MASTER’S PROGRAMME IN URBAN MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

(October 2004 – September 2005)

Institutional Capacity to Supply Water and Sanitation Services in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania: A Challenge to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals in Reducing Poverty

Gombo Samandito Tanzania

Supervisor: Jan Fransen

UMD 1 Rotterdam,

12 September 2005

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DEDICATION

To my uncle (Baba mkubwa), the late Samandito Ntunganija Gombo

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DECLARATION

I Gombo Samandito Gombo declare that this thesis is a result of my own efforts and findings, and that to the best of my knowledge it has not been presented as a dissertation for any professional award in any institution of higher learning and or any paper or book anywhere in the world. So any shortcomings or criticism against this dissertation remain my own responsibility. My supervisor is not in anyway answerable in this dissertation.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My first thanks goes to Jan Fransen my supervisor who has been tirelessly giving me moral help, directives, comments and critical reading of the text. Without his assistance the work would have not been conducted well to look as it is now. I give sincere thanks also to the members of IHS staff for their criticism and nice comments they made during presentation. All these offered a good collective shaping of my dissertation. With no doubt, I am extending my thanks to staffs in different institutions I happened to interview in the city of Dar es Salaam. Included in this list are J.L Chidosa (DAWASCO), Abel Bimbiga and Daudi Makamba (Plan International Dar es Salaam), Mrs. Malima (Water Aid Tanzania), Pitio (WATSANET secretary), Eng. Nyakoro (DAWASCO), Alex Poteka of Moshi municipality and Mboya (Health Officer-Ilala). Since I can not thank all people who contributed to my work, I generally thank all those who have contributed in one way or another to the completion of my dissertation

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ABSTRACT

Dar es Salaam, the single largest city in Tanzania with the population more than 2.5 million, is growing very fast compared to other cities in the country. One feature of the city is shortage of water and sanitation services which is revealed by young men pushing wheelbarrows with water jerry cans seen on their way through congested traffic, women carrying buckets of water on their heads as they shuttle across the city to and from water points and water tankers sell it to the needy. The city has never witnessed clean water leading the ministry of health to advice people to boil their water before use. Sanitation is even worse since only 10% of the population is served by a sewer, the rest use either on or offsite pit latrines. Low capacity of institutions is an important reason for water shortage and poor sanitation. The capacity of these institutional is reduced by a number of factors, including shortage of funds, poor performance, lack of coordination, poor management practices, poor governance, rapid population growth and lack of organizing capacity. This study assesses the extent of institutional capacity in the city. Attention is paid to know what is really lacking in the actors concerned. The institutional capacity is assessed based on the theory developed by Jerry van Sant that focuses on three aspects. These aspects are institutional resources, institutional performance and institutional sustainability. Case studies are drawn from a broad range of institutions. Included are Ministry of Water, public agencies like Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority and Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation, private companies, Community Based Organisations, Non-Governmental Organisations, municipalities, academic institutions, religious organizations and informal operators. These institutions only supply water at the rate of less than 50% of the total need. According to Household Water Source and Use Survey in July 2005, Dar es Salaam municipalities (Temeke, Ilala and Kinondoni), the main actors in this case, Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority and Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation supply water below 10% of the total need, and they are able to give out sewerage services below 10%. According to the theory used to assess the capacity of institutions, the weaknesses of these institutions in Dar es Salaam is mainly in performance, followed by resources and lastly sustainability, and it is more evident in areas of governance, networking and coordination, program results where they normally don’t reach targets, finance, leadership and organisational learning. These institutions have strengths that can be used to improve the situation. These are availability of qualified staff especially in public agencies, readily available donors like the World Bank and IDA, political support and good policy environment. Institutions are far away from meeting Millennium Development Goals in 2015 unless there is an investment in institutional capacity building in the weak areas of actors. Institutions are able to meet targets if facilitated; the economy of the country performs well, and in the Tanzanian context of the National Development Vision of 2025, instead of the 2015 as stated in Millennium Development Goals.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION....................................................................................................................... i DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ iv ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. viii LIST OF IMAGES ............................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF CHARTS............................................................................................................... ix LIST OF ANNEXES ............................................................................................................ ix CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH METHODS ............................................................. 1 1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Background/Rationale ............................................................................................. 2 1.3. Definition/Statement of the problem......................................................................... 2 1.4. Objectives .............................................................................................................. 3 1.5. Research Question .................................................................................................. 3 1.6. Scope of the study ................................................................................................... 4 1.7. Description of the research area ............................................................................... 4 1.8. Research Methodology ............................................................................................ 4 1.8.1. Observation ......................................................................................................... 4 1.8.2. Individual interview.............................................................................................. 4 1.8.3. Expert panels ....................................................................................................... 4 1.8.4. Reading of official reports, documents and literature review.................................... 5 1.9. Thesis Structure ...................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................... 6 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................................... 6

2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 6 2.2. Water supply and sanitation and poverty reduction .................................................... 7 2.3. Partnership ............................................................................................................. 8 2.3.1. Directed Public Management ................................................................................ 8 2.3.2. Corporate utilities................................................................................................. 9 2.3.3. Delegated private management: The French Model................................................. 9 2.3.4. Direct private management: The British Model ...................................................... 9 2.3.5. Public Water PLCs (Public Limited Company)....................................................... 9 2.4. Capacity of an institution; determinants and Indicators ............................................ 10 2.4.1. Culture .............................................................................................................. 10 2.4.2. Political environment.......................................................................................... 11 2.4.3. Legal framework/ regulatory environment............................................................ 11 2.4.4. Leadership of the organization ............................................................................ 11 2.4.5. Structure of the organization ............................................................................... 12 2.4.6. Organizing capacity............................................................................................ 12 2.5. Institutional assessment ......................................................................................... 12 2.6. Assessing institutional capacity: Theory and criteria................................................ 13

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2.7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 15

CURRENT SITUATION OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION............................... 15 3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 15 3.2. Water supply-piped ............................................................................................... 15 3.3. Water supply-wells ............................................................................................... 20 3.4. Sanitation ............................................................................................................. 23 3.5. Ongoing initiatives to improve water supply and sanitation services in Dar es Salaam 26 3.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 27

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 28 THE CAPACITY OF INSTITUTIONS TO PROVIDE WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION SERVICES .............................................................................................. 28

4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 28 4.2. Actors involved in water supply and sanitation........................................................ 28 4.3. Institutional Resources .......................................................................................... 30 4.4. Institutional Performance....................................................................................... 36 4.5. Institutional Sustainability ..................................................................................... 42 4.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 45

CHAPTER FIVE................................................................................................................. 46 FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS........................................... 46

5.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 46 5.2. Findings ............................................................................................................... 46 5.3. Recommendations................................................................................................. 47 5.4. Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 48

REFERENCE...................................................................................................................... 49 ANNEXES ......................................................................................................................... 51

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ABBREVIATIONS

CBO: Community Based Organisations CHRO: Chief Human Resources Officer CL: Community Leaders CWC: Community Water Committee DAWASA: Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority DAWASCO: Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation DCC: Dar es Salaam City Council DOCA: New Directions in Organizational Capacity Building GIS: Geographical Information System IHS: Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies IBRD: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ICT: Information and Communication Technology IDA: International Development Association IDF: Institutional Development Framework IDRC: International Development Research Centre-Canada IMF: International Monetary Fund ISA: Institutional Strength Assessment ISR: Institutional Self Reliance MDG: Millennium Development Goals NDWP: Non-Delegated Works Program NGO: Non-Governmental Organization NPES: National Poverty Eradication Strategy NUWA: National Water Urban Authority OCAT: Organizational Assessment Capacity Tool OCI: Organizational Capacity Indicator PLC: Public Limited Company PPI: Private Participation in Infrastructure () PWP: Priority Works Program TANESCO: Tanzania Electricity Supply Company TTAP: Training and Technical Assistance Plan UCLAS: University College of Lands and Architectural Studies UFW: Unaccounted-For Water UNDP: United Nations Development Programme UNICEF: United Nations Children's Fund URT: United Republic of Tanzania WATSANET: Water and Sanitation Network in Tanzania

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Comparison of water supply in developing countries: Nairobi (Kenya) and Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) 7

Table 2: Aspects of institutional capacity to be assessed 13 Table 3. Piped water in Dar es Salaam 16 Table.4. Water demand as per Kinondoni Municipal data 17 Table.5. Water demand per day at 120 liters requirement per day per person 17 Table 6. A summary of deep and shallow wells in the city of Dar es Salaam 21 Table. 7. Funds for the implementation of DAWAS projects in 2005(USD) 27 Table. 8 Capacity of institutions as regards to legal structure and governance 31 Table. 9 Capacity of institutions as regards to human resources 32 Table. 10 Capacity of institutions according to Management Systems and

Practices 34 Table 11: Capacity of institutions in terms of finance 35 Table. 12. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional resources 36 Table. 13 Capacity of institutions in terms of services delivery 37 Table. 14 Capacity in terms of networking 38 Table. 15; Capacity of institutions in terms of application of technical knowledge 39 Table.16; Capacity of institutions in terms of constituency empowerment 40 Table.17; Capacity of institutions in terms of organisational culture 41 Table. 18. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional performance 42 Table.19; Capacity of institutions in terms of organizational autonomy 43 Table.20; Capacity of institutions in terms of leadership 43 Table.21 Capacity of institutions in terms of organizational learning 44 Table. 22. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional resources 45 Table. 23. Summary of institutional capacity 45 Table. 24. Summary of average institutional capacity (last column) 47

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LIST OF IMAGES

Image 1. Leakage in Dar es salaam-Makumbusho area 19 Image 2. Shallow well in Buguruni 21 Image. 3 Religious deep well in Makumbusho-Kinondoni 21 Image 4. Shallow well in Mbagalla 21 Image 5. Deep well by Plan International and Shallow well owned privately 22 Image 6. Lorry tankers for clean water at Makumbusho-Kinondoni 23 Image 7. Different toilets constructed by different institutions in Ilala 24 Image. 8: Lorry tanker for emptying septic tanks (scavengers) 25 Image 9: Offsite septic tank 25 Image 10: Leaking sewerage systems 25 Image 11: Imrovement project in Dar es salaam funded by the World Bank 26

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Percentage of loss and billed water 18 Figure 2. The water loss chain of Dar es Salaam 19 Figure. 3: Actors and their network in the sector of water supply and sanitation

In Dar es salaam 39

LIST OF CHARTS

Chart 1. Main source of water in Dar es Salaam 16 Chart 2. Time spent to a nearest water source 20

LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex 1. Institutional Capacity Assessment Models 51 Annex 2. The Contract between the government and City Water Services in 2003 54 Annex 3. Termination of contract with City Water Services 55 Annex 4. Complaints about water shortage in the city 56 Annex 5. Institutions and their capacities to supply water and sanitation services

in Dar es salaam 58 Annex 6. Specific findings and recommendations 60

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH METHODS

1.1. Introduction

Tanzania has been struggling to eradicate poverty since independence in 1961. The first phase of government declared three enemies of the nation. These are poverty, ignorance and diseases. Tanzania had many strategic actions in combating poverty, ignorance and diseases trough programmes in education, health, water supply, roads and transportation and appropriate technologies in agriculture (A. Mwaiselage &T. Mponzi 1999). The policy directions and programmes between 1961 to early 1970s, though not explicit and not very successful, were actions for economic development and poverty eradication. In 1981 an effort was made to address poverty and its alleviation which resulted in the National Policy on Productivity, Incomes and Prices becoming operational. In 1990s, the government declared war on poverty and established a Poverty Eradication Programme under the Vice President’s Office. Such Strategies are like The Tanzania Development Vision 2025(1995), The Poverty Eradication Initiative Programme (1996), The National Poverty Eradication Strategy (1998) and Declaration on Poverty Eradication in Tanzania, (1998). All these programmes have the primary aim of eradicating poverty as one of the enemies of Tanzania. This report will concentrate on water supply and sanitation as an indicator of non-income poverty and more attention will be put in the city of Dar es Salaam, home to 2.51 million people. The general objective of The National Poverty Eradication Strategy (NPES) (1998) is “To provide a framework to guide poverty eradication initiatives in order to reduce absolute poverty by 50% by the year 2010 and eradicate absolute poverty by the year 2025.” This objective would be achieved by coordinating mechanisms, creation of enabling environment, empowering poor to participate effectively, ensuring full participation of women and providing equality of opportunity for men and women in all activities of poverty eradication. The government’s move to improve the situation follows the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 that specified the targets of the “Millennium Development Goals on poverty reduction, specifically on water supply and sanitation. The MDGs goals are:-halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and halve by 2015 the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation (Aldo B.and Peter R. 2005). As regards to water supply and sanitation, NPES has specific objectives which are:-increasing access to water up to a coverage of 90% within distance of 400 meters and increasing access to sanitary services particularly to urban dwellers by at least 50% of current status (URT 1998). However, the 2002/03 report on the performance of the National Poverty Eradication Strategy shows that the rate of improvement is unlikely to reach targets.

The implementation of MDGs and NPES goals on water supply and sanitation system depend much on the capacity of institutions concerned to organise resources and coordination of different stakeholders to reach the goals set. It is possible that the goals are too ambitious and unachievable in practice in relation to local institutional capacity in providing water supply and sanitation services.

1 According to 2002 National Census Report

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1.2. Background/Rationale

National wide, only about 70% of the urban population has access to reliable water supply (URT 2001). This is not to speak of the quality of water, which in most case is poor (Lerise and Kyessi 2002). Most people who use piped water and can afford it routinely boil the water before use as the safety of water is dubious (URT 2002:40). Specifically to the study area in Dar es Salaam city, Lerise and Kyessi (2002) say that households which have to cover more than six kilometers in the dry season are on the increase. As regards to sanitation in Dar es Salaam, only 6% of population use sewer and 80% use pit latrines (Lerise and Kyessi citing URT 1995:40) Water Supply and Sanitation in Dar es Salaam has been a government responsibility since independence in 1961 up to early 2000s. The government established agencies to deal with the issue. The Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (DAWASA) was established in 1997 to provide the services. In its operation, DAWASA was not efficient and effective as people could go without water and sanitary services. Water Aid Tanzania says DAWASA proved failure. The water system had failed to keep up with the population growth in the city. By 2003, only 98,000 households in a city of 2.5 million people had a direct water connection. Through the advice of World Bank and IMF, it was observed that DAWASA has failed to deliver services hence it has to be privatized. What are being privatised under a 10 year lease contract are the billing, tariff collection, operation and routine maintenance. The rehabilitation and development of the whole system will remain the responsibility of DAWASA. City Water, a joint venture of BiWater (UK), Gauff (Germany), and Superdoll (Tanzania) took over in August 1, 2003. City Water was expected to improve the services. Unfortunately, since City Water took over, water tariffs have increased, but water quality has not improved (Water Aid Tanzania). On 13th May 2005, the government of Tanzania has suspended the contract with City Water Company to supply water in Dar es Salaam, and on the same month, it has established a public company called Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation (DAWASCO), to replace City Water. (see annex 2 &3)

1.3. Definition/Statement of the problem

Low capacity of institutions is an important reason for water shortage, and water shortage remains a big problem to the poor, and a challenge to institutions concerned. The conflict between multiple agencies having divided authorities and working under conflicting policies, shortage of funds, leakage and rapid population growth contribute to shortage to a great extent. Taking into account the water supply and sanitation situation in Dar es Salaam, the capacity of institutions is questionable, hence calls forth a need for assessment to know what is really lacking in the actors concerned, and try to concentrate more on how to improve capacity so that they are able to meet goals. The city of Dar es Salaam with a population of 2.5 million people and the growth rate of 7%, needs 410,000m/day, the current production of water is 273000m3/day and a loss of 60%, the water deficit is about 137,000m3/day. Unaccountable for water of 60% daily is due to leakage caused by lack of maintenance, illegal connections and unregistered customers (Mashauri, 1999). DAWASCO figures in July 2005 about water supply shows that the city needs about 400,000m3/day, production is 280,000m3/day, deficit is 120,000m3/day while leakage is 55%.

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City Water System company admitted that water rationing is currently in force across large parts of the sprawling city. Only about 30 percent of 100,000 registered City Water customers receive water seven days a week, 20 percent get water for three days or fewer a week, and the rest get none from the water pipes at all The shortage of water is evident. On any given day, young men pushing wheelbarrows stacked high with 20-litre water jerry cans can be seen weaving their way through congested traffic. Another common sight is that of women carrying buckets of water on their heads as they shuttle across the city to and from water points. And, at various corners around the city, water tankers sell it to the needy. (http://www.warmafrica.com/index/geo/13/cat/). A 20 litre (four gallons) jerry can from one of these sellers costs 100 Tanzania shilling (US 10 cents) or more. (Mashauri, 1999). “City Water says the "street price" is more than 10 times what they charge through the pipes According to the World Bank, it is common for 5-20 percent of household income to go on water and sanitation when provision is very inadequate. Another 5-10% going on health care or income lost to water-related illnesses. If the family needs six jerry cans a day, it means he has to pay US 60 cents, and the same poor person is supposed to live less than one dollar a day. One can imagine the share of the income left for other requirements. Water shortage in Dar es Salaam accounts for serious poverty among poor people in the city. So what is the capacity of institutions responsible for water supply in the city to attain the goal of supplying water to the poor to about 90% in 2010? Problem is often not ‘inadequate income’ or lack of ‘effective demand’ but incapacity of public or private enterprises to provide ‘efficient’ solutions In this case, it seems the capacity of institutions (private company, DAWASA as government agency, NGOs, CBOs and informal operators) to supply water and sanitation services is questionable. They are not able to deliver. The research assesses the capacity of these institutions and suggests the way to improve the services to reduce poverty among the poor through water supply and sanitation.

