Master thesis Master thesis - Department of Computer Science
Master Thesis
Transcript of Master Thesis
AMERICANS AND ARABS:HOW THEY PERCEIVE EACH OTHER
by
TALAL ALMUTAIRI
2007
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to examine the perceptions and attitudes of
Americans and Arabs toward each other. Using the coorientational model, this study
attempted to describe and compare the perceptual patterns that Arabs and Americans
hold in regard to themselves and each other. Three hundred American students and
Arab students comprised the sample of the study. They were asked to complete a
survey that included 55 statements regarding their attitude toward each other. To
detect the mass media effect on Americans and Arabs' attitudes and perceptions
toward each other, the 'social construction of reality' theory was used to interpret the
findings of this study.
The overall results indicated that the American and Arab students held quite
negative attitudes toward and perceptions of each other. Both groups’ participants had
limited or no direct experience with the other group, and they relied on the media as
their primary source of information about the other group. Therefore, there is little
question that the media have an important role in improving the relationship between
Arab nations and the United States.
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TABLE OF CONTENTSLIST OF FIGURES ii
LIST OF TABLES iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
INTRODUCTION 1
LITERATURE REVIEW 8 Arabs perception of Americans 8 Americans perception of Arabs 9 Coorientation model 10 Research questions 16
METHODOLOGY 17 Participants 17 Questionnaire 18 Translation 20 Pretest 21
DATA ANALYSIS 22 Factor analysis 22 Reliability tests 25 T-tests 26
RESULTS 27 Descriptive analysis 27 Coorientation variables 32
DISCUSSION 43 How do Arabs view Americans beliefs and attitudes? 43 How do Americans view Arabs beliefs and attitudes? 45 Social construction of reality 47 Conclusion 48
REFERENCES 50
APPENDIX 55
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Coorientational measure model 12
Figure 2: Coorientational model for large social group (Arabs and Americans) 15
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Factors and Reliabilities 23
Table 2: Demographic profiles of the American sample by University 29
Table 3: Demographic profiles of the Arab sample by country 30
Table 4: Agreement variables 34
Table 5: Arab sample accuracy of Americans' views 35
Table 6: American sample accuracy of Arabs' views 36
Table 7: Arab sample congruency variable 40
Table 8: American sample congruency variable 41
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Robert Meeds,
Dr. Bill Adams, and Dr. Steve Smethers. This thesis would have been impossible
without their advice and help. I owe much gratitude to my friends who helped me
distributed the questionnaire in five Arabic countries. Finally, I will like to thank my
wonderful family for encouragement throughout this time.
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INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Many studies had been done on the relationship between Arabs and
Americans, especially from a political perspective. Yet, no actual communication
research providing in-depth information about the perceptions and the attitudes held
by the two groups toward each other exists. This study seeks to clarify some counter
cultural perceptions held by Arabs and Americans in relationship to one another, from
different angles including religion, stereotypes, values and personal characteristics.
The study will also investigate the impact that the media may have in shaping the two
groups' perceptions. Knowing what information the other needs or wants is critical for
both groups in terms of resolving misunderstandings and reaching a middle ground
for dialogue.
It is no secret that there are misunderstandings between Arab countries and the
United States; relations have, historically, been troublesome. The events of
September 11, 2001 and the situation in Iraq are clear indications that the relationship
has reached the most serious negative point on the intensity scale. National surveys,
conducted by different polling agencies, indicate that Arabs are strongly united in
their negative perceptions of the United States (Kohut 2003; Pew, 2002; Zogby,
2002). Also, the negative perception of Americans toward Arabs –apparently less
intense- has been revealed by surveys and studies (DeFluer 2002; Pew 2002).
Although these sentiments existed years ago, they have recently become sharp and,
possibly, antagonistic.
It is noteworthy to explain the reason that Arabs are specifically delineated in
this study, rather than all people or countries of the Middle East. The entire Middle
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East was not included as the subject of this study because: 1) scholars cannot agree on
the boundaries of the region, 2) Middle Eastern countries are composed of individuals
of considerable ethnic, religious, and even linguistic diversity; in addition, levels of
wealth, education, and secularization also vary widely, and 3) the Middle East
includes two non-Arab countries about which Americans hold extreme attitudes, Iran
and Israel.
Iran conjures up a very negative image in the minds of many Americans, so
much so that Shelly Slade states, "no other group in recent history, with the exception
perhaps of the Japanese during World War 2, has had as bad an image in the United
States as have the Iranians" (Slade, 1981). On the other hand, Israel has a very
positive image in American minds, causing many to sympathize with Israel. This
support is nonpartisan, with a majority of Democrats and Republicans consistently
favoring Israel by large margins over Arabs. This was indicated by the response of
most Americans to the following question that was asked as part of a Gallup poll: “In
the Middle East situation, are your sympathies more with Israel or with the Arab
nations?” Since 1988, Americans are much more likely to sympathize with the
Israelis (59 percent