik and Ersozlu [13]. The wereno cracks or blank spaces in optical and SEM observations. AhmadFauzi et al. [14] investigated the microstructure and mechanical

Table 1The chemical composition of materials (wt.%).

Material Alloying elements (wt.%)

C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mg Fe

60-45-12 3.50–3.90 2.25–3.0 0.30–0.45 0.012–0.05 0.004–0.022 0.03–0.2 0.02–0.15 0.041–0.105 BalanceAISI 321 0.08 max 0.8 max 2.0 max 0.045 max 0.030 max 17–19 9–12 – BalanceAISI 1010 0.08–0.13 0.05 max 0.30–0.60 0.04 max 0.050 max – – – Balance

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 1 2 3 4

Interlayers

Tens

ile s

treng

th (M

Pa) Stainless steel

Pure Iron Armco

Constructionalsteel; HP=UP=24 kN,FT=180 s

Fig. 2. Relationship between tensile strength and interlayers.

R. Winiczenko, M. Kaczorowski / Materials and Design 34 (2012) 444–451 445

properties al alumina-6061 aluminum alloy joined by frictionwelding. They observed that the microstructure of alumina–aluminum alloy friction welded joints revealed three different re-gions at the weld interface.

According to Crossland [15], friction welding is the ideal meth-od of joining dissimilar metals. In his opinion, this process is alsosuitable for materials, which can be welded with difficulty. Thus,ductile cast iron can be welded and also joined to other materialssuch as steels with high alloy-content. Friction welding is appliedfor welding low ductility materials because it causes crystal refine-ment, the pattern of heat flow is simple and high compressiveresidual stresses are involved on the surface of these joints. How-ever, there are also negative opinions, such as e.g. The AmericanWelding Society [16], and Lebedev and Chernenko [17] from PatonElectric Welding Institute who have concluded that the frictionwelding of ductile cast iron is not possible because graphite actsas a lubricant and prevents the generation of heat sufficient forjoining.

The structure of ductile cast iron is changed in the connection re-gion such that the mechanical properties of the parts which have

Fig. 1. Shape and size of specimens (unit-mm) before friction welding: (a)-friction welding of ductile cast iron to interlayer, (b)-friction welding of ductile cast iron to ductilecast iron by interlayer.

Fig. 3. Rupture points for sample: ductile cast iron–Armco pure iron with tensile strength TS = 712 MPa welded: (a)-fracture of surface, (b)-rupture of sample.

0100200300400500600700800

100 150 200 250

Friction time (s)

Tens

ile s

treng

th (M

Pa)

Pure Iron Armco

ConstructionalsteelStainless steelHF=UF=24 kN

Fig. 4. Relationship between friction time and tensile strength of variousinterlayers.

241274

705 700735

286

150

250

350

450

550

650

750

850

0 1 2 3 4

Matrix of ductile cast iron

Tens

ile s

treng

th (M

Pa) Bainite

matrix; HF=UF=24 kN ,FT=150 s

Ferritematrix;HF=UF=24 kN,FT=150 s

Fig. 5. Relationship between matrix of parent material and tensile strength inductile cast iron–pure Armco iron joints.

446 R. Winiczenko, M. Kaczorowski / Materials and Design 34 (2012) 444–451

been joined together are changed. Ductile cast iron–steel weldedjoints are particularly difficult to produce since carburization takesplace on the low-carbon side with carbide formation which resultsin the formation of a brittle hard zone which cannot be eliminatedby annealing.

On the other hand, there is positive news from the JapanNagoya University, whose workers hold that ductile cast iron canbe joined by friction welding without any special treatment suchas preheating and/or post heating treatment. According to Shinodaet al. [18], the tensile strength of friction-welded ferritic ductilecast iron exceeds 445 MPa.

In the literature, studies about friction welding of ductile castiron with different materials can also be met. Richter and Palzkill[19] conducted a study on the combination of constructional steeland spheroidal graphite cast iron. The authors concluded that in fric-tion welding combination of steel and graphite-containing cast ironaction of graphite from the cast iron on the weld must also be takeninto account, because this graphite builds up a lubrication layerwhich layer impedes generation of an intensive frictional forceand, consequently, development of heat. Later, Dette and Hirsch[20] joined steel and spheroidal cast iron with friction welding.According to authors the main advantage of using ductile cast ironis the saving of weight-specific gravity is 10% lower than that of stan-dard steel. In order to attain the best possible welding quality thecarbide content and alloying elements should be kept to a minimum.Michiura et al. [21] studied friction-welded of ductile cast iron pipes.The microstructure and mechanical properties of friction-welded ofductile cast iron was studied in papers [22,23]. Ogara et al. [24]examined the relationship between tensile strength characteristicsand the macrostructure of joint in friction-welded ductile cast iron.Ochi et al. [25] investigated the macrostructure and temperaturedistribution near the weld interface in the friction welding ofFC250 grade cast iron. Their highest tensile strengths in the solidjoints and pipe joints were respectively 317 MPa (79% jointefficiency) and 381 MPa (95% joint efficiency). Song et al. [26]investigated the strength distribution at the interface of rotary-fric-tion-welded aluminum to nodular cast iron. Nakamura et al. [27]investigated the influence of preheating temperature and weldingspeed in the light of the microstructure of joining zone used by fric-tion stir welding (FSW) between ductile cast irons and stainlesssteels.