1.4. Objectives

The general objective of the study is to assess the capacity of institutions to supply water and sanitation services in terms of resources, performance and their sustainability. The specific objectives are:- • To assess the extent of availability of institutional resources necessary in the sector • To assess the extent of service provision through indicators of performance. • To know the sustainability of water supply and sanitation services in the city. • To give out suggestions on how to improve services delivery.

1.5. Research Question

• What are the resources available for provision of water supply and sanitation? • What is the performance of institutions in provision of water supply and sanitation? • What is the sustainability of water supply and sanitation services in the city? • How can services of water supply and sanitation be improved?

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1.6. Scope of the study

The study concentrates on the institutions concerned with water supply and sanitation. In this case, private companies, DAWASA, Dar es Salaam City Council and the three municipalities of Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke, the Ministry of Water, NGOs, CBOs and informal operators are taken into account.

1.7. Description of the research area

The research area is Dar es Salaam city. This includes the three municipalities of Temeke, Ilala and Kinondoni. The area has a population of 2.5 million people and about 70% of them live in unplanned settlement with poor sanitary facilities and shortage of safe drinking water.

1.8. Research Methodology

This assessment study is qualitative research and used more than one technique to capture valuable information. Primary and secondary data is used. One technique can not capture all information required to come out with a good conclusion and recommendations. The respondents are the actors such as government agencies (DAWASA), private companies, NGOs, CBOs, informal operators, the three municipalities (Ilala, Temeke and Kinondoni) and international organisations such as Plan International, Action Aid and Water Aid. However, the information gathered is concerned with the capacity of these institutions in terms of resources, performance, and sustainability. Here, the type of information is related to the indicators of low capacity in service delivery. The techniques used are as follows:-

1.8.1. Observation

This took place around the city to see the conditions of water and sanitation infrastructure. Indicators like leakage, sewerage overflows, private and informal selling of water, long waiting queue in water kiosks, types of water sources and their location are observed. This deals basically with some indicators of performance.

1.8.2. Individual interview

With this technique, qualitative opinions from heads of departments, directors, heads of NGOs, CBOs, in their institutions and heads of private companies are obtained. Also individual informal operators are the target for interview. Out of 12 institutions visited in the study, 31 respondents were interviewed. These distinguished individuals give out their feelings, facts and figures as regards to performance, resources and sustainability of their institutions. The interview took a form of guided questions and informal conversations in the issue. This technique was limited to a certain extent by shortage of time, availability of interviewees and some were not willing to cooperate fully in the exercise due to reasons best known to them.

1.8.3. Expert panels

Assessing institutional capacity is a complex issue. It needs people with high knowledge on the issue and well acquainted with experience. These experts have done research and implemented activities as regards to water supply and sanitation. They were able to say if institutions have the capacity to supply water and sanitation services as a means to reduce poverty. Experts examined

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the weakness and challenges hindering effective services delivery. In the field work, it was not possible to conduct expert panel discussion due to respondents being not available at one time, and then an individual interview was done. They were able to suggest ways for improvement.

1.8.4. Reading of official reports, documents and literature review

This includes reviewing of official documents on actor’s activities, their targets, achievements and problems. Indicators of institutional capacity were extracted also from these reports. The limitation of this technique was difficulties to get reports, as some are still in preparation. Also the study extensively used literatures to know what other scholars say about institutional capacity, and this information is extracted from readers given at IHS, Erasmus University and the internet.

1.9. Thesis Structure

This thesis is comprises of five chapters. The first chapter gives the background, outlines research issues and methodology. The second chapter is concentrating on the overview of institutional capacity as a whole, the factors behind capacity, and models of assessment. It is in this chapter where the guidelines for assessing institutional capacity in Dar es Salaam are drawn. The institutional capacity and water supply and sanitation situational analysis is dealt with in chapter three and four. Here, information gathered is synthesised to give out meaning, and the capacity of institutions in Dar es Salaam to meet policy targets of providing water supply and sanitation services especially to the poor. Finally, chapter five summarizes the findings, draw key conclusion and give recommendations.

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CHAPTER TWO

THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

2.1. Introduction

Water supply is essential for growth, as well as for social well-being. It is probably the most difficult of all infrastructure services to substitute, and its absence or deficiency represents a particular burden on the poor. In the developing world, 2 out of every 10 people lack access to a safe water supply, and 5 out of 10 have inadequate sanitation. This means that worldwide, more than 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water, and roughly 2.4 billion are without adequate sanitation. Yet even these estimates understate the extent of the access gap. Service is poor, even in many countries that have water supply systems. For many consumers, piped water is often intermittent, and, when available, it is unsafe for drinking. In addition, sanitation facilities are often inadequate, overloaded, in disrepair, or unused. To improve the situation, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 specified the targets of the Millennium Development Goals, which aim to reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015. (Aldo Baietti and Peter Raymond 2005). However, success of MDGs would mean strong institutions, well equipped with all the means to achieve the objectives both internationally and locally. UNICEF estimates that at least 600 million people, 40% of the present urban population of less developed countries live in housing that is so crowded, of such poor quality and with such inadequate provision for water, sanitation, drainage and rubbish collection that their lives and their health are continually at risk (Kevin Taylor and Jonathan Parkinson 2000). This is more evident in developing countries and Sub-Saharan Africa the worst hit area. Problems result from the use of inappropriate technology. They may also be due to poor operation and maintenance and the fact that the facilities provided are insufficient to meet the needs of the population that they are intended to serve. The result is that the absolute number of people without access to adequate sanitation continues to grow in many countries and regions (Kevin TAYLOR and Jonathan Parkinson 2000). Brilhante, O. 2003, puts it clear that “the deliverance of infrastructure services should be done through institutions that have the capacity to provide services effectively. Inadequate institutional development has been at the centre of most unsatisfactory services delivery results. Weak institutions might refer to both the services delivery agencies and the overall institutional framework in which services are delivered. Problems in services delivery agencies include inadequate financial and managerial capabilities, failure to define goals of the government or agency, poor commitment to success, and poor personnel policies. The environment in which services delivery operate may be poor because of deficient regulatory and legal systems or donor policies that conflict with the agencies”. Examples of this lack of institutional capacity is given in two East African Largest cities of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) and Nairobi (Kenya)

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Table 1. Comparison of water supply in developing countries: Nairobi (Kenya) and Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) Dar es Salaam Nairobi The city of Dar es Salaam with a population of 2.5 million people and the growth rate of 7%, needs 410,000m/day, the current production of water is 273000m/day and a loss of 60%, the water deficit is about 137,000m3/day. Unaccountable for water of 60% daily is due to leakage caused by lack of maintenance, illegal connections and unregistered customers (Mashauri, 1999). From a survey of 660 households drawn from all income levels in 1986-87, 47 % had no piped water supply either inside or immediately outside their houses while 32% had a shared piped water supply. Of the households without piped water, 67% bought water from neighbours while 26% drew water from public water kiosks or standpipes. The average water consumption was only 23.6 litres a day. Of all the 660 households, 89% had simple pit latrines (and most of Dar es Salaam continues to rely on pit latrines). Only 4.5% had toilets connected to septic tanks or sewers. Most households have to share sanitary facilities. Overflowing latrines are a serious problem, especially in the rainy season and provision to empty septic tanks or latrines is very inadequate. (Kulaba 1989). “In some instances, newly installed pumps were stolen within weeks of being installed. Pit latrines were the only form of sanitation”(CARE Tanzania 1998)

In Nairobi, the capital city with a population of about 2.3 million in 2003, service is provided by the Water and Sewerage Department of the Nairobi City Council. Nairobi has an installed production capacity of 420,000 cubic meters per day and 182,295 legal connections, of which 164,000 are domestic connections; often, water from a single connection is shared by multiple households. Although the production capacity is large and theoretically sufficient to meet demand, total water available for actual sale and use is significantly lower unaccounted-for water (UFW) in the system is estimated to be about 50 percent. The UFW is attributable to both technical losses (leakages, especially in older pipes) and commercial losses (unbilled and uncollected revenues and theft). (Sumila Gulyani, Debabrata Talukdar, and R. Mukami Kariuki 2005) A report in 1994 described how 55% of Nairobi’s population lived in informal settlements which are squeezed on to less than 6% of the city’s land area. Only 12% of plots in these settlements have piped supplies. Most people have to obtain water from kiosks. Water shortages are common; a survey found that 80% of households complained of water shortages and pipes often running dry. With regard to sanitation, this same survey suggests that 94% of inhabitants of the informal settlements do not have access to adequate sanitation. Only a minority of dwellings have toilets. (Alder 1995)

Source: Field survey 2005 From the above table, these two cities show inadequacy in water supply and sanitation facilities. The institutions that have the obligation to give the services are not capable of reaching targets posing a challenge to researchers to know their capacity to implement policies and meet goals and objectives especially of reducing the burden of poverty from the poor who can not access the services.

2.2. Water supply and sanitation and poverty reduction

Access to at least minimal infrastructure services is one of the essential criteria for defining welfare. To a great extent, the poor can be identified as “those who are unable to consume a basic quantity of clean water and who are subject to unsanitary surroundings, with extremely limited mobility or communications beyond their immediate settlement (World Bank 1994). Literature describes images of the rich and connected households often wasting water liberally for gardening, washing of cars, and water for swimming pools. The poor, by contrast, are not connected, have to buy water by the bucket, and pay exorbitant prices (Fass 1988, Whittington and others 1991, World Bank Water Demand Research Team 1993, Crane 1994). The outcome,

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as mentioned earlier, is that the poor consume far less and pay far more per unit of water relative to their rich and connected counterparts. (Sumila Gulyani, Debabrata Talukdar, and R. Mukami Kariuki 2005). In Dar es Salaam, rich areas of Oysterbay and Msasani enjoy the presence of water almost 24 hours a day while in poor unplanned settlement spend even their last coin for purchase of unreliable and unhealthy water. Access to clean water and sanitation has the most obvious and direct consumption benefits in reducing mortality and morbidity. It can also affect the productive capacity of the poor and can affect men and women differently. The poor women in particular must commit large shares of their income or time to obtaining water. This time could otherwise be devoted to important domestic duties, such as childcare or to income earning activities (Brilhante, O. 2003). The construction and maintenance of water works contribute to poverty reduction by providing direct employment. Infrastructure also offers the opportunity to reduce poverty through health improvements. “Unsafe or inadequate water and sanitation are estimated to account for 80% of illness and 50% of hospitalisation in developing countries” (Brilhante, O. 2003). Improving water and sanitation can allow workers to produce more during their work hours and to work longer hours. These changes can translate into higher incomes as wage rates rise and more paid hours are worked.

2.3. Partnership

According to the World Bank’s Private Participation in Infrastructure (PPI) database, the water sector received only 5 percent of total private investment in infrastructure between 1990 and 2002. It has thus been a particularly difficult sector for attracting sorely needed private capital, operational skills, and management expertise. The main reason is that the water sector is subject to a number of specific risks, which do not affect the other infrastructure sectors or affect them to a lesser degree. These risks include high capital intensity, political pressure on tariffs, a frequently held conviction of water as a “free” good, deficient regulation, sub sovereign risk and lack of sub sovereigns’ access to financing, poor condition and insufficient knowledge of networks and customer bases, and currency mismatch between revenues and financing sources.(Aldo Baietti and Peter Raymond 2005). In Tanzania, the private sector is considerably weak in terms of capital and experience in running private activities due to long history of public dominance in all sectors of the country’s economy. There is a menu of institutional options that allow governments, public sector agencies, and private groups (both for profit and non-profit) to assume responsibility for different aspects of services provision. The choices among the options will vary among countries, on the basis of their economic, institutional and social characteristics. (Brilhante, O. 2003). Involving many actors is a good option for organising capacity to provide water supply and sanitation. Below are some ways of partnership in the issue of water supply and sanitation.

2.3.1. Directed Public Management

“This comprises the archetypal municipal water works departments found in many countries. The water utility in this case is part of the local government apparatus, forming a municipal or district agency, services or department. The degree of autonomy enjoyed by this type of utility varies considerably. At one extreme is the water works department that lacks even a separate financial budget and is under direct control of the mayoral office” (Brilhante, O. 2003. pp. 113). Half of the population in the EU and the United States of America are served by public water municipalities (Blokland 1999). In Dar es Salaam, water supply and sanitation is not the duty of municipalities,

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this is a responsibility of DAWASCO as a public agency. Municipalities remain partners in the whole process since they are the custodians of land in the city.

2.3.2. Corporate utilities

Corporate utility describes a management mode whereby a direct public utility operates as a quasi corporation. The corporative utility is variously called a water board or authority and is known in Africa and Latin America under a generic name of parastatal. The essence of a corporative utility is that the utility enjoys autonomous corporate status under a special law or act drawn up specifically for the utility in question. In practice, these utilities can be more accurately described as quasi corporation. For one, they are constituted as stockholding entities, but tend to be governed by boards composed of senior government officials. For another, the fact that they are subject to public law means that they remain firmly rooted in the public sector. These are more common in Africa and Asia. (Brilhante, O. 2003). Corporatised utilities are prevalent for mostly in Africa and Asia where public utilities were corporatised in great numbers in 1970s and 1980s (Blokland 1999). Things have changed in the 1990s in Africa where there is a move towards privatising water supply and sanitation. Tanzania is one country that privatised some activities formerly performed by DAWASA.

2.3.3. Delegated private management: The French Model

The French Model is the most popular of private sector participation in water supply and sanitation. In this model, Water Utility Management is given to private company. However ownership of the company is not transferred. (Brilhante, O. 2003). This can take the form of management contracts, lease contract and concession contract. In the case of Dar es Salaam, a Lease contract was made, supply of water was given to City Water for the period of 10 years from 2003 though it ended in May 2005 due to failures in delivery of services.

2.3.4. Direct private management: The British Model

The water utilities being privatised, shares owned and traded on the stock exchange and privately managed. (Brilhante, O. 2003). This has a lot of consequences if not properly managed, as it can affect the poor negatively since normally prices for water will rise. Here, strong government regulation is required to maintain standards and environment, and protect people from monopoly abuse with regards to price, service quality and coverage. This can be better where the private capital is strong enough to run the services, which is not the case in developing countries like Tanzania.

2.3.5. Public Water PLCs (Public Limited Company)

The public water companies (PLCs), refer to a mode of organisation where the utility is incorporated as limited company under company law, but where its stocks are owned by local, provincial, or, less frequent, national government representatives. (Brilhante, O. 2003). DAWASCO, the newly established public company to replace City Water Services Company in the city of Dar es Salaam follows under this category.

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2.4. Capacity of an institution; determinants and Indicators

Nick Devas (2001) identifies seven things that have an influence on the capacity of an institution to deliver services as follows:-

• City boundaries always exclude the areas where poor people live. • City governments are often not responsible for many of services on which the poor

depend like water supply. There has been a tendency for responsibilities to be shifted from city government to parastatal agencies or companies which lack adequate mechanisms of democratic accountability to local citizens.

• There are often legal restrictions which prevent city governments from addressing the needs of the poor.

• Most cities lack adequate information on which to base their policies and decisions. Some do not have accurate information on population, leave alone the incidence of poverty, and many lack basic information on the extent of quality of service provision.

• The capacity of municipal government staff, both technical and managerial, is often seriously weak, due to low rates of remuneration and senior positions remain vacant.

• Lack of financial resources is another constraint, with all cities experiencing serious problems in mobilizing local revenue, weakness in financial management and problems of corruption further erode the resource available to address poverty.

• City governments are often constrained by conflicts with higher levels of government. There are other several determinants that can influence the capacity of an institution in implementing policies. These are such as culture, political environment, leadership, legal framework, structure of the organisation and organising capacity.

2.4.1. Culture

There are different layers of culture as being national, organizational, occupational (professional) and even generation culture. In this case, attention will be given to organizational culture. Culture can be visible and it is easy to distinguish one culture from a nation, organization or any institution from the other. Some characteristics of culture are developed by scholars like first, power distance (measures the degree of equality; how power is used and distributed in an organization) whereby some organizations have low power distance while others have high power distance. Supervisors are believed to be entitled to privileges in higher distance cultures, low power distances are more decentralized (Hofstede, Geert (1991). Second is Uncertainty avoidance which measures degree of acceptance of unclear and ambiguous situations. This is lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules. This dimensions measures the extent to which people in the society feel threatened by and try to avoid ambiguous situations. They may do this by establishing more formal rules, rejecting deviant ideas and behaviors, and accepting the possibility of absolute truths and the attainment of unchallengeable expertise. Third is individualism/collectivism (measures the degree of independence of an individual) which is concerned for yourself as an individual as opposed to concern for the priorities and rules of the group to which you belong (Hofstede, 1984). In low individualism, policies and practices vary according to relations, belief in group decisions while in high individualism policies and practices apply to all. Fourth is Masculinity/femininity (measures the degree of motivational factors)which are values concerning the extent of emphasis on work goals (earnings, advancement) and assertiveness, as opposed to personal goals (friendly atmosphere, getting along with the boss and others) and nurturance. The first set of values is to be associated with males and the second more with

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females. According to Hofstede’s definitions, masculine societies define gender roles more rigidly than feminine societies. Deal and Kennedy (1982) argue that “culture is the single most important factor accounting for success or failure in organizations. If real change is to occur in organizations rather than cosmetic or short – lived change, it has to happen at the cultural level. Corporate culture has many powerful attractions as a lever for change”

2.4.2. Political environment

In politics there is always an interaction which is negotiable between social actors using power to reach their aims. In urban areas politics play a big role as it forms a part of decision makers normally elected people and it is expected that decision makers will respond to people’s needs. “The state for instance, creates both critical problems and opportunity structures. Civil society is the realm of voluntary associations outside the state that draws its authority from culture rather than laws from the government” (J. Walton, 1998). The political environment is a crucial determinant of whether an institution can work well or poor implement policies, as in violent situations, all activities and services are always affected adversely. This can happen in all levels of known institutions. “Under municipal management, water provision is often used as a vote winning tool by elected councillors or mayors who then choose to set the tariff below cost recovery levels, or burden the utility with excess staff”. (Brilhante, O. 2003. pp 113). The water sector has a long history of tariffs below costs recovery and political resistances to raising them. Considerable government commitment is required to raise tariffs to cover costs, and to build regulatory arrangements that give private companies confidence that they can make a fair rate of returns on their investments. (Gisele Silva, Nicola Tynan, and Yesin Yilmaz 1998).

2.4.3. Legal framework/ regulatory environment

Every institution in urban setting works under a certain regulation that guides its functions. This regulatory environment are geared towards fulfilling an institutional interest and they rarely address the needs of the poor (Nick Devas, 2001, page 404) he considers a particular obstacle in addressing the needs of the poor is regulatory environment within which city governments (and other institutions) are operating. Most of institutions use inherited and collection of repressive bylaws that are unsuitable to the needs of the poor. (Halfani, 1997, p 147). Due to prevalence of corruption in Dar es Salaam, laws are usually not followed, but services respond to whoever is able to use bribe to get them.

2.4.4. Leadership of the organization

Leadership can exist at many places inside the organization, both formally and informally. Formal leadership is exercised by those appointed or elected to positions of authority; it entails activities such as setting direction, providing symbols of mission, ensuring that tasks are done, and supporting resource development. Informal leadership is exerted by persons who become influential because they possess special skills or resources valued or needed by others. (http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html). For water supply and sanitation services to be delivered well, informal leadership in organisations have to be clearly known to reduce the possibility of negative influence.

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2.4.5. Structure of the organization

A resilient, responsive structure is essential to facilitate communication, coordinate activities, manage resources, and ensure equal opportunity and the equitable distribution of benefits among network participants. Roles of network members and of structural units such as the coordinator, the steering committee or advisory group, project leaders, consultants, and network members must be well-defined and known to all. Roles must be able to evolve as the network matures. (http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html). Coordination is the process of linking specialized activities of individuals or groups so that they can and will work toward common ends. The coordination process helps people to work in harmony by providing systems and mechanisms for understanding and communicating one another's activities. In this case, organising capacity is needed as explained in the next section.

2.4.6. Organizing capacity

Organizing capacity is defined as “the ability to enlist all actors involved, and with their help generate new ideas and develop and implement a policy designed to respond to fundamental developments and create conditions for sustainable development” (Leo van den Berg, Eric Braun and Jan van der Meer 1997). This incorporates public, private and mixed public-private networks to reach objectives that are difficult (or impossible) to obtain by public authorities alone. Strategic networks among public actors, between public and private actors, or among private actors, as a means to cope with the dynamics of today’s urban society, have become equally important. At the same time, networks call for more coordination Leadership of key persons or organization is necessary to utilize the potential of existing and new networks and to direct the efforts of the parties involved. (Leo van den Berg, Eric Braun and Jan van der Meer 1997). As the capacity of public authorities to deliver services deteriorates, delivery of services has to be done in a collaborative way. Some actors have to come in the sector, but a good network is required to be able to organize the capacity towards a common goal and vision. Networks lack a formal (legal) hierarchical structure which can be more problematic as can end up in serious conflicts among partners, affecting negatively water supply and sanitation sector, and the poor will suffer the most. A good partnership in water supply and sanitation will depend much on institutional assessment reports that show the capacity of different actors in the sector.

2.5. Institutional assessment

Institutional assessment has been described as "processes which use concepts and methods from the social and behavioural sciences to assess organizations' current practices and find ways to increase their effectiveness and efficiency" (Universalia 1993). The social science constructs used by IDRC (International Development Research Centre-Canada) to conceptualize the complex processes of institutional growth and development are "institutional capacity development," "institutional strengthening," and "institutional performance." It is essential for IDRC to learn what areas of an institution to invest in (institutional strengthening/capacity development) and the returns from these investments that can be expected (institutional performance). http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html Because in the real world specific institutional requirements are usually codified to focus upon specific single resources, or are designed to serve specific, administrative, judicial (legal) or

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educational requirements, their spatial and jurisdictional “boundaries” may overlap, conflict with or otherwise interfere with other resource specific institutions. Institutional assessments should be conducted as learning exercises for both donor and recipient institutions. They should be designed to diagnose areas of need so as to guide capacity building efforts. In the best sense, an evaluation serves as a reforming process, seeking ways to make the institution stronger and better. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html. However, there are several models that are used to assess institutional capacity. These models explain the general phenomenon, but they can be localised to fit a particular environment. (See annex 1 for institutional capacity assessment models)

2.6. Assessing institutional capacity: Theory and criteria

Numerous frameworks for describing or assessing the institutional capacity of development organizations are in development and use. Past history in measuring institutional capacity in the development arena reflects real conceptual and practical limitations. That is, the purpose often is not simply to judge an organization’s capacity but rather to provide a learning tool for institutional self-understanding and a launching pad for capacity enhancement (Jerry Van San 2000). However, Jerry Van Sant (2000) identifies three aspects of measuring the capacity of an institution such as institutional resources, institutional performance and institutional sustainability. Table 2: Aspects of institutional capacity to be assessed Institutional Resources

• Legal structure and governance

• Human resources • Management

systems and practices

• Financial resources

Institutional Performance • Program results • Networking and external

relations • Application of technical

knowledge • Constituency

empowerment

Institutional Sustainability • Organizational

autonomy • Leadership • Organizational learning

Source: Frameworks for assessing the institutional capacity of PVOs and NGOs by Jerry Van Sant, Duke University Institutional resources represents the attributes of an organization possesses or controls and consists of its basic legal structure, assured access to human, financial, technical, and other resources, and its management systems and structure, including performance management systems.(Jerry Van Sant 2000) Most institutions lack governance aspect; accountability and transparency and there is little information sharing, which influences their capacity on water supply and sanitation delivery negatively. Institutional performance measures an institution’s program, services, or other impacts as a result of how effectively it employs its institutional and technical resources. For NGOs, external relations and the empowerment of civil society are frequently key intended outcomes. Institutional performance assesses both efficiency and effectiveness at a point in time. (Jerry Van Sant 2000). “But before assessing an institution's outputs, it is first necessary to gain an understanding of institutional motivation: its mission and goals, and in so far as possible, its culture and organizational incentives. These drive performance

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from within, and a performance assessment must address how well the organization is fulfilling its mission (http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html). Other Performance indicators to be taken into account are; “Ability to network with other organisations or sectors, Managing water losses, Billing and collection, Ability/efforts to reduce debtors, Existence of management plans(budgets, operation and maintenance), Responsiveness to consumer needs and complaints, Quality of financial statements and frequency of audits, Existence of management information systems, Environmental management and water quality, Adequacy in terms of quantity(demand and supply balance), Water pressure and duration of supply, Reliability in terms of freedom from breakdowns and Organisation mission, goals and objectives”, (Madzivanyika, Joel 2000). Institutional Sustainability incorporates more forward-looking attributes such as organizational autonomy, leadership, and learning capacity which, in turn, help ensure sustainability and self-reliance in the future. Leadership can exist at many places inside the organization, both formally and informally. Formal leadership is exercised by those appointed or elected to positions of authority; it entails activities such as setting direction, providing symbols of mission, ensuring that tasks are done, and supporting resource development. Informal leadership is exerted by persons who become influential because they possess special skills or resources valued or needed by others.

2.7. Conclusion

Taking into account of the nature of institutions involved in the supply of water and sanitation in the city of Dar es Salaam, different concepts that are written in above sections will be applied. The concepts in table 2(from Jerry Van Sant 2000) are all relevant to the situation. In addition to that, culture and organisational structure as regards performance (for public institutions like DAWASA, DAWASCO and municipalities). All the aspects of institutional capacity will be analysed in chapter four.

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CHAPTER THREE

CURRENT SITUATION OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

3.1. Introduction

Dar es Salaam, the largest city in Tanzania, has rapid population growth at the rate of 4.3% according to 2002 population census, yet the most hit by water shortage. The whole city has no water policy (a framework in which all actors get their direction and targets to meet) of its own apart from the National Water Policy. The targets that institutions struggle to achieve are those stated in MDGs, NPES (National Poverty Eradication Strategy) and the National Water policy. The MDGs goals are; “halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and halve by 2015 the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation” (Aldo Baietti and Peter Raymond 2005). NPES has specific objectives as regards to water supply and sanitation which are “Increasing access to water up to a coverage of 90% within distance of 400 meters and Increasing access to sanitary services particularly to urban dwellers by at least 50% of current status (URT 1998).As regards to the sector in Dar es Salaam city, Lerise and Kyessi (2002) say that households which have to cover more than six kilometers in the dry season are on the increase and only 6% of population use sewer while 80% use pit latrines The current situation of water supply and sanitation is examined in this case, i.e. the water sources, the levels of supply, problems and initiatives underway. Also the levels of sanitation services are examined. The levels of performance of institutions in Dar es Salaam which is not doing well are compared to objectives set at international (MDGs) and national (NPES and National Water Policy 2002) level.

3.2. Water supply-piped

i). Sources According to DAWASCO, the sources of water supply in Dar es Salaam are River Ruvu that comprises Upper and Lower Ruvu in Coast region, and River Kizinga in southern area of the city. Other sources of water are deep and shallow wells; springs and local wells. DAWASA has used the Ruvu River as its main water source since the 1950s. The Upper Ruvu scheme has a present capacity of about 81Mld (millions of litres per day), while the Lower Ruvu scheme has a design capacity of 182 MLD. Other sources, which are being used, are at Mtoni to the south of the city with a capacity of about 9 Mld. and ground water. The agency responsible for operation and maintenance in the city, DAWASCO says the area of supply covers not only the city but also the villages and townships on the route of the two transmission mains. The approximate length of existing mains in the city is about 824km, with 237km of primary distribution and 587km of secondary distribution mains. (URT 2004)

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Chart 1. Main source of water in Dar es Salaam

Main source of water

01020304050

Priv

ate

daw

asco

Oth

er

Neg

hbou

rsda

was

co

Com

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ityki

osk/

wat

er

Han

d-du

gw

ell i

n yo

ur

Han

d-du

gw

ell o

utsi

de

Priv

ate

deep

Nei

ghbo

urs

deep

Rai

n w

ater

Ven

dor

Source of water

perc

ent

Temeke Ilala Kinondoni

Source: Field survey 2005 As per bar chart 1, wells were the main source of water in the two municipalities of Ilala and Temeke where private DAWASCO piped water is below 10%. The case is different in Kinondoni where people depend more on neighbours DAWASCO connections rather than other sources which is 14% ii) Demand and Supply The increase in population in the city is a significant determinant of the increase in demand for services like water supply. Unfortunately, always services or supply of water is lagging behind demand. The population in the city is far beyond the services that can be delivered by institutions responsible. The trend of supply of water from 1997 to the present has never gone beyond 43% according to some researchers as revealed in table 1. Table 3. Piped water in Dar es Salaam Year Population

(million) Production (M3)

Required (M3)

Deficit (M3)

leakage Actual supply (M3)

%of real production

21997 3.0 294000 408000 114000 60% 176,400 43 31999 2.1 273000 410000 137000 60% 109200 26.6 42003 2.5 280000 400000 120000 55% 126000 32 52005 2.6 280000 400000 120000 55% 126000 32 Source:-Field survey 2005

2 Rajab J. Mtoro-DAWASA 3 Mashauri, 1999. water supply during DAWASA era 4 City water report 2003. Almost the same production as in DAWASA period 5 dawasco report 2005

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The above table of piped water production in the city shows little significant change in production though there is an increase in population. Sometimes data is confusing, different sources have different information about one thing. Some information from Water Section in Kinondoni municipality says that, “By estimation, water needed by humans and livestock in Dar es Salaam is 157,006 m3 per day. If comparison is made between water supplied through wells and DAWASA which is 205,997 m3 per day, it seems there is excess supply of 48,991 m3”. Table 4 below shows the demand and supply of water at the minimum amount of water a person can survive a day that is 60 litres. When the amount of water is added to 120 litres a person a day (Table 5) as estimation, people of Dar es Salaam are considered to be well supplied with water and there is no shortage. This is an information dilemma. This information seems not to be true if you compare it with the actual situation in the city where it is evident through indicators that water is not enough. A very recent research done, Household water Source and Use survey in July 2005, Dar es Salaam municipalities (Temeke, Ilala and Kinondoni)” shows that only 8% of the population are connected to DAWASCO systems and that is what the organisation can do to people. A question comes in here, which research to trust? Table.4. Water demand as per Kinondoni Municipal data Municipality Population Average requirements

per person(litres) Water demand per day(litres)

Ilala 633,393 60 38,003,580 Kinondoni 1,100,000 60 66,000,000 Temeke 762,685 60 45,761,100 Total 2,496,078 149,764,680

Source: - Rural water section in Kinondoni municipality 2005 Table.5. Water demand per day at 120 liters requirement per day per person Municipality Population Average requirements

per person(litres) Water demand per day(litres)

Ilala 633,393 120 76,007,160 Kinondoni 1,100,000 120 132,000,000 Temeke 762,685 120 91,522,200 Total 2,496,078 299,529,360

Source: Field survey 2005 The issue here lays in the fact that, it is hard to tell what is the actual supply of water in the city of Dar es Salaam since institutions don’t have one true data to rely on when solving the problem of water shortage. This information could lead to wrong solution to a wrong extent of a problem. Water Aid Dar es Salaam says City Water Systems in 2003 (before DAWASCO) had 98,000 direct customers in a city of around 2.5 million people which is about 19.6%% of the total houses. This water also is not equally distributed. According to the water engineer in DAWASCO, Some areas are well supplied, especially where the higher income areas of Oysterbay, Mikocheni (along Lower and Upper Ruvu in the A.H.Mwinyi road) live while the poor people’s areas, unplanned ones rarely get piped water. These areas are Mbagalla, Ukonga, Kigamboni, Tabata, Pugu, Kimara, Mbezi Juu and may more. In his 2005/06 budget, the minister for water Edward Lowasa said, “Though the production of water from River Ruvu has increased by 15%, water supply in some areas has decreased. For example, in areas formerly used to have water twice a week, now get water once a month or not at all”

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iii) Coverage and network conditions As per the water engineer in the DCC, the condition of water supply network is very poor. Pipes are old enough to break down and sometimes mix with sanitary sewers like the case of Kariakoo, the situation leading to consumption of unsafe water. Water pipes have no proper channels especially in the 70% unplanned areas of the city. Water Aid noted that water supply in the city is characterised by illegal connections, rationing, high tarrifs, poor people pay as they use and expensively while rich people pay less than what they use. Even the areas covered don’t receive water regulary. iv) Payment sytems Payment system is of flat rate and it is normally paid monthly. In this case, there is a tendency of sending bills even to people who have never witnessed a single drop of water. As noted by Action Aid Tanzania in 2004, “since City Water (this was fired in May 2005 for failure) took over, water tariffs have increased substantially, but water quality has not improved. Whole areas are being cut off because a few households fail to pay their bills. Customers continue to receive bills without receiving water, sometimes resulting in City Water bill collectors being ‘chased away with dogs and knives’”. Apart from the 98,000 direct conected custommers, the rest which is 80.2% buy from neighbours or vendors, and pay between Tsh. 100-200 (0.1-0.2 USD) per jerry can which is very expensive to a poor family(Household survey 2005). Other domestic users pay a flat rate of 10,000 Tsh.(10 USD) a month regardless of the amount of water they use for drinking, gardening and washing their vehicles. Though the figure below shows 23% of water is billed, DAWASCO says it is even below that and it is estimated at around 17% only. City Water Services once said the "street price" is more than 10 times what they charge through the pipes Figure 1; Percentage of loss and billed water

Source:-Water Aid Tanzania 2003 v). Problems of piped water in the city The real situation of water shortage which is mainly caused by the following reasons according to Water Aid Tanzania as revealed in figure 3 bellow are: leakage which acocounts for 55-60% that is mostly causesd by old pipes that reduces the capacity of supply as indicated in figure 2 of the water loss chain, illegal connection that overpowers the water network, poor billing system that is a burden to the poor, rationing that doesn’t take into account of people’s incomes(in practice, rationing does not take place in some places of the city) and illegal irrigation

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Figure 2. The water loss chain of Dar es Salaam

Source: - Water Aid Tanzania 2003 vi) Indicators of water shortage in Dar es Salaam Water vendors, ranging from push carts selling on average 600litres a day, to owners of trucks selling up to 20,000 litres a day (Kyessi 2002.pp 135). Owners of trucks selling water in bulky interviewed at Makumbusho area in Kinondoni municipality said they have no license; they buy water from DAWASCO pipes and sell also to the neighbouring districts of the city like Mkuranga, Kisarawe, Kibaha and Bagamoyo. The shortage of water is evident since one can see push carts, women carrying water and long queue at water points. City Water System company in 2005 April once admitted that water rationing is currently in force across large parts of the sprawling city. Only about 30 percent of 100,000 registered City Water customers receive water seven days a week, 20 percent get water for three days or fewer a week, and the rest get none from the water pipes at all(see annex 4)

vii) Water accessibility According to Household water Source andUse survey in July 2005, Dar es Salaammunicipalities (Temeke, Ilala andKinondoni); accessibility to water points isvery limited to majority of city residents.About 25.7% of the population in the city getwater within 400m and a walking distance ofabout 4 minutes and for those who depend onneighbours connections, they can not accesswater throughout a day unless the owneragrees. This situation poses a big problem interms of time spent in search for water and itsextremely inconvenient.