As it is mentioned above, the main problem related to difficultiesmet during the friction welding of ductile cast iron is enormous highcarbon concentration. To overcome this, we put forward the idea,based on the introduction of any material(s) which would play a roleas a sink for carbon atoms and, in this way, would allow fordecreasing its concentration. It is obvious that these materials hadto ensure the high solubility of carbon in solid state. It follows fromthe above immediately that austenitic stainless steel would be thebest solution. This is, why we chose stainless steel. On the otherhand, the process of friction welding proceeds at the temperatureof 1100 �C or, locally, even higher. In this temperature and region,

pure iron exhibits FCC lattice which guarantees the maximum solu-bility in solid state solution. This statement prompts us to claim thatpure iron Armco could also be a good solution. However, pure ironArmco is not a commercial material, therefore, we decided to tryusing low carbon constructional steel.

The main goal of the investigations was to verify the possibilityof friction welding method for ductile cast iron joining. Moreover,we would like to take a closer look into metallurgical phenomena,accompanying the friction welding of ductile cast iron.

2. Experimental procedure

The chemical composition of test materials was selected for thestudy in Table 1. Ferritic and bainitic matrix of ductile cast iron was

R. Winiczenko, M. Kaczorowski / Materials and Design 34 (2012) 444–451 447

produced, using heat treatment method. Bars 20 mm in diameterand 100 mm length were the specimens for friction welding.

The surface for friction welding was prepared on the abrasivecut-off machine. The geometry of specimens used for friction weld-ing and details of experiment were presented in Fig. 1.

The friction welding of ductile cast iron specimens was carriedout, using AISI 321 stainless steel, pure Armco iron and AISI 1010steel as interface layers. The chemical composition interlayers se-lected for the study are listed in Table 1. The process of joiningwas carried out on the continuous drive friction machine of ZT-14

Material of friction welds Rotating axis side

Ductile cast iron + AISI 321; TS=225 MPa x 6,5 (a) and (b)

Ductile cast iron + pure iron Armco; TS=705 MPa x6,5-(a) x12,5-(b)

Ductile cast iron +AISI 1010 with TS=700 MPa x12

Fig. 6. The fracture of surface

type. Friction and a forged pressures used in experiment are in therange of 20–45 kN. The spindle rotating speed was kept constantat 2360 rpm. Because of graphite appearance, relative large frictiontime (FT) 120–240 s was applied. The tensile strength of the jointswas determined, using a conventional tensile test machine. More-over, the hardness across the interface was measured on a metallo-graphic specimen. The Vickers tester, using 5G load, was applied forthe hardness measurements. The microstructure of the joints wasexamined, using either light metallography as well as electronmicroscopy. In this case, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and

(a) Fixing axis side (b)

of ductile cast iron joints.

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Mic

roha

rdne

ss H

V 0,

5

2.5 mm

in axis

HF=UF=24 kNFT=180 s

Ductile cast iron Pure Armco iron

448 R. Winiczenko, M. Kaczorowski / Materials and Design 34 (2012) 444–451

transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were applied. The first onewas performed on a Jeol JSM-5400 scanning electron microscopeand the second one on a Philips EM300 transmission electron micro-scope operating at 100 kV accelerating voltage. The surfaces of spec-imens were observed in BEI COMPO microscope mode using BSE(Back Scattered Electrons). Thin-foil technique was applied for anTEM study. First 3 mm rods were cut perpendicularly to the joininginterface at the half-radius distance from the axis of joined speci-mens. Then, 0.1 mm disks were sliced from these rods, using a‘‘load-less’’ IF-07A wire saw. Finally, thin foils were thinned electro-chemically, using STRUERS automatic equipment.

0

50

-6,5 -4,5 -4 -3-1,75 -1 -0,2

1,45

Distance (mm)

Fig. 8. Hardness distributions of ductile cast iron–pure Armco iron friction weldedjoints.

3. The experimental results and discussion

During the friction welding of ductile cast iron, the metal micro-structure can be changed in the connection region. Firstly, thegraphite bodies act as a lubricant and therefore produce insuffi-cient heat of friction; secondly the microstructure is changed inthe connection region such that the mechanical properties of theparts which have been joined together are changed [18–20].

3.1. Tensile tests

Tensile test were applied after machining the weld flashes,formed during the friction welding process. The results of thetensile tests of the specimens prepared from the friction weldedcouples are given in Fig. 2.

As can be seen from Fig. 2, the results of the tensile strengthobtained for stainless steel interlayer are not satisfactory. Thesmall values of tensile strength equal 120 MPa and 270 MPa wereobtained for the ferritic of matrix ductile cast iron, whereas for thebainitic of matrix ductile cast iron the values are much higher, butthe tensile strength reached for pure iron Armco and construc-tional steel interlayers is the best. As a result of incomplete weld-ing for stainless steel interlayers, the welded bars show lowertensile strength compared to their parent bars. The tensile strengthof the ductile cast iron reached 320 and 735 MPa. The welded spec-imens, on the other hand, had the tensile strengths of 730 MPa.

The most impressing result obtained was that the fracture startedbehind and not at the interface (Fig. 3). It proves that joint strength is

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

-5,7-4,55 -3,35 -2,15 -0,95 0.1

51.5

53.0

5

Distance (mm)

Mic

roha

rdne

ss H

V 0,

5

2.5 mm

center

HF=UF=24 kNFT=180 s

Ductile cast iron Stainless steel

Fig. 7. Hardness distributions of ductile cast iron–stainless steel friction weldedjoints.

higher than that of the parent material. It should be emphasized thatthe tensile strength for ductile cast iron joints equals 700 MPa andhigher than mentioned as received in literature [18–20].

The effect of friction time (FT) on tensile strength (TS) of variousinterlayers is presented in Fig. 4. The samples were welded byconstant heating and upsetting axial force (UF). Friction time waschanged from 150 to 240 s. As can be observed from the diagram,the joints strength increase with increasing time for ductile castiron–stainless steel joints.

According to the literature [30] when joining cast materials tosteel, the graphite present in the friction plane largely preventsthe heat development necessary for bond formation at the adjoin-ing surfaces. For this reason, long friction times as well as relativelylow friction and up-setting forces should be employed.

However, for other welded joints such a relationship betweenfriction time and tensile strength does not exist.

The effect of matrix of ductile cast iron on the tensile strength ofwelded joints was presented in Fig. 5. The samples were welded byconstant welding parameters. As can be observed from the dia-gram, the joints strength increase with the bainite matrix of parentmaterial and tensile strength decrease with ferrite matrix for duc-tile cast iron–pure Armco iron joints.

Fig. 9. Chromium carbides located at the grain boundaries in austenitic steel at thedistance of 2.5 mm from the ductile cast iron–stainless steel interface.

Fig. 10. Electron diffraction pattern illustrating the spots from Cr23C6 type carbides (b) and dark field micrograph obtained using the matrix spot (a); at distance of 0.12 mmfrom the interface. Magnification 120,000�.

Fig. 11. TEM micrograph showing the microstructure in stainless steel area at different distances from the ductile cast iron–stainless steel interface: (a) dislocation loops andstacking faults at distance of 0.12 mm, (b) the carbides at subgrain boundary.

R. Winiczenko, M. Kaczorowski / Materials and Design 34 (2012) 444–451 449

3.2. The fracture-surface investigation

The fracture surfaces of the interface after tensile test are shownin Fig. 6. It can be clearly seen that the shining region near theperiphery is not involved in the bonding. The incomplete bondingwas detected at the periphery region of weldment, as shown inFig. 6a. The low rotational speed and axial load led to this incom-plete bond. This observation is similar to that reported by Vill[28]. Optimal rotational speed and axial road will be able to gener-ate sufficient frictional heat flux during the process which will leadto the plasticizing of the interface. Both the rotating and fixed sideshow concentric wear marks on their circumference. Although thecenter is only slightly worn, the wear marks retained intact. InFig. 6b of weld metal fracture, an unwelded region was found nearthe center of the joint. The middle portion of the friction weldmentis directly involved in the bonding and the fracture region mayvary from smoother to rougher areas. The spiralling marks showthat the bond is formed through the rotational friction under theinfluence of axial load. In the case of base metal fracture specimens(Fig. 6b), no such unwelded interface regions can be observed.

3.3. Hardness measurements

Hardness measurements and the examination of metallurgicalstructures appearing at the given stage provided information onheat distribution and the structures produced by heating anddeformation. The Vickers microhardness distributions in

specimens on the both sides of the weld interface are shown inFigs. 7 and 8. The measurements were made both in the centralaxis and along the line located 2.5 mm from the periphery(surface).