Image 1. . Leakage in Dar es salaam Makumbusho area

Source: Field Survey 2005

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viii) Water reliability Either piped or wells, they are all not reliable at all. As per the 2005/6 budget of the ministry of water, when the amount of water in the river Ruvu decreases, the whole city suffers water shortage and rationing becomes the order of the day. This is because of drought, environmental degradation and other activities at the source of the river”. Unreliability is more serious in unplanned settlements and the outskirts of the city where people pay high prices for less and unsafe water. Low pressure is common also. Sometimes one has to wake up at the midnight to fetch water when pressure is high and there are few users. Chart 2. Time spent to a nearest water source

Minutes to reach source of water

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 15 18 20 22 25 30 35 40 45 50 60

Minutes

per

cen

t KinondoniTemekeIlala

Source: Field Survey 2005

3.3. Water supply-wells

i) Sources and coverage Wells are the main source of water in the city of Dar es Salaam according the 2005 Household survey on water uses and the water section in Kinondoni municipality. This source suppliments the piped supply and it is widespread in low income and unplanned areas and the rural part of the city. Institutions engaged in this water supply system are the municipalities of Temeke, Ilala and Kinondoni. Interviews with officials from International NGOs shows that they play a role in the provision of water wells. These are Plan International in Ilala with 8 boreholes, Water Aid in Temeke with 10 boreholes and Care international in Kinondoni with 5 boreholes. Community Based Organisation, Mosques and private individuals also have a big number of water wells(refer table. 6) ii) Types of wells According to Kinondoni municipal council, the common types are deep and shallow wells. In this case, deep wells are commonly owned communally and are dug by international organizations like Plan International, Water Aid and Care Tanzania and the three municipalities of Ilala,

21

Temeke and Kinondoni. Deep wells have many distribution points and stand tapes. They need big capital to dig which it rarely happen for individuals to have one. According to Plan International official’s interview in Ilala, shallow wells are very common in unplanned settlement; they are easily dug by individuals and owned privately. These are mostly not covered and prone to contamination through faecal matters hence threatening people’s health Image 2. Shallow well in Buguruni

Source: Field survey 2005 Table 6. A summary of deep and shallow wells in the city of Dar es Salaam Municipality Deep

well Shallow wells

total actual production capacity

capacity ownership

working Not working

Cubic metres

private institution

CBO

Ilala 181 51 232 ? ? 1,092 121 53 58 Kinondoni 201 7 208 ? ? 1,105 140 35 33 Temeke 137 120 157 ? ? 2,700 94 76 90 Total 519 178 597 4,897 355 164 181 Source: Kinondoni Municipal Council, rural water section 2005

Image. 3: Religious deep well Makumbusho-Kinondoni

Source: Field Survey (A mosque deep well funded by the Kuwait Fund)

Image 4. Shallow well in Mbagalla

Source: Field Survey 2005

iii) Demand and supply The total water to be produced by bothdeep and shallow wells in the city is4,897m3, but the actual production is notknown. The quality of water is low and itis considered to be contaminated bydomestic wastes. The study shows thatthere are more private wells than thoseowned by CBOs and other institutions.This is because people consider that astheir main source of water, and easy tomanage, no payment of bills, shallow andneeds low capital to dig one.

22

iv) Areas they cover As one goes out of the city to the outskirts, wells are common source of water. Dar es Salaam is predominantly unplanned about 70%, and dwellers in these areas hardly get piped water. Even in planned areas like Tabata, they basically depend on wells. The municipal rural water engineer in Ilala says, ‘Tabata is one of the most hit areas by shortage of water, now their main source of water is wells so do all areas that are not planned”. v) Conditions of wells An observation by the researcher shows that, these wells are characterised by being dug in residential compounds, sometimes near pit latrines, some are uncovered and they are said most of them are contaminated. “They also have high content of salt” (Ilala water engineer 2005). These wells easily dry in dry season and get water in rain season. But the challenge here is in rain season. Due to poor drainage system in the city, most wells are contaminated. A resident in Buguruni says, “ we use some purification drugs provided by the municipality and PLAN to make water safer for consumption, and we must boil them, otherwise cholera can occur”. Image 5. Deep well by Plan International and Shallow well owned privately

Deep well by Plan International Source: Field Survey 2005 vi) Management of wells Management of these wells depends on the owner. For community, there are water committees that are responsible for the day to day operation of wells. People are supposed to pay some token for the use of water for the purpose of raising money for operation and maintanaince. According to Kombe who did research in community water management in Temeke municipality, almost all CBOs have similar system of management . He identified the following features of management citing an example of Tungi as a CBO:- representative participation-elected community water committee (CWC), CWC fully responsible for sales (Water Aid conditionality), kiosks operator hired at 20% of the monthly revenue, prices set by Community Water Committee and Community leaders (CL), bank account for water, distribution generally even but limited, no provision for the poor (profit-motivated), no on-site connections (private households), unregulated competition between community-managed and private wells/boreholes (private suppliers loosing customers), uneasy relationship (private versus community suppliers) and deliberate higher representation of women in CWC.

Shallow well by private

23

vii) Payments Payments are made to enable operation and maintenance. This means most wells are not for profit making. There are no billing system in this case. Users go to the well and pay the money to the collector who is normally the owner. The prices of water in wells range from 20 –50 Tanznian shilling which is relatively expensive to the poor, but cheaper compared to the piped ones especially when buys from vendors.

3.4. Sanitation

Sanitation is a very important component of urban services. As urban dwellers increase, they call forth the increases in demand for sanitary facilities. The situation of sanitation services in urban centres is always under capacity, and being more in terrible situations in unplanned areas where most of the poor people live. i) Types of sanitary facilities DAWASCO water and sewerage engineers noted that, there are basically three types of sanitary infrastructures in Dar es Salaam. These are sewers, offside system (septic tanks) and onsite system (pit latrines). Sewers are managed by DAWASA and DAWASCO while onsite and offsite system are under the municipalities. Municipalities have public pay toilets that are beautiful and well managed, while pit latrines are private and poor.

Image 6: Lorry tankers for clean water at Makumbusho-Kinondoni

Source: Field survey 2005

viii) Problems of wells Though used by the majority in the city ofDar es Salaam, wells have a lot of problemsthat directly affect people’s health. This isaccording to interview with all therespondents in the study. The commonproblems are; drought whereby wells arealways seasonal, with enough supply in rainseason and shortage in dry season,contamination following their nature andlocational characteristics. Since wells are dugin residential areas, they are contaminatedthrough toilets leading to chorela and otherwaterborne deseases accounting to more than70% of all diseases in Dar es Salaam, siltingis another problem which is caused by stormwater since there are no good drainagesystem in the area. and most wells have saltwater.

24

Image 7. Different toilets constructed by different institutions in Ilala Source: Field survey 2005 ii) Levels of sanitation services The coverage of sewerage systems is considerably less than that of the water supply systems. DAWASCO data shows that only 10% of people in the city are served by the sewer system, the rest use offsite (septic tanks) or onsite sanitation (pit latrines). This is partly due to the shortage of sewerage system infrastructure, and partly reluctance by some users to be connected to sewerage systems in view of the cost involved. People living in peri-urban areas primarily depend on cesspits or pit latrines, which are emptied by the local authority or private operators. “However the standards of latrines are in a poor state and as a consequence, “over 70% of diseases attended to in health facilities are water and sanitation related” (URT 2004). It is common in squatter areas on the city for more than one household to share one pit latrine. These areas are like Buguruni, Manzese, Vingunguti, and Mbagala to mention a few. Sanitation is the issue in all the three municipalities in the city. “Temeke (one of the three municipalities in the city of Dar es Salaam) takes the form of poor built; un-maintained latrines, and open garbage pits and sewers. More than 78% of the population use pit latrines. These latter individuals require defecating in places of convenience, sometimes using plastic bags or news papers within which to wrap feces”. (www.waterforpeople.org/waterforpeopleafrica) Box. 1. Levels of sanitation services in Dar es Salaam The Dar es Salaam city population uses either off-site (6%) or onsite (94%) system of excreta disposal regardless of the level of underground water table or the type of the soil in the area (URT 1997). The 1988 population census indicated that only 14.6% of the city households had flushed toilets while 82.9% depended on palatines. It is hoped that with limited water improvement in the city and absence of extension of sewer systems, the situation might worse. Worse still, all informal settlements depend on onsite sanitation only. The off-site systems consist only of 130 kilometres of sewer and 17 sewerage pumping stations. The areas covered are mainly in the city centre and Ubungo and Vingunguti industrial areas. A few outlying residential areas such as Upanga, Oysterbay and Kijitonyama are also covered by central sewer systems (Kaseva 1997) Source: Kyessi 2002

Ilala Municipality

Private owned

Plan International

25

Image. 8: Lorry tanker for emptying Septic tanks (scavengers)

Source: Field survey 2005 iii) Problems of sanitation in Dar es Salaam According to interview with all the institutions involved in the study, there are common problems of sanitation in the city ranging from technical to social cultural. These are; leaking is common in sewers that have old pipes, and have for a long time not being rehabilitated or replaced by the new ones; over flooding occur in blocked sewers. In this case, when covers of chambers are not there may be due to theft, solid waste fills sewers hence blocking them, finally over flooding occur; the nature of settlements also determines the success or failure of sanitary facilities. Unplanned areas (70%) of Dar es Salaam are difficult places to lay out waste pipes; they have no areas for toilets and not organized at all. It is usual in these areas to find open pit latrines and ignorance is perhaps a bigger problem. People who are borne in these areas think it is a normal thing to live in such situation. Some don’t know the danger that is associated with poor sanitation Image 10: Leaking sewerage systems in Buguruni area-Dar es Salaam

Source: Field survey 2005

Image 9: Offsite septic tank

Source: Field survey 2005

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3.5. Ongoing initiatives to improve water supply and sanitation services in Dar es Salaam

There are several initiatives underway to improve the water supply and sanitation in the city. These are done by the government agency, DAWASA and DAWASCO; some are done by NGOs like Water Aid, Plan International and Care International. The community also is in the move and companies and private individuals. Since DAWASA is the major holding company, some of its activities are funded both by the government in collaboration with the World Bank which also funds DAWASCO for operation and maintenance activities. Image 11:Improvement project in Dar es salaam funded by the World Bank

Source: Field survey 2005 3.5.1. The ministry of water budget for Dar es Salaam In the 2005/2006 budget, 8.57 billion shilling is set for the rehabilitation of oxdation ponds and sewerage pumps. Water infrastructure especially in the outskirt of the city will be expanded, and it will cost 3.0 billion shillings. As far as training in the water sector is concerned in the year 2004/2005, Rwegarulila Water Resource Institute continued to train people to cater for the need of the municipalities in the city and other institutions. A total number of 54 students graduated as technicians and 265 in the course as technicians of lower levels. However, the institute ammended its curicular to suit the need of the market. It is expected that in this year, the institute will start using its new carricular and will award diplomas in the fiels of water engineering, water exploration and digging of wells, and water laboratory technology. The budget set for this programme is 400 million shillings.

27

3.5.2. Dar es Salaam Water Supply and Sanitation Project The development objective of the project is to provide a reliable, affordable and sustainable water supply service and improve the sewerage and sanitation in the "service area" of the Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (DAWASA) that includes Dar es Salaam and part o f the Coast region. This will help improve public health and well being in a city prone to cholera outbreaks or other water-borne diseases and support productive activities of the country's main economic centre. There are five components to the project: 1) Rehabilitation and extension of the water supply facilities: This component will be implemented under three separate programs: the priority works program (PWP), the Non-Delegated Works Program (NDWP) and, the delegated works program. 2) Rehabilitation and extension of the sewerage and waste water treatment facilities. 3) Community water supply and sanitation facilities. 4) Institutional strengthening, All activities associated with the improvement of the operations of the water supply and sanitation service. Operating costs of the operator, equity contributions to the capital of the operator, technical assistance, training, transitional expenses and maintenance contingency, technical assistance to the Ruvu River/Wami Basin office. 5) Preparation of a medium term development program, Water resource and supply assessment for the Dar es Salaam region, sanitation, national urban water supply and sanitation strategy.**. The implementing agency is the Ministry of Water and Livestock Development and DAWASA Source:- Worldbank(Tanzania-projects and programmes) 2005 The running of the project is made possible through loan/credit from the World Bank and IDA as shown in the table below. Table. 7. Funds for the implementation of DAWAS projects in 2005(USD) Financial Main Loan/Credit # 37710 IBRD Commitment * 0 IDA Commitment * 61.5 IBRD + IDA Commitment * 61.5 Grant Amount * 0 Total Project Cost * 164.6 Product Line IBRD/IDA Lending Instrument Specific Investment Loan Source:- Worldbank(Tanzania-projects and programmes) 2005

3.6. Conclusion

If objectives are compared to results, there is a gape of about 70% in terms of water and about 40% in terms of sanitation. In this case then, the performance capacity of DAWASCO is less than 10% in supply of water and less than 10% in sanitation services delivery. In so doing it will never reach targets set in MDGs, NPES and National Water Policy. Dar es Salaam has been relying on wells, especially the poor community that comprises of more than 80% of the city’s population. In actual fact, the capacity of all institutions in Dar es Salaam as far as result of programmes is concerned is 41% (from table 3 of piped and table 6 of well water) water production. The rest is covered by private wells dug in residential compounds. As if coverage is not enough, the city has never witnessed safe water in its history. Unless water is boiled as insisted by the ministry of health, it can not be consumed.

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CHAPTER FOUR

THE CAPACITY OF INSTITUTIONS TO PROVIDE WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION SERVICES

4.1. Introduction

The reasons for institution’s incapability to deliver services and attain their goals are probably difficulty to establish since even the results of different researchers who happened to conduct studies on the sector in the city are also different. This is a difficult environment to know the magnitude of the problem. The capacities of institutions to supply water and sanitation services are assessed based on three criteria, which are “institutional resources, institutional performance and institutional sustainability”. However, the emphasis is on the extent of their capacity. All the tables of performance levels are based on interviews with 31 respondents from the 12 institutions involved in the study.

4.2. Actors involved in water supply and sanitation

There are several actors that are involved in water supply and sanitation in the city. This follows the failure of the government to deliver the service through its agency, DAWASA (Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority). In this case, each actor has its own way of dealing with the issue. Some of which are even not regulated by any law, some are bureaucratic, some has low capacity to perform and some lack human resources and many more working environment. These actors are Ministry of water, public agency like DAWASA and DAWASCO, private companies, CBOs, NGOs, municipalities, academic institutions, religious organisations and informal operators. i) Ministry of water This is concerned with setting regulations, policies and standards of which other actors are to follow in their daily activities. It is at this level where final decision making takes place. In this case, this is the actor that can influence the performance other actors either positively or negatively. ii) Public Agency (DAWASA and DAWASCO) These are important actors. DAWASA is the city’s water and sanitation utility holding agency that owns all water and sanitation infrastructures in the city. This agency is responsible for making sure that there is adequate water supply. The agency is also responsible for dissemination of information regarding water conservation and health related aspects of water and sanitation. Due to lack of capacity to deliver the services, activities of operation and maintenance were leased to a private company, City Water Services. City Water company was given a contract of 10 years to collect revenue, operation and maintenance. Before it completed the contract, City Water Company is fired for failure. Replacing the City Water Services, there is a newly established public corporation, DAWASCO (Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation) to take the activities left by City Water.

29

iii) Community Based Organisations (CBO) These are owned by the community in the areas they operate and they are managed by Water committee. Their manpower is community members mostly unskilled without technical know how. “They have wells/kiosks administered at ward level and are donor and government funded. They also train the community in matters regarding water supply and sanitation. There is a clear unregulated competition between community managed and private wells/boreholes (private suppliers loosing customers), uneasy relationship between private versus community suppliers” (Kombe, W.J. 2005). However, this kind of a situation reduces the capacity of these institutions to deliver the services of water supply and sanitation. iv) Non Governmental Organizations (NGO) With regards to NGOs, they have a big role, not only on providing water supply and sanitation, but also on reminding decision makers on their responsibilities. The most common NGOs in Dar es Salaam are Water Aid, Care International and Plan International. These dig boreholes and wells especially in the suburbs of the city. They have clear structure, build capacity of local people; they do sensitize community on water supply and sanitation, technical assistance and provide equipment and materials. Water Aid also executes projects in collaboration with residents and water committees. Generally, NGOs work at the grass root level. v) Municipalities (Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke) In Dar es Salaam, Water supply and sanitation services are no longer the municipal activities and they don’t have any department dealing with the issue. Their roles have been reduced to identification of an area where water infrastructure can pass or a well to be dug. They also support CBOs in terms of funds which are either from a municipal budget or sought from donors. They are bureaucratic and considered to be corrupt, lack financial resources and autonomy. Culturally, they have “uncertainty avoidance” vii) Informal operators/vendors and private individuals These are individuals who are not registered, no regulatory framework and their sources of water are questionable. To them, water shortage is always advantageous since they make business. They sometimes break water pipes in order to create shortage and do business. The shortage of water is evident. They get their water from wells and piped water, but also from unknown sources which may be streams, dirty canals and leaking pipes. Many people in the city depend on their services especially poor people areas. ix) Academic institutions These play a big role in water supply and sanitation in the city. They provide expertise, training, data collection and storage and consultancy. There are three institutions and all are in Dar es Salaam. These are University of Dar es Salaam engineering faculty, University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS) through the department of environmental engineering and urban planning department. The other one is the Rwegarulila Institute for Water Resources that trains lower rank employees. x) Religious organization (mosques) These are also engaged in production of water in the city. They basically deal with wells which are dug under the help of the Kuwait Fund. They are made for religious purposes but also they save people for their domestic uses.

30

4.3. Institutional Resources

For any institution to work properly and yield better result, resources have to be available and fully utilized. These are the determinants of failure or success of any institution apart from these ones engaging in water supply and sanitation. There are four factors to be taken into account. These are legal structure and governance, management systems and practices and finance. 4.3.1. Legal structure and governance In Dar es Salaam, institutions operate on individual base, and a good number of them are legal. Vendors and many private operators don’t operate legally. An interview with vendors show that they are not registered. A vendor at Makumbusho area in Kinondoni municipality says, “How can I be registered, so far we are in constant conflict with DAWASA because they think we break their pipes to create water shortage so that we can do business, but this not true at all.” Bulky operators, those with lorry tankers said they don’t have licences but they would like to have it so that they can do business without problems. But bureaucracy has hindered them from acquiring one. All the nine institutions interviewed said they have a good support from the government since it encourages participation in the sector. Laws that are used are considered to be a hindrance of institutional performance. This is revealed by some researchers who have done studies. Kyessi A. 2002 argues that “In Tanzania and in Dar es Salaam in particular, there are several specific pieces of legislation (national laws, by-laws and ordinances) dealing with infrastructure provision and services. Some of these are outdated and or not realistic from the point of view of local culture and practices and the changing social economic and political context”. These legislations are like Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act No. 8 of 1982 which is outdated and has no provision of private investment participation in urban infrastructure; Local Government Finance Act 1982 is outdated and states that collection and expenditure of revenue should be centralised. There are other legislations that affect the provision of water supply and sanitation services like Town and Country Planning Ordinance(CAP 378) of 1956 as revised in 1961 and 1993, Land Ordinance Act(CAP 113)of 1923(very outdated). The National Water Policy of 2002 is a bit recent, but the environment in which it operates is terribly outdated to such and extent that achieving goals is difficult. This is because; institutions dealing with water supply and sanitation have to abide to these legislations to be able to operate. As regards to governance, experts consider this is a big problem in almost all institutions. An expert from UCLAS is pessimistic about institutions meeting targets since transparency is missing. He says “it is difficult to predict the future in terms of politics. Engagement of City Water was closed, but firing is made public aiming at gaining political support for the ruling party”. Water Aid’s respondent complained about time taken to finish a work in public institutions. “Too much bureaucracy in the government, it takes a long time to get a permission to build a well which is basically to help people. If you are lucky, you can take at least six months, this encourages corruption. We find also difficult to work with the ministry of water due to same reason. She continues to argue that, the use of resources is even worse; they use a lot of resources and yield very little to the public. I wonder how this happens”.

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Table. 8 Capacity of institutions as regards to legal structure and governance INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS

M

inis

try

of

wat

er

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

AT

ER

A

ID&

CA

RE

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

-registered 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 0 -have license 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 0

Legal structure supported by national

authorities 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1

-participation 1 1 1 3 3 2 0 0 0 -strategic vision 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 3 1

-effectiveness 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 3 -rule of law 1 1 1 0 2 2 3 0 0 -transparency 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 0 0

-efficiency 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 2 -responsiveness 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3

-consesus orientation 1 1 1 3 3 2 1 1 0 -accountability 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 0 Bureaucratic rules 3 3 3 1 1 3 2 1 0 norms are conducive for performance

1 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 3

governance

-equity building 2 2 1 2 3 3 0 0 0

Average score 1.7 1.6 1.5 2.4 2 1.8 1.6 1.5 0.8 Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good All the institutions involved in the research said they don’t have regular reporting to the public, unless there is an emergence. In practice, each organization is accountable to the organization that put it in existence and not to those they serve. Customers have no voice to say to Institutions however mess they do. At least CBOs are responsible to people they serve. This is because the community own them, employees are part of the society the CBO operates as opposed to other institutions that do not belong to customers directly. The municipalities are governed through elected mayors and councillors who are in charge of the well being of the city and its dwellers. The opposite is true to DAWASA and DAWASCO where technocrats are recruited by the ministry of water, hence being more responsible to the employer than the people they serve. 4.3.2. Human resources At the ministry level, shortage of staff as regards to water supply and sanitation can rarely be felt according to official reports. There are always enough and qualified staff. As per human resources director in DAWASA, they have enough and qualified staff, always going for training but lowly paid. DAWASCO admits shortage of staffs though they are qualified enough to undertake their duties. A respondent from the office said they have shortage of workers, both at higher degree and technicians. The biggest problem here is that their salaries are very low. A qualified engineer receives about Tshs. 150,000 to 250,000(USD 150 to 250) a month and low

32

incentives. Though they have permanent jobs, they lack morale to work, they need to be motivated. All international NGOs, i.e. Plan International, Water Aid and WATSANET (Water and Sanitation Network in Tanzania) admitted to have fewer employees since they needed them not for operation, but for monitoring purposes. Respondent from Water Aid said NGOs need not to have many workers because they need them only for monitoring and partnership. “We have few staffs, only to support partnership. We have one Engineer and one community development officer to help the community since it lacks experience”. As regards to payment, she said they are more paid compared to public officials. Table. 9 Capacity of institutions as regards to human resources

INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS M

inis

try

of

wat

er

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

AT

ER

A

ID&

CA

RE

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

- qualified personnel 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 0

-training 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 0

-level of salaries 1 1 1 3 0 1 2 1 0 -level of morale 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 3 3

incentives 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 0

-level of education 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 1 -level of staff utilization 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 3 record-keeping 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 0

Human resources

-employment security 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 1 0 Average score 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.8 1 1.8 2.6 1.4 0.8 Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good With regards to academic institutions, these are the think tanks of the city and the country as a whole. Though not enough in number, they do a good job in terms of research, consultancy and training. They all have qualified staff, but since these are not directly engaged in production of water supply and sanitation, their research findings are hardly put into practice, and normally consultants from outside the country are hired raising the costs of projects and lowering services delivery. The Institute for Water Resources of Rwegarulila produces lower rank staff-technicians who are never enough since they are needed by institutions not only in Dar es Salaam, but national wide. The University of Dar es Salaam offer master degree in water resources management and UCLAS trains staff in the area of environmental engineering both at degree and masters level. According to experts interviewed in this case, institutions produce staff in lower number than the market requires, yet they are hardly employed. So shortage of trained staff in the public sector is not only due to lack of trained people, but also low level of recruitment and redundancies in the course of fulfilling donor conditions. Community Based organization are characterized by staffs who have no formal training in the issue of water supply and sanitation as noted by Kombe 2005. They receive informal training from the municipalities and NGOs. Plan International has sensitization programmes about the

33

sector in Ilala so does Water Aid in Temeke and Care International in Kinondoni. The three municipalities of Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke have no urban water supply and sanitation departments; rather, they have rural water sections with lowly paid staff. They mainly engage in digging of wells. 4.3.3. Management systems and practices The common practice of management in the city as far as water supply and sanitation is concerned is contract management. As a means to raise productivity, efficiency and transparency, almost all the activities are contracted out whereby a tender for certain activity is announced and bidding processes takes place. A good example in this case is the lease contract that was reached between the government through DAWASA and a private company City Water Services in august 2003 (see Annex 2). The company was assigned to run operation and maintenance for 10 years though it failed even before completing two years and it was fired in May 2005 for not reaching its targets (see Annex 3). Contract management is also common to NGOs. However, contracting processes are not clear to some of people in the city sometimes used for the purpose other than serving people. An expert at UCLAS accused the government for being not open in contracting out of some activities; it makes high voice when problems occur. This is well exemplified in the case contract between DAWASA and City Water Services. The expert says, “This is a big problem with our institutions. Almost all contracts made here are difficult to understand. For instance, the engagement of City Water Services was closed, but firing it is made open for political support”. A respondent in Kinondoni municipality admits difficulties in managing public institutions. The argument is that, Public institutions now are difficult to control, everybody wants to use office for personal gain and they do what they want instead of following regulations. People go to work as they like and stay in office for few hours. This is a challenge if effectiveness in services delivery is to be achieved. According to that respondent, the municipality has relatively good plans, but who cares. The government is moving from the public engagement in production to private operation. Contracting out of activities aims at improving services through companies that are mostly owned by local people. The practice is different; people are using the system for personal gain Budgets are project oriented in many institutions including DAWASA and DAWASCO, but they never reach their goals. For instance, the ministry of water budget for 2005/2006 focuses more on rehabilitation of oxidation ponds and sewerage pumps forgetting other things. Though the focus of institutions now are on private sector style of management practices, the practice shows more public oriented operation especially for the main actors in the sector-DAWASA and DAWASCO. So there is a gap between the focus and the actual practices of management. Political interference is high, politicians insist on transparency while the opposite is true when it comes to practice. Another important feature of management of institutions in the city is cost of administration is normally higher than actual cost of real projects. This was revealed by DAWASCO treasurer.

34

Table. 10 Capacity of institutions according to Management systems and practices INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS

M

inis

try

of

wat

er

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

AT

ER

A

ID&

CA

RE

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

-program evaluation 2 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 0

-client orientation 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3 utilizing information, 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 changing and improving organization 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 0 Sufficient internal control mechanisms. 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 3 -use of contracts 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 0 The management is able to face problems, make necessary decisions, and convert them to action.

3 1 1 3 1 3 1 3 2

-discipline in resource use 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 3 -monitoring 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 0 -decentralization 1 1 1 3 0 1 1 0 0 -competion in production 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 -quality management 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 identifying needs, 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3

setting objectives, 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 0 adherence to schedules, 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 0

coordination of activities 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 0 0

Management systems and practices

communicating feedback to stakeholders 1 0 0 2 3 1 1 0 0

Average score

1.5 1.2 1.2 2.7 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.7 0.9

Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good 4.3.4. Financial resources This is considered to be the major hindrance in the supply of water and sanitation services in the city in all institutions involved in the study. DAWASCO admits that their spending/expenditure is always more than they can collect or their revenue. As regards to sources of revenue, donors play a big role. All institutions in the city receive funds from donors either as grants in case of CBOs and loan in case of DAWASA and DAWASCO. Main donors in the city of Dar es Salaam are World Bank, IMF and IDA. User charges are common source of revenue for public and private institutions. NGOs and CBOs fully depend on donors as their main source of revenue. (Refer Table 8. where World Bank is funding a project) Budgets for public institutions like DAWASA and DAWASCO are always in deficit, expenditure exceeding revenue. DAWASCO has a plan to use 100% revenue from user charges from the year 2005 onwards though it also says that 50% of Dar es Salaam inhabitants steel water and don’t pay revenue. One can wonder how that 100% dependence on user charges can be achieved.

35

Table 11: Capacity of institutions in terms of finance INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS

M

inis

try

of

wat

er

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

AT

ER

A

ID&

CA

RE

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

- budget dependency 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 0 0

Sufficient budget 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1

-financial control 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3 -ICT application 1 1 1 3 0 1 2 0 0 -cost recovery 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 3 3 -good spending habits 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 2 -increasing revenue 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 3

-reducing expenditure 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3 -financial information updating 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 0 -database foundation 1 1 1 3 0 1 2 0 0 -clearity of tariffs and taxes 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

-clearity of budgets to customers 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0

-ability to produce clear financial information to users

1 1 1 1 3 1 0 0 0

-priority stting 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 0 0 Stability of income 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Financial resources

-high level of tariffs 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 3 3

Average score 1 1 1.1 1.7 1.2 0.8 0.9 1.4 1 Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good Budget deficit is also shown in the research done by Kyessi in 2002 and he observed that, “DAWASA records show that the annual deficit grew from Tsh 74 million in 1985 to Tsh. 2728 million in 1995. During the same period, the accumulated deficit was Tsh. 14,606 million in 1995. This is a result of high operation costs and poor revenue collection, accumulating arrears, poor information about water consumers, unregistered connections and leakage” As regards to cost recovery, Kyessi 2002 argues that, “the services cost recovery mechanisms has never been efficient within parastatal organizations and the local authorities”. There has been an absence of realistic cost recovery systems the rich and the poor have been treated equally (Lugalla 1995). Dar es Salaam city residents, mostly the rich, have capitalized in this inefficiency by not paying for the service charges. User charges for water supply are often based on an elaborate system of central government subsidies and based on a flat rate with no meters for control, therefore, in strictly economic sense; the systems run at loss (URT 1997) NGOs are also not self sufficient in finance, this revealed by Water Aid respondent who points out that, “We don’t have sufficient budget; we cover the deficit by adding more money. In this year’s (2005/2006) budget, Water Aid has to add 30% of annual budget. Also in all our activities, the community has to contribute 5% of the budget, not only by cash, but also in kind”

36

Report from DAWASCO shows that, during the era of City Water Systems in 2003-2005, information system for financial control was effective. Information was computerized and networked. Since DAWASCO has taken over the activities of City Water services, information systems is checked and there is a clear move again to go back to the roots-the old systems of files. DAWASCO admits that during City Water, ICT was very effective. Information was computerized and networked. The situation is very different today when files are in use again and it is difficult to have better financial control According to interview with public officials, public institutions have the tendency of spending more money on allowances and salaries instead of actual projects. The study shows that if allowances (overtime and others) are not paid, employee’s morale is reduced hence affecting the delivery of services. The money spent on salaries and wages in DAWASA, DAWASCO and the municipalities is more than 80%, and the rest is left for investment in actual projects. 4.3.5 Summary of institutional resources In this aspect of institutional capacity, financial resources is a major problem, scoring very poorly and this is mainly caused by poor financial control, budget dependency, poor cost recovery, poor ICT application and poor spending habits especially in public institutions. Table. 12. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional resources Institution Criteria for assesment Minist

ry of water

DAWASA

DAWASCO

PLAN,WATER AID&CARE

CBO

municipalities

Academic institutions

Private vendors

Legal structure and governance

1.7 1.6 1.5 2.4 2 1.8 1.6 1.5 0.8

Human resources

1.8 1.8 1.8 2.8 1 1.8 2.6 1.4 0.8

Management systems and practices

1.5 1.2 1.2 2.7 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.7 0.9

Institutional Resources

Financial resources 1 1 1.1 1.7 1.2 0.8 0.9 1.4 1 Total average score 1.5 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.8 Source: Field Survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

4.4. Institutional Performance

This is an important component of institutional capacity. It is at this stage when an institution can be considered capable of delivering services just by looking at the level of services delivered. Assessment of performance has to take into account of the needs of the residents of the city of Dar es Salaam, the targets of policies and the actual delivery of services. Factors to be taken into account in this category are programme results, networking and external relations, application of technical knowledge and constituency empowerment. 4.4.1. Program results Since 1981 to 2005, all water and sanitation programmes never met targets in the city of Dar es Salaam. For example, the National Urban Water Authority (NUWA) from 1981 to 1996 supplied water up to 43%, DAWASA from 1997 to 2003 supplied water up to 26.6%, City Water Systems from 2003 to May 2005 supplied 32% so does the newly established DAWASCO in 2005. Up to

37

the moment, there are about 98,000 direct DAWASCO connected customers out of an approximately 500,000 houses in Dar es Salaam which is only 19.6% of all houses. A recent research done in July 2005 by the Institute for Statistics of Dar es Salaam show that only 8% of city dwellers have direct connection to DAWASCO piped systems about 25.7% get water within 400 metres. The rest have to walk long distances in search for water and wasting time. As regards to sanitation, only 10% of Dar es Salaam residents are connected to sewer systems, the rest depend on offsite, onsite sanitation and other means best known to them especially in squatters. Water Aid says it only serves less than 10% of Temeke population in its deep well water supply so does Plan International in Ilala and Care International in Kinondoni. Table. 13 Capacity of institutions in terms of services delivery

INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS M

inis

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er

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

AT

ER

A

ID&

CA

RE

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

needs met 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 financial allocations 1 1 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 program completion rates 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 0 0 Delivery of services 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 Necessary buildings, vehicles etc.

3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 0

Production and/or communication tools and equipment are adequate

2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1

Work produced complies with national quality standards.

1 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 0

The institution delivers its “products” with reasonable costs.

1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1

Program results

number of people served 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Average score 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.8 1 1.3 1.7 0.8 0.8 Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good Since it started its activities ten years ago in Temeke, Water Aid has managed to supply water from 10 wells that it has dug and covered around 10% of the population. Water Aid water engineer says, “the number of users in Temeke are 300 people per well, served since 1998 to now is 72,000 and Temeke population is 700,000, so population served is about 10% only. 4.4.2. Networking and external relations The trend of water supply and sanitation in Dar es Salaam show that one organization or institution can not deliver the required services. What is needed is to organize the capacity of institutions, i.e. enlist all actors concerned with water supply and sanitation, have one clear strategy and develop and implement a policy designed to respond to fundamental developments and create conditions for sustainable development. Interview with all NGOs in the study area show that actors lack coordination. They expect that the Dar es Salaam city council and the three municipalities of Ilala, Temeke and Kinondoni take coordination responsibility, but that is not the case.

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In Dar es Salaam, the practice is each organization working independent of the other, have different strategy and different regulations to follow. Prime minister in 1997 (quoted by Kyessi 2002) said:- “They, (public utility agencies) have never been together at any time on a common area (settlement) to supply public services. Instead, whenever an institution has implemented its bit, another would come in and overhaul whatever was already in place in order to justify its action. It is no wonder therefore that when the DCC is implementing its decisions to demolish road kiosks or structure of people living in hazard lands, TANESCO and NUWA are busy supplying the same people with electricity and water. Likewise people acquiring plots in the city have usually taken the initiatives at exorbitant costs, to secure the services for water, electricity, etc on individual bases” Table. 14 Capacity in terms of networking

INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS M

inis

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DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

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A

ID&

CA

RE

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

A stable group of donors provide predictable support.

3 3 3 3 1 1 3 0 0

coordination 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 linkage to relevant national and/or international partners

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

Networking and external relations

Ability to manage competitors or rivals well.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3

Average score 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.7 0.7 Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good Each institution has own donor agent and works to achieve its own goals. Each institution has own partnership either with donor agent or with implementing agent. For instance, DAWASA receives its funds from the World Bank, and it entered into a lease contract with City Water System in august 2003. Most of organizations like Water Aid, Plan International, Care International and CBOs enter into contracting out type of partnership with organizations they think they are worthwhile collaborating. The well known network in this case is that between DAWASA and DAWASCO and the World Bank and the Central government. In this case, DAWASA and DAWASCO receives fund from the World Bank and the Central government. Another strong network is between NGOs and CBOs.

39

Figure. 3: Actors and their network in the sector of water supply and sanitation in Dar es Salaam Source: Field survey 2005 4.4.3. Application of technical knowledge Technical knowledge implies the technical skills that staffs of an organization have, the way they are used to deliver services. Technical knowledge has a big role to play in either bringing development or retarding it Table. 15; Capacity of institutions in terms of application of technical knowledge

INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS M

inis

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WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

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ID&

CA

RE

CB

O

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Aca

dem

ic

Priv

ate

vend

ors

-utilization of staff 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 3

-political interference 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 0 0

-pesonnel use their skills effectively 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 0 0

Application of technical knowledge

Avalability of technical facilities 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 0 0

Average score 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 2. 0.7 0.7 Source: Field Survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good In the city of Dar es Salaam, NGOs are considered to be utilizing technical knowledge that employees have. Water Aid interviewee said, “You are really used, and you use your knowledge to a great extent. There is no room for laziness, otherwise you lose a job” Academic institutions as the think tank of the city have their research findings in use though under capacity. Public institutions are the ones considered not utilizing fully the technical skills employees have. They in most cases do duties not trained for, depending on whatever hot issue is there in the organization. They normally do so because of some known factors like lack of facilities. For instance, Ilala municipality GIS coordinator says “We have enough trained staff in GIS, but you can imagine there is only one computer with the programme. So how can we manage all the

World Bank, IMF

Central government

DAWASA DAWASCO

Water Supply and Sanitation

NGO

CBOs

Vendors Municipalities

Religious organisation

Private and individuals

40

municipal data in such a way, as if that is not enough, we don’t have GIS lab.” Likewise in Temeke, interview show that they implement what politicians want so that they can fulfil their promise to people and win vote in the election. 4.4.4. Constituency empowerment Kyessi 2002 noted that “Target communities have rarely been involved in the planning, implementation and maintenance of infrastructure projects. Normally after completion of the projects the residents have little or no interest in the operation and maintenance of the projects that they perceive as belonging to the government”. This shows that decision making in all institutions except CBOs is top down. People or consumers are rarely involved in deciding what type of services and how much they would get from the institutions. Employees are appointed or recruited by higher levels of government. Decentralization is not to a great extent exercised as it is preached by politicians. Table.16; Capacity of institutions in terms of constituency empowerment

INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS M

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DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

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ER

A

ID&

CA

RE

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

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Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

There is a strong sense of ownership among staff

2 2 2 3 3 1 1 3 3

Local stakeholders take active part in planning and implementing activities.

0 0 0 3 3 1 0 0 0

The institution is perceived as a local asset.

0 0 0 2 3 1 0 0 0

Constituency empowerment

The public has a formal role as stakeholder, i.e., as constituency or through cost-recovery schemes.

0 0 0 2 3 1 0 0 0

Average score 0.5 0.5 0.5 2.5 3 1 0.3 0.7 0.7 Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good Tabata Development Fund, a CBO operating in Tabata in Ilala municipality is said to be perceived as community assets. This was noted in an interview with the CBO coordinator who said, “This is our organization, all the members are from this area. We plan and do things here together. We get technical assistance from Plan International and the municipality of Ilala”. Water and Sanitation Advisor for Plan International, said: “we plan with the people, especially when it is about prioritizing of what is the pressing issue as regards to water supply. People have proved to know more of their problems than we think. That has helped us to easily implement our water and sanitation programmes because we are accepted by the community”. Further, NGOs have created awareness through training. Water Aid for instance has trained the Tungi CBO in Temeke municipality to decide on their destiny as far as water supply and sanitation is concerned. Plan International has extensive programmes in some parts of Ilala municipality about the water and sanitation services and the implication of their deficiency in the society.

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4.4.5 Organisational culture The culture of an organisation is an amalgamation of the values and beliefs of the people in an organisation. Each institution has own set of values and beliefs that it has evolved over the course of operation through education, experiences and upbringing. Experts argue that the degree of equality and how power is distributed in public institutions is characterised by some getting more privileges than others. For instance, high ranked officials in the ministry of water, DAWASA and DAWASCO have housing allowance, transport while others don’t have. In theory, this called high power distance. The system is authoritarian since in practice employees in these organisations receive orders. Respondents from NGOs revealed that employees are fairly treated in terms of privileges as they all have benefits like housing and transport allowance regardless of their rank. Uncertainty avoidance, which measures the degree of acceptance of unclear, ambiguous situations, is evident in Dar es Salaam institutions. This is lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules. This dimensions measures the extent to which people in the organization feel threatened by and try to avoid ambiguous situations. They may do this by establishing more formal rules, rejecting deviant ideas and behaviors, and accepting the possibility of absolute truths and the attainment of unchallengeable expertise. It took the researcher three weeks to manage to talk with some officials in the ministry of water and DAWASA, yet they were hesitant to say about the water and sanitation situation in the city since they were not spokespersons and they were of the opinion that the researcher waits for permanent secretary to say or appoint someone to say ministry matters. Table.17; Capacity of institutions in terms of organisational culture

INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS M

inis

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er

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

AT

ER

AID

,C

AR

E

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es A

cade

mic

in

stitu

tions

Priv

ate

vend

ors

Low power distance 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 0 0 Uncertainty avoidance 3 3 3 2 2 3 1 0 0

individualism/collectivism 3 3 3 2 1 3 2 3 3 Treatment of customers 1 1 1 3 3 1 2 3 3 Informal relationship 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 0 0

Organisational culture

Formal relationship 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 2 0 Average score 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2 2. 1.8 1.3 1 Source: Field Survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good Individualism of institutions is a clear culture in the city. All respondents in the study admitted that they (institutions) are not participative in their operations. Each institution works independently. This reduces the capacity to deliver services. However, experts noted that informal relationship of people in public institutions is stronger than in NGOs and private companies. They said decisions are made not in official ways, but it depends on ones influence and how one is related to the other. If organizations are to do well in services delivery in the city of Dar es Salaam, informal relationship has to be well known and taken into account when planning and implementing activities. Experts continued to say customers are not a

42

priority in public institutions as they (institutions) are not accountable to them and not customer oriented. To them, a customer is not a “king”. 4.4.6. Summary of institutional performance the poor performance of institutions is a result of lack of governance, constituency empowerment, technical skills are not fully applied and poor networking. The privates and vendors are the weakest institutions while NGOs are better off. Table. 18. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional performance Institution Criteria for assesment

Min

istry

of

w

ater

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

ATE

R

AID

&C

AR

E CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

Program results

1.2 1.2 1.2 1.8 1 1.3 1.7 0.8 0.8

Networking and external relations

1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.7 0.7

Application of technical knowledge

1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 2. 0.7 0.7

Constituency empowerment

0.5 0.5 0.5 2.5 3 1 0.3 0.7 0.7

Institutional Performance

Culture 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2 2. 1.8 1.3 1 Average score 1.3 1.3 1.3 2 1.6 1.2 1.3 1 1 Source: Field Survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

4.5. Institutional Sustainability

Whether these institutions can continue to operate effectively or not depends on number of factors currently prevailing in an organisation. These factors are like organizational autonomy, leadership and organizational learning 4.5.1. Organizational autonomy DAWASA and DAWASCO are semi autonomous organizations. They can decide their matters up to a certain level where approval is sought from higher levels of government. Apart from seeking approval from higher levels, they are also supposed to seek permission from other organizations like municipalities, to give permission on where to lay pipes. The sustainability of these organizations depends much on the relationship among themselves. Treasurer of DAWASCO said they need approval from funding agencies. The only money they can use on their own is money from user charges that is meant for day to day operations. According to reports from NGOs, they also seek approval for the performance of any project on land from local authorities, while CBOs seek approval from both international organizations and the municipalities. This kind of approval seeking delays implementation of projects. In the case of Ilala, Temeke and Kinondoni, they are key to the sustainability of other organizations since their approval makes these organizations work in the areas they operate.

43

Table.19; Capacity of institutions in terms of organizational autonomy INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS

M

inis

try o

f wat

er

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

ATE

R

AID

&C

AR

E

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

Financial autonomy 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 3

Take decision without interferance

3 1 1 3 2 2 2 3 3

Has legal personality 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 0

Decision on the structure of the organisation

3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 0

Interventional autonomy-organisation is subject to audit

3 3 3 3 2 3 3 0 0

Organizational autonomy

Take decision without consultation of the government

3 1 1 3 3 1 2 3 3

Average score 3 1.6 1.6 3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 1.5 Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good 4.5.2. Leadership Institutions in the city of Dar es Salaam lack leadership and coordination. A respondent from one of the three municipalities in the city says “People have a culture of laziness; they don’t have a good language to customers, just violating work ethics. Leadership should be able to ensure tasks are done in practice and not just wait for reports to be brought” In their operations, no any institution takes the charge of assuming leadership as each goes on its own. Leadership in the city is unique to every organisation, and it follows organisational culture and other environment that are special to it. This sometimes needs to be harmonised and be able to mix many organisations and work together, and then assume one leadership in the sector of water supply and sanitation. Table.20; Capacity of institutions in terms of leadership

INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS M

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DA

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PLA

N,W

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CB

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Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

managing culture 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 setting direction 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 supporting resource development 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 0 0

Leadership

ensuring tasks are done 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 3 Average score 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

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4.5.3. Organizational learning Experts interviewed showed there is individualism in institutions in the city of Dar es Salaam. They argued that, in their course of pursuing activities, organizations have to learn from each other. In practice in Dar es Salaam, organizations hardly learn from local people. They think they know better the problems of people than the people themselves. The challenge in this case is to build learning organizations. Sustainability can easily be compromised if learning is not taken seriously. Interview with all NGOs involved in the study show that they have an NGO forum where they also share information, but not with public institutions. Table.21 Capacity of institutions in terms of organizational learning

INSTITUTIONS CRITERIA INDICATORS M

inis

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er

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

ATE

R

AID

&C

AR

E

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

Selection of issues 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 1 Analysis of issues 2 2 2 3 1 2 3 0 0 Exploration of issues 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 0 0 Responses to people’s reactions 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3 Information sharing 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 0 0

Organizational learning

Feedback accomodation 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 0 Average score 1.5 1.5 1.5 3 1.8 1.5 2 1 0.6 Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good All respondents admitted that they set goals, but they hardly reflect to what they have done so that they can have a corrective action. Goals are never revised even if they prove failure. Evaluation is also not a culture of public agencies while NGOs do to their extent. “DAWASA and DAWASCO have no tendency of learning how people feel about their services. They don’t have feedback systems. They are not ready to be stimulated by problems; it is questionable whether they select, analyse, explore and respond to problems accordingly”, this is according to one expert from UCLAS. And if they do, it is always a temporary solution. This is well exemplified by the permanent cholera in the city which is mainly due to shortage and unsafe water in some parts of the city especially in squatters. People and organizations complain about this problem, but it keeps on repeating every year. Had these organizations learned from other organizations, probably they could have gotten a solution for these problems. 4.5.4. Summary of Sustainability the study shows that there are opportunities for institutions to be sustainable since policy environment supports them, there is political support and donors are willing to fund projects. The problems of organisations are poor learning, lack of autonomy and poor leadership. However, leadership and poor governance show big weakness that threatens the future well being services in the city.

45

Table 22. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional Sustainability Institution Criteria for assesment M

inis

try

of

wat

er

DA

WA

SA

DA

WA

SCO

PLA

N,W

ATE

R

AID

&C

AR

E

CB

O

mun

icip

aliti

es

Aca

dem

ic

inst

itutio

ns

Priv

ate

vend

ors

Organizational autonomy

3 1.6 1.6 3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 1.5

Leadership

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Institutional Sustainability

Organizational learning

1.5 1.5 1.5 3 1.8 1.5 2 1 0.6

Average score 2 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.9 1.8 2 1.5 1.2 Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

4.6. Conclusion

In actual fact as per data shown above, theories about institutional capacity developed by Jery van Sant and others are applicable in the city of Dar es Salaam. Institutional resources, institutional performance and institutional sustainability are characterised by low capacity as revealed in the interview with all respondents in the study. The assessement shows that as regards to institutions, NGOs are better off since they are above average compared to public institutions while vendors and private institutions are the weakest. Table. 23. Summary of institutional capacity Institution Criteria for assesment

Ministry of water

DAWASA

DAWASCO

PLAN,WATER AID&CARE

CBO municipalities

Academic institutions

Private vendors

Institutional Resources

1.5 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.8

Institutional Performance

1.3 1.3 1.3 2 1.6 1.2 1.3 1 1

Institutional Sustainability

2 1.5 1.5 3 1.9 1.8 2 1.5 1.2

Average score per institution

1.6 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.3 1

Source: Field survey 2005 Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good However, in terms of resources, performance and sustainability, all institutions are below average indicating that they can not reach goals. Institutional performance is the worst while sustainability is a bit promissing due to acceptance of institutions by the public, political support and other factors explained in this chapter.

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CHAPTER FIVE

FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1. Introduction

The findings, recommendations and conclusions are drawn from the relationship between theory, actual situation of water supply and sanitation and institutional capacity. In theory, institutional capacity, as proved by different scholars is affected by a number of factors such as culture, political environment, human resources, organising capacity, leadership, organisational structure, poor information and finance to mention a few. Delivering of required services is subject to three aspects which are institutional resources, institutional performance practices and sustainability of a given organisation. In Dar es Salaam, theories on measuring capacity are applicable. All institutions involved in the study are lacking resources, have poor performance and not expected to be sustainable if serious measures are not taken to rectify the situation.(Annex 5 shows general and specific findings and recommendations)

5.2. Findings

According to assessment based on the theory, and the three criteria of institutional resources, institutional performance and institutional sustainability, all institutions have their capacity low which means that there is no way they can deliver water supply and sanitation services to the required standard. Institutional performance is terribly poor. Institutions have never met targets set in NPES, MDGs and National Water Policy. They have poor financial allocations, programmes are slowly completed, absence of coordination, lack of technical skills application and lack of customer empowerment. Each institution works in isolation without knowing what the other institution is doing at the other side leading to conflict of interests. The capacity in terms of institutional resources is low. This is due to poor governance, lack of finance and poor management practices. In terms of human resources, public institutions have qualified staffs who are lowly motivated due to low salaries and lack of incentives. Legal framework is another strength institutions have. With an exceptional of vendors and individual private operators, other institutions operate legally and recognised by law. This is a big tool that is not utilised to enable institutions deliver services. Though under capacity, study show that institutional sustainability is possible with all the institutions in the city. Available donor support like World Bank, IDA, and the government assures continuity of services provision. All the policies regarding water supply and sanitation such as National Water Policy and National Poverty Eradication give good environment for all institutions to do well. There is also good political support though not predictable as it can turn against any institution that seems not fulfilling their interest.

47

Table. 24. Summary of average institutional capacity Institution Criteria for assesment

Ministry of water

DAWASA

DAWASCO

PLAN,WATER AID&CARE

CBO municipalities

Academic institutions

Private

vendors Average score per assessment criteria

Institutional Resources

1.5 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.8 1.4

Institutional Performance

1.3 1.3 1.3 2 1.6 1.2 1.3 1 1 1.3

Institutional Sustainability

2 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.9 1.8 2 1.5 1.2 1.7

Average score per institution

1.6 1.4 1.4 2.3 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.3 1

Source: Field survey 2005 (see section 4) Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

5.3. Recommendations

Service delivery can improve only if there is serious capacity building for key institutions engaged in the issue of water supply and sanitation in the city. All aspects of institutional capacity need to be improved. But aspects like performance, heavy investment and special attention is required. Investment should be directed to build the capacity of institutions in terms of governance, coordination, networking and culture. Governance is the key aspect to be given weight in the improvement process if institutions are to perform well. Institutions may have funds, enough human resources and other important resources, but if there is lack of accountability, transparency, participation and rule of law to mention a few, programmes will always end in vein and shortage of water supply and poor sanitation services will continue. The private sector is the weakest, so it needs to be enabled and this is possible through improvement in governance. The private sector needs to be prepared before they are given tasks and since they lack capital; and they have to be given full support to be able to deliver water supply and sanitation services. When the private sector improves, it can fully participate in the services delivery that has been publicly dominated for a long time. Improvement in services delivery in the city can also be attained if attention is given to attract huge private capital to invest in water supply and sanitation services. This can be done by “city marketing” to show investors what potentials the city has that can enable service delivery by private companies. When marketing, investors have to be assured of their capital that it cannot be lost anyhow.

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Institutions in the city of Dar es Salaam need to organise their capacity, i.e. they have to come together, set one goal, combine resources and different strengths and deliver the service of water supply and sanitation. As per interview with all respondents, they are ready to form a network that can work as one thing. In order for the network to work properly, they need strong coordination. The question here comes, who will assume the responsibility of coordination? NGOs cited the city council to take initiatives and be the coordinator. This will harmonise their working environment and produce a better result. Institutional restructuring is required especially in public institutions like DAWASA and DAWASCO, which are the main actors in water supply and sanitation services in the city. They have to be output oriented, reduce bureaucracy and be responsive to customer demands and day-to-day problems.

5.4. Conclusions

To achieve the Millennium Development Goals in 2015 in Dar es Salaam is not possible. The capacity of institutions in terms of resources, performance and sustainability is extremely low. This situation suggests that poverty in relation to water supply and sanitation will increase instead of being reduced. Institutions are now the agents of worsening the situation. The state of water supply and sanitation in the city of Dar es Salaam should be treated as emergency case that needs a special attention to serve residents. People have to drink safe and clean water and access sanitary facilities to a required standard. Achieving MDGs need strong institutions in all aspects of resources, performance and sustainability. It seem in this case the MDGs targets are too ambitious and did not take into account of capacities of different local situations, as a result, objectives are just there for evaluation and not solve people’s problems like poverty.

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3. Blockland, M, Braadbaart, O & Schwartz, K. (1999). Private Business, Public Owner: government shareholdings in water companies (enterprises). Niuewegein: VROM, 213 p.

4. Brilhante, O.Frank, E. (2003). Municipal Environmental Planning and Management Training. IHS. Rotterdam, The Netherlands

5. Charles Lusthaus, Gary Anderson, and Elaine Murphy (1995). A Framework for Strengthening Organizational Capacity for IDRC's Research Partners(http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html downloaded on 16/6/2005)

6. CJK Latham (2002). Institutional Complexity and the Management of Water as a Common Pool Resource: 3rd WaterNet/Warfsa Symposium 'Water Demand Management for Sustainable Development', Dar es Salaam, 30-31 October 2002. Centre for Applied Social Sciences University of Zimbabwe (Email: ecoed@mango.zw or ecoed@ecoweb.co.zw)

7. Gisele Silva, Nicola Tynan, And Yesin Yilmaz (1998). Public Policy for the Private Sector; Private Participation in the Water and Sewerage Sector-Recent Trends. The World Bank Group

8. Halfani, (1997). The challenge of urban governance in Africa, in: M.Swilling(Ed). Governing Africa’s cities, pp13-34. Johannesburg, Witwatersrand university press. South Africa.

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11. Jerry Van Sant (2000). Frameworks for assessing the institutional capacity of PVOs and NGOs. Duke University (online at http://www.manageforresults.com/JV_framework.pdf.) (downloaded on 15/06/2005)

12. Kevin Taylor and Jonathan Parkinson (2000). Linking Strategy and Practice in urban sanitation provision. International Journal of Appropriate Technologies for water supply and sanitation. Waterline .Vol.19 no.1 July 2000

13. Kombe W.J (2005).Community-led Water Management Experiences in Dar es Salaam-Tanzania UN-Habitat/DPU Workshop 7th-8th March, 2005 Nairobi-Kenya

14. Kyessi, A. G. (2002). Community Participation in Urban Infrastructure Provision: Servicing Informal Settlements in Dar es Salaam. Spring Rearch Series No. 33. Dortmund, Germany

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15. Leo van den Berg, eric Braun and Jan van der Meer (1997). Metropolitan Oganising

Capacity: experiences with Organising Major Projects in European Cities. Ashgate Publishing Limited, England.

16. Lerise, F.S and Kyesi, A.G (2002), Trends of Urban Poverty in Tanzania. Unpublished Report, Dar es Salaam Tanzania.

17. Madzivanyika, Joel (2000). Managing urban water, reorienting institutions to achieve efficiency in water supply: the case of Harare – Zimbabwe. Thesis report. IHS, Rotterdam. The Netherlands

18. Mashauri, 1999). Operational Model of Public-Private Partnership in the Provision of Water Supply and Sanitation. 1st WARFSA/WaterNet Symposium: Sustainable Use of Water Resources, Maputo, 1-2 November 2000. (http://www.iwsd.co.zw/Papers%5CMashauri.pdf (downloaded on 15/06/2005)

19. Nick Devas (2001). “Does The City Governance Matter for the Urban Poor?” International planning studies. Vol 6, no 4 pp 393-408

20. Sumila Gulyani, Debabrata Talukdar, and R. Mukami Kariuki 2005) Water for the Urban Poor: Water Markets, Household Demand, and Service Preferences in Kenya. Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Board Discussion Paper Series P A P E R N O. 5 J AN N U A R Y 2 0 0 5. THE WORLD BANK GROUP. Available online at (http://www.worldbank.org/watsan/(downloaded on 16/6/2005)

21. United Republic of Tanzania (1998). Declaration on Poverty Eradication in Tanzania. Government Printers, Dar es Salaam-Tanzania

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28. URT (2004). National Water Sector Development Strategy - Circulation Draft, June 2004 11, Dare es Salaam, Tanzania

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ANNEXES

Annex 1. Institutional Capacity Assessment Models The authors have determined these composite clusters and the organization of the characteristics of the selected models into the particular clusters of the matrix. References and additional information on the institutional capacity models are as follows: "ISR" (Institutional Self Reliance).6 In this framework, originally prepared for the UNDP, assessment categories are clustered by Institutional Formation (institutional stock, human resources, and financial resources), Institutional Function (management, environmental mastery, program delivery) and Institutional Condition (Character, Leadership). Each assessment category is further defined by a set of indicators measuring the related attributes. The concept of "institutional stock" in this framework refers to the physical, technical, and structural resources possessed by, controlled by or otherwise available to the institution. These resources, along with human and financial resources, comprise the systemic assets of an organization that are then converted into functional outputs and impact. "OCAT"7(Organizational Assessment Capacity Tool). There are the following subheadings: Governance (Board, Mission/Goal, Constituency, Leadership, Legal Status); Management Practices (Organizational Structure, Information Systems, Administrative Procedures, Personnel, Planning, Program Development, Program Reporting); Human Resources (Human Resources Development, Staff Roles, Work Organization, Diversity Issues, Supervisory Practices, Salary and Benefits); Financial Resources (Accounting, Budgeting, Financial/Inventory controls, Financial Reporting); Service Delivery (Sectoral Expertise, Constituency Ownership, Impact Assessment), External Relations (Constituency Relations, Inter-NGO Collaboration, Government Collaboration, Donor Collaboration, Public Relations, Local Resources, Media); Sustainability (Program/Benefit Sustainability, Organizational Sustainability, Financial Sustainability, Resource Base Sustainability). OCAT categorizes NGOs into four distinct stages of development according to their competence in the seven OCAT components of organizational effectiveness. OCAT defines these stages as nascent, emerging, expanding, and mature. An NGO is not necessarily at the same stage of development on all the components. "DOCA"8 is based on "New Directions in Organizational Capacity Building". DOCA was designed to be used by a PVO’s (Private Voluntary Organizations) own "capacity team" working alongside a trained facilitator. The assessment process itself should model the organizational change it is designed to promote. Uniquely in DOCA, assessment is keyed to group discussion of "critical incidents that are "closely connected to the organization’s ability to promote significant and lasting change." DOCA provides two kinds of measures: a capacity score (perceptions of strengths and weaknesses) and a consensus score (degree of agreement among assessment team). There is no clustering in the DOCA framework but the six "capacity areas" in the DOCA framework each serves as a category for a number of related attributes that are the basis for measurement. Its creators see DOCA as a "process tool" for capacity building, not a static

6 Institutional Self Reliance: A Framework for Assessment" by Jerry VanSant (Center for International Development Working Paper, Research Triangle Institute, 1991). 7 Organizational Assessment Capacity Tool: A Handbook on Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation" (PACT, 1996) 8 "New Directions in Organizational Capacity Building" (1998 DOCA Workshop Report, PACT and EDC, 1998).

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assessment tool. It can be "redesigned" each time by the particular community using it; that is, the categories are guidelines, not fixes parameters. "TTAP"9 is based on "Training and Technical Assistance Plan". TTAP is a process-oriented approach in which each capacity component is used as the basis for a participatory workshop session. The six components in the TTAP framework and their related subheadings are Financial Sustainability (Funding Sources, Fundraising, Financial Management); Governance (Mission/Objectives, Governing Body/Board, Process of Decision Making); Products and Services (Customers, Feedback, Product Promotion); Human Resources (Staff, Members, Volunteers); Management (Administration, Information Systems, Reporting); Interaction with the Environment (Public Relations, Business Relations, Mass Media). For each of these, TTAP provides indicators representing "productive activity" and "needs urgent attention" as a basis for discussion. "ISA"10 is the "Institutional Strength Assessment". A particular feature of ISA is its identification of "use and management of technical knowledge and skills" as a category separate from management skills of human resources. This seems appropriate for service delivery organizations (health services in the case of the organizations for which ISA is being developed). ISA is being designed to support participatory self-assessment that CSTS has determined is preferred by most NGO to external assessment of institutional capacity. "IDF"11 refers to the Institutional Development Framework developed by Management Systems International (MSI). It is part of a broader toolkit that also includes an Institutional Development Profile (a graphic representation of an organization’s rank on each assessment component) and an Institutional Development Calculation sheet (a table format for tracking progress on each component). Together these are designed to help an organization determine where it stands on a variety of organizational components, identify priority areas of improvement, set targets, and measure progress over time. IDF identifies five capacity areas, largely focused on organizational resources. These include Oversight/Vision (board, mission, autonomy, Management Resources, Human Resources, Financial Resources, and External Resources (ability to work with communities, government, other NGOs). "OCI"12 is the "Organizational Capacity Indicator". It is not intended as a standardized methodology but rather a framework within which an organization can create its own capacity monitoring tool through a process of sharing experiences related to each component of capacity. The objective is for each organization to be able to measure itself against its own vision for the future. There is no clustering in the OCI framework. CRWRC (Christian Reformed World Relief Committee), however, offers a separate set of attributes of effective partnership: practice appreciation, contextualize everything, think organically, emphasize learning, and create systems for mutual accountability.

9 Training and Technical Assistance Plan" (Counterpart International, 1999). 10 Institutional Strength Assessment" Methodology developed under the USDAID/PVC-supported Child Survival Technical Support Project (CSTS) implemented by Macro International, Inc. ISA is itself a compilation of common areas of institutional capacity based on a review of sixteen instruments developed in the 1995-1999 period (including DOSA, OCAT, and OCI). 11 refers to the Institutional Development Framework developed by Management Systems International (MSI). 12 is the "Organizational Capacity Indicator" scale of the Christian Reformed World Relief Committee (CRWRC) drawn from "Partnering to Build and Measure Organizational Capacity" (CRWRC, 1997)

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"Fisher"13 is based on Non governments: NGOs and the Political Development of the Third world, by Julie Fisher (Kumarian Press, 1997). The attributes noted in the matrix are not presented as an organizational capacity framework as such. Rather they are described as the keys to organizational autonomy which Ms. Fisher believes is the most important attribute for NGOs to be effective in their local context. Because Fisher’s study is probably the most rigorously research-based of any of the capacity frameworks discussed here, it is worth including. Several attributes are unique to her presentation such as an organization’s basic commitment to autonomy, its ability to use research-based social and managerial knowledge to undergird policy advocacy, and its field-based experience training government workers (particularly relevant to developing policy influence). Also worthy of note is the "NGO Sustainability Index"14. This index differs from the organizational assessment tools above in two major respects. First, it measure’s the collective strength of the NGO sector in a country or region. Second, it measures not only organizational attributes but also recognizes the importance of factors in the environment that affect NGO development and sustainability. Factors in the NGO Sustainability Index include: The Legal Environment, Organizational Capacity, Financial Viability, The Political and Advocacy Environment, NGO Public Image and Service Provision Effectiveness

13 Is based on Non governments: NGOs and the Political Development of the Third world, by Julie Fisher (Kumarian Press, 1997). 14 Developed by the Office of Democracy and Governance of USAID’s Bureau for Europe and Eurasia.

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Annex 2. The Contract between the government and City Water Services in 2003 DAWASA HANDS OVER PROVISION OF WATER AND SEWERAGE SERVICES TO CITY WATER SERVICES

Today the Government represented by Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (DAWASA) has handed over the management and day to day provision of water and sewerage services to a private sector operator, City Water Services Limited. This is the final milestone in the divestiture of DAWASA and marks the successful conclusion and end of the transaction process. From now onwards DAWASA will transform itself and shape its activities as an asset holding authority. This will entail monitoring the Water and Sewerage Lease Contract it has entered into with City Water Services, ensuring compliance and overseeing the performance of the operator as well as supervising the implementation of the capital investment programme. Under the contract City Water Services Limited will act as the Operator and will manage and run the DAWASA network to provide water and sewerage services. City Water Services Limited is a company registered in Tanzania by the winning bidder, Biwater International of UK, in joint venture with Gauff Ingenieure of Germany as its majority shareholder together with Superdoll Trailer Manufacturer Co (T) Ltd of Tanzania as its minority shareholder. Since signing the Lease Contract in February 2003 a number of key activities have been completed to enable City Water Services to take over the operations from DAWASA. PSRC, DAWASA and City Water Services have worked together in the past months to ensure a smooth handover of leased assets, staff and responsibilities from DAWASA to City Water Services Limited. The Government has also finalised the financing arrangements for the capital investment programme with the World Bank. The Biwater Group has a wealth of experience as an operator in the water sector worldwide, having operations in South Africa, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines, Chile, Belize and the UK. Gauff Ingenieure is a firm of consulting engineers and has worked extensively in East Africa with offices in Dar es Salaam. It also operates the Malindi water supply system in Kenya under amanagement contract. The Biwater/Gauff JV consortium was selected as the winning bidder and awarded the Lease Contract after a competitive tendering process.

-------------------------- ------------------------

Mr. John C. Rubambe EXECUTIVE CHAIRMAN PSRC

Mr. Graham Gorrod Ag. CEO City Water Services Ltd

Mr. A. Mutalemwa CEO, DAWASA

1st August, 2003 Source: PSRC 2003 (http://www.psrctz.com/Press%20Releases/010803-Dawasa%20Handed%20Over.htm) 20/7/2005

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Annex 3. Termination of contract with City Water Services City Water gets final termination notice 2005-05-26 08:33:43 By Guardian Reporter

The government yesterday issued a final official notice to terminate its contract with City Water Services Limited (CWS), The Guardian has reliably learnt. Impeccable sources in the government said in Dar es Salaam that the contract was terminated effective yesterday morning and that the CWS management had already been served with the notice. It was further revealed that the notice was issued seven days from the date of the first notice (cure notice) as the contract between Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (Dawasa) and CWS required. Issuing of the cure notice prior to the final notice was meant to give CWS a chance to read through articles of the contract, the information said. According to one of the sources, notice was also intended to give the water firm seven days to make any objections or necessary amendments in the breach of contract terms. \'The fact that they have failed to make any amendments within the stipulated seven days, allows us to issue the final notice of termination of the contract,' the source said. Regarding the formation of Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation (Dawasco), the source said that the new company is a public entity therefore it would not be necessary to register it with Business Registration and Licensing Agency (Brela). The government made public its decision to terminate the contract with City Water, a private company charged with supplying water in Dar es Salaam, on May 13. Water and Livestock Development Minister Edward Lowassa made the announcement through the press after a Cabinet meeting chaired by President Benjamin Mkapa upheld the decision to terminate the contract upon being satisfied that the water firm had breached lease terms. However, a few days later, the CWS management expressed disagreement with the decision and said it would take legal action. It also claimed that the government misled it right from the bidding stage and as a result the company incurred losses. The government leased the responsibility of supplying water in Dar es Salaam to City Water for a period of 10 years on August 1, 2003.

• SOURCE: GUARDIAN

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Annex 4. Complaints about water shortage in the city Water-starved people seek help from God 2005-06-05 08:39:42 by Simon Kivamwo Over 300,000 residents of Kimara Mwisho, Baruti, Kibo Kona, Msewe, Rombo and Ubungo in Dar es Salaam, are suffering silently from an acute shortage of water that has persistently hit the areas for over two consecutive years. Under normal circumstances, the residents were supposed to be among the city?s population enjoying important services such as water, electricity and others since their houses are located along the Morogoro road highway and the major water pipeline connecting upper Ruvu water pump and the city centre. However, that has not been the case, according to follow-ups by the Sunday Observer. Residents interviewed by this reporter complained that they are perennially prone to epidemics such as cholera, bilharzia and typhoid, and, in tones full of resignation, said they had surrendered their fate to God’s intervention. They said they constantly pray to Him to open up the skies so that they get clean and safe water. Their point is that, the concerned water authorities, and the government in general, seem to have completely ignored them. Delivery of safe water is now guaranteed only through rain, they said, pointing out that the other alternative is buying the vital liquid from water vendors who peddle the product in unhygienic containers. A three-day follow-up by the Sunday Observer has established that residents of the areas in question embracing middle and low income earners are facing critical hardships in the wake of the water scarcity. Ms Vailet Kengero, who resides near Mavurunza Primary School, made a shocking revelation: 'For quite long time we have been using for domestic use, impure water from a butchery. She added: we use the water for washing clothes, cleaning premises and utensils. In case of drinking we are forced to hunt for the boys (water vendors). They charge us up to 200/= (0.2US$) per container. Ms Kengero said the situation has persisted for some three years. Our survival lies in the hands of God, she remarked. Gaspar Uiso, a resident of Kona, some 15 kilometres from the city centre, said had it not rained two weeks ago, I would have been currently talking a different story. The water my family is using comes from my water reservoirs? Thanks to the recent heavy downpour in Dar es Salaam. We harvested a lot of water. Uiso, who has lived at the area for 28 years, wonders why the Dar es Salaam water supply authorities seem to have ignored the residents. 'It puzzles every resident of the area. It is disappointing for us to live in the water scarcity environment despite the fact that the major water pipeline passes under our houses or plots,' he lamented. Previously, we didn't have this problem. Water was flowing everyday and life was simple, remarked Uiso, noting that, 'the bad era started some two or three years when each and everything collapsed. He pointed an accusing finger at water supply authorities for ignoring their plight. If it is not raining, he said, one has to dip into his/her constantly empty pocket to buy water from street vendors, most of who are not trustful and can source their water from anywhere, including ditches and other contaminated places. Uiso said he buys 20 buckets of 20 litres per day. This translates into 4,000/= (4 US$) per day. 'At least I can raise this amount from my activities, but think about fellow residents whose income is pitifully low'. Echoing the problem, Mathias Ndaigwa, the leader of cell No. 6, Msewe locality, wondered if the government really cared for its people. ? Sometimes, I do feel that we have been left to die silently from various epidemics, he remarked. Ndaigwa, who is in his 50s, expressed

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bitter misgivings against the city's presumed water suppliers for their indifference. 'Our problem was clearly known by the just kicked out City Water Services, our MP and the government at large, but to the surprise of everyone here, we have continued to be ignored,' Ndaigwa lamented further. According to Ndaigwa, the 'bad era' in his area started when the city water suppliers introduced a rationing scheme some four years ago. They introduced a scheme under which we were supposed to get water once a month? We didn’t complain. However, things got worse after it was arranged by the same authority that we should receive water at two-month intervals.’ The scheme, however, did not last long. It collapsed and we are no longer getting tap water,’ he said. Ndaigwa appealed to the newly introduced Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation (DAWASCO) to rush to their rescue. Manyusi Nyahunga of Kibo told this paper the water scarcity the area was experiencing, had prompted women to abandon income generating activities and embark on 'water hunting' expeditions. An anonymous staff at the Kimara’s DAWASCO office attributed the water problems to mismanagement. She said, for instance, the just kicked-out City Water Services (CWS), pursued discriminatory policies that lowered the morale of some workers. 'We hope that with the new management, our morale will be boosted so that we can work more efficiently to relieve the public of the water shortage burden,' she said. On his part, the newly installed DAWASCO?s Chief Executive Officer, Alex Kaaya ,said on Friday that his organization would give priority to water leakages, improvement of the billing system and an effective dialogue with the public. He said that although there were many other issues that needed their attention, they would initially concentrate on the core issue affecting delivery of water to the city residents. He pointed out that water leakages had become a nuisance within the city.'The situation is so bad that even if new machinery is installed to supply more water, it will not make much difference unless the rampant leakages are dealt with,' said the CEO. On the water situation in general, Kaaya said the existing infrastructure could not cope with the city demands. The population in the city, he said, far outnumbered the existing capacity. The infrastructure that was constructed some 54 years ago to cater for hardly 2,500 city residents is now supposed to cater for more than 3 million people. SOURCE: SUNDAY OBSERVER

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Annex 5. Institutions and their capacities to supply water and sanitation services in Dar es salaam Institution Criteria for assesment Ministry of

water DAWASA DAWASCO PLAN,WATER

AID&CARE Legal structure and governance

-central governement -low accountability -low transparency

-government agency -lack transparency -lack accountability

-government agency -lack transparency -lack accountability

-legal NGOs -medium transparency -medium accountability

Human resources

-enough experts -well trained -low salaries -low morale -underutilized -

-enough experts -well trained -low salaries -low morale -underutilized

-Shortage of experts -low paid -low morale

-enough -well trained -high salaries -high morale

Management systems and practices

-contract management -lease contract -poor monitoring

-lease contract -poor evaluation -poor monitoring

-contracting out -poor follow up -poor distribution of services

-contract management -better follow up -small coverage

Institutional Resources

Financial resources

-donor dependency -budget planned by experts -budget not well known -deficit budget -poor IT -poor financial control -80% allowance

-donor dependency -budget planned by experts -budget not well known -deficit budget -poor IT -poor financial control -80% allowance

-donor dependency -budget planned by experts -budget not well known -deficit budget -poor IT -poor financial control -80% allowance

-donor dependency -budget planned by experts -budget not well known -not enough budget -good IT -good financial control

15Program results

?

-about 10% success

-about 10% success

-about 10% success

Networking and external relations

1633% collaboration -strong with donors

33% collaboration -strong with donors -vertical network

33% collaboration -strong with donors

22% collaboration -strong with donors -strong with receipients

Application of technical knowledge

-underutilized -high political interference

-underutilized -high political interference

-underutilized -high political interference

-fully utilized -less political interference

Institutional Performance

Constituency empowerment

low no no -high participation

Organizational autonomy

high low low low

Leadership

Poor Poor Poor good

Organizational learning

Poor Poor Poor good

Institutional Sustainability

Cost recovery Poor Poor Poor no Source: Author 2005 15 based on the 2005 household survey done by statistical institute in dare s salaam 16 based on number of actors collaborating out of the total actors in the case study.

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Institution Criteria for assesment CBO municipalities Academic

institutions Private vendors

Legal structure and governance

-legal CBOs -medium transparency -medium accountability

-local authority -low accountability -rule of law

-government agency -good accountability -rule of law

-sole propriater -no accountability -no transparency

-sole propriater -no accountability -no transparency

Human resources

-not trained -volunteer -receive allowance

-enough experts -well trained -low salaries -low morale -underutilized

-not enough experts -well trained -low salaries -low morale -underutilized

-education not necessary -high morale

-education not necessary(low education) -high morale

Management systems and practices

-contract -water committees -elected workers

-lease contract -poor evaluation -poor monitoring

-lease contract -poor evaluation -poor monitoring

-own operation -own operation

Institutional Resources

Financial resources

-donor dependency -budget planned by community members -budget well known -deficit budget -poor IT -poor financial control

-revenue dependency -budget planned by experts -budget well known -deficit budget -poor IT -poor financial control -80% allowance

-donor dependency -budget planned by experts -budget not well known -deficit budget -good IT -poor financial control -80% allowance

-individual budget -no IT -poor financial control

-individual budget -no IT -poor financial control

Program results

10% Below 10% no More than 80% 10%

Networking and external relations

22% collaboration -strong with donors -strong with receipients

-no network No network no no

Application of technical knowledge

poor -underutilized -high political interference

-well utilized -low political interference

low no

Institutional Performance

Constituency empowerment

high low low no no

Organizational autonomy

low medium medium high high

Leadership

poor better better no no

Organizational learning

poor poor better good good

Institutional Sustainability

Cost recovery poor poor no good good Source: Author 2005

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Annex 6. Specific findings and recommendations Findings General findings

• Policy environment is conducive to every institution to do well in the sector. The National Water Policy of 2002 allows any institution to engage in the sector. It gives power to use the available opportunities of resources to improve the provision of water supply and sanitation services

• There is a good political support that encourages private sector participation in the issue of water supply and sanitation. This is revealed by the privatization of some activities formerly done by DAWASA to City Water Services company though the contract was terminated soon

• Qualified personnel are not a big problem as all institutions except vendors have higher education concerning the issue. The ministry of water, DAWASA and DAWASCO, the municipalities and higher learning institutions enjoy very qualified staff. The problem is that there is underutilization of these staff, and the situation is very severe in public institutions.

• All institutions have budget deficits. This leads to donor dependency syndrome which is a threat in case donors stop funding.

• All institutions involved in the study faces the problem of cost recovery due to poor billing system, low rate of revenue collection. This is more evident in DAWASCO where only about 23% of all registered customers pay their bills

• All institutions lack good governance. They have poor participation practices, less effective and they don’t have a good system of information dissemination and sharing. Customers are hardly involved in planning of projects and decision making.

• There is lack of coordination as revealed by all respondents in the study. • Data about supply not clear, so many researchers, different data about one thing, some

show there is no problem of water and sanitation in the city

Specific findings i) Public institutions

• Too low compensations of employees. In this case, salaries, incentives and wages are too low to support workers lives. This reduces morale to work and encourages corruptions and absenteeism in offices whereby people have to find some alternatives to cover the gap left by employers.

• They hardly adhere to schedules. • Expenditures always are more than they rise as revenue. This is more evident since the

central government has to cover the deficit for instance by paying salaries which takes about 80% of all the total spending of public institutions

• All the institutions in this category are well knowledgeable about contract management. In this case, almost all activities are done in a contract bases. A well example in this case is that of DAWASA entering a lease contract with a private company, City Water Services.

• Lack of internal control as revealed in the interview with officials in Ilala municipality. The study shows that employees go wild do whatever they think is okay; go to work at their convenient time without any proper control.

• ICT application is very limited; there are educated people but sometimes lack facilities to use. Chief Human Resources Officer with DAWASCO noted that they used to be better during City Water Services where information was computerised and networked, unlike the situation now where the use of files is rampant.

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• They hardly make sure that tasks are done, difficult to set directions according to the technicality of issues, but set directions according to political directions and decisions

ii) NGOs

• Compensation is high; it encourages and increases the morale of workers. This was proved right in all NGOs involved in the study. They have incentives like housing allowances.

• There is full utilization of workers as also noted throughout the interview with Plan International, Care International, WATSANET and Water Aid Tanzania. This is because they recruit according to available resources.

• ICT is highly applied with these institutions hence having reliable database and good financial control compared to their counterparts, the public institutions. This was also noted in all interviews and observation by the researcher who saw almost every employee having a computer on the table.

iii) CBOs

• These have high level of involvement of stakeholders from the level of project design to implementation level. The CBOs involved in the study which are Tungi and Tabata Development Fund (TDF) have the communities around trust them and consider them as their property. The coordinator for TDF noted that they involve stakeholders from the beginning to the end since even the coordinator is part of the community around there.

• They lack ICT and record keeping is an issues. This was observed during the interview where the researcher saw old files, no computers and even the workers lack skills to use computers.

iv) Private individuals • Lack capital to invest in such a big and demanding sector. What they do is to engage in

bulky supplies and deep wells. Lorry tankers available at every corner of the city shows that they can only manage to distribute to the needy at higher prices and empty toilets from individuals.

• They work hard in their activities to gain more profit. All respondents in this category said they take water from DAWASA systems and send around the city, especially in the outskirts of the city.

v) Vendors

• Their sources of water are questionable as they don’t only draw water from DAWASCO tapes or well known wells, but also they take water from river streams and canals which are polluted. This was observed during the study by the researcher who saw a good number of vendors drawing water from the river Msimbazi which is considered to be one of the most polluted streams in the city.

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Recommendations Recommendations made here are in the form of the three criteria for measuring institutional capacity which are institutional resources, institutional performance and institutional sustainability. The focus in this case is to encourage the use of strengths available to improve on the weakness, hence improve the services in water supply and sanitation. Institutional resources

• Improve revenue collection to improve cost recovery. This is possible since people are willing to pay, only that they need to know the real taxes and be involved in the sector in planning and implementation

• Organise capacity to solicit more funds from different stakeholders. This is because DAWASA and DAWASCO alone can not manage to deliver the services required in the city

• Improve the use of ICT to improve financial control, manage database and have good record system. All the municipalities can make use of qualified staff they have to improve services.

• Unnecessary spending should be reduced especially in public institutions so that large amount of money be invested in real projects

• Improve governance, i.e. reduce bureaucracy in public institutions, have regular reporting on the development of activities so that people are aware of the situation and find ways to mitigate the problems as they occur, involve people in the process of decision making and be accountable to the people they give services instead of only being accountable to employers. Rule of law is an important component that should be taken into account.

• Improve compensation to workers to motivate them improve effectiveness. Salaries, allowances and incentives are key to factors seen in the study which affects services delivery and encourage corruption if they are not good enough.

Institutional performance

• Make efficient use of available resources like funds from donors which are readily available to reach targets. The World Bank and other donors are always the biggest funders of water and sanitation projects in the city of Dar es Salaam

• Improve productive efficiency, i.e. improve production in exchange for expenditure and capital invested in a project. Normally institutions here spend more input for less output.

• Improve allocative efficiency, i.e. institutions should reflect the preferences of the citizens or their representatives. In this case, organisation should allocate more money to serve the poor area and unplanned ones instead of concentrating to areas already well served.

• Improve linkage among institutions, work together as one team. One body should be formed for the purpose. In this case, all the funds available should be directed to that body instead of going to different organisations, and each actor will be assigned a project to do

• The Dar es Salaam city council and the three municipalities of Ilala, Temeke and Kinondoni should take the role of coordination of different stakeholders instead of the current practice of each actor doing its job. In this case, the city council has to contact different institutions to organise their capacity and improve services delivery.

• Increase the rate of customer involvement in all stages of project development, i.e. from project planning to implementation

• Institutions also should set SMART objectives to be able to meet them. Objectives set in the MDGs and NPES perhaps are too ambitious to achieve and the city council should

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have its own water policy instead of using the national water policy since the city is too unique to miss a policy.

Sustainability

• Cost recovery should be given more priority among all activities in DAWASCO so that they can have more money to invest. The current rate of revenue collection is discouraging, 23% of all registered customers cannot guarantee good performance in the future.

• Use the loophole provided in the water policy since it provides a good environment for partnership, private sector participation and many more

• Affordability should be considered in setting tariffs especially to serve the poor. The current situation is not affordable to poor who pays more for less water compared to the rich who pay less for more water. This encourages illegal connection and corruption.

• Information sharing should be improved. This will help gain different experiences from different organisations, and manage to get solution for problems that would be difficult to be solved easily.

• Institutions should be “learning organisations”. They should be able to learn from each other, listen to people’s opinions and use them whenever possible. Complaints about water shortage in the city of Dar es Salaam are like a national anthem where everybody can sing it. But institutions like DAWASCO react very slowly.