As could be expected, the hardness reaches the maximum closeto the interface and decreases very rapidly in the stainless steelarea (Fig. 7). Contrary to this, the decrease in hardness in ductilecast iron is much slower and exhibits some kind of plateau. Thisplateau extends to 5 or 8 mm from the interface, depends on loca-tion of hardness measurements and reaches the value of 200 HV,which is typical of the parent material.

Hardness value obtained in the weld zone of ductile cast iron–pure iron joints was much higher than the hardness of the parentmaterial (Fig. 8). The reason of this increase in hardness at the weldzone was the creation of large amounts carbides and other solidstate reaction products. Kaczorowski and Winiczenko [22]reported this fact. The increasing hardness in the welding interfaceis directly associated with microstructure formed in the weldinginterface as a results of the degree of the heat input and plasticdeformation [11].

The results of microstructures of friction welded joined at HAZare described below.

3.4. Structure investigations

The results of structure investigations reported in the paper areconcentrated on one aspect only. Their aim is to explain, why the

Fig. 12. The TEM structure in ductile cast iron at the distances of 0.28 mm from the ductile cast iron–stainless steel interface: (a) fine carbides inside ferrite lamellas inpearlite in the region of 0.28 mm from the interface, (b) selected area diffraction pattern.

450 R. Winiczenko, M. Kaczorowski / Materials and Design 34 (2012) 444–451

tensile strength properties of ductile cast iron–stainless steel jointsare considerably lower with respect to ductile cast iron with pureArmco iron or low carbon steel.

Fig. 9 shows an example of the structure of stainless steel closeto the joining interface observed in SEM. The grain boundariesdecorated with the carbides can be observed. The carbides have anegative influence on the properties of stainless steel. They de-crease the tensile properties of joints and cause the intercrystallinecorrosion and finally corrosion cracking. As follows from the anal-ysis of many selected area diffraction (SAD), these carbides aremostly of Cr23C6 type (Fig. 10). This fact has already been docu-mented in literature [22,23].

Thin foils TEM observations showed (Fig. 11) some effect of theload, assisting the process of friction welding. As a result of plasticdeformation of stacking faults, dislocation loops were formed.Fig. 11a shows some dislocation trapped at small precipitatesand/or at subgrain boundary. The next Fig. 11b showed dark fieldelectron micrograph and the Moire’s contrast [29].

The diffusion of carbon atoms from ductile iron into steel acrossthe interface is a concurrent process. Diffusion processes occurringduring friction welding has already been mentioned in earlier liter-ature [1,18–20]. In case of stainless steel the diffusion of carboncreated chromium carbides, located mostly at the grain or subgrainboundaries [23]. In case of almost pure iron or low carbon con-structional steel, it led to the enrichment of it in carbon only. Thisresulted in formation of pearlite layer in some region of steel adja-cent to interface (Fig. 12).

Contrary to this, in case of ductile cast iron–austenite steeljoints, two streams of diffusion and their influence on the structureshould be considered. The diffusion of carbon through the interfaceinto stainless steel is the first process. It leads to the forming ofchromium carbides of different size. The large chromium carbideslocated at the grain boundaries because they form preferred nucle-ation sites and because the grain boundaries supply the ways foreasy diffusion. Thus, the ductile iron–stainless steel system ismuch more complicated than ductile cast iron–pure iron Armcoor ductile cast iron–low carbon steel where iron carbides formsonly and the diffusion is easier.

4. Conclusions

� The basic aim of studies presented in the paper was to find theoptimum structure of the system providing the best result forductile cast iron of friction welding process. The most importantresult, from the engineering point of view, is the elaboration ofthe method which allows for producing welds with tensile

strength compared to that of basic material. In case of ductilecast iron with bainitic of matrix–pure Armco iron or low con-structional steel interlayers, it is possible to reach the tensilestrength equal even 700 MPa.� The results of the study showed that the process of ductile cast

iron friction welding is accompanied by high plastic deforma-tion and diffusion processes. Although the duration of diffusionis relatively short, the rate of diffusion is high enough to permittravelling of carbon atoms into material of low carbon concen-tration. In case of stainless steel, the diffusion of carbon causedforming of chromium carbides, located mostly at the grain orsubgrain boundaries.

Acknowledgment

This work was supported by the Commity of Scientific Investi-gation under Grant 7T08B05519. The authors wish also to thankprofessors Eugeniusz Ranatowski and Stanislaw Dymski from Fac-ulty of Mechanics of Bydgoszcz Technical University (Poland) fortheir valuable suggestions.

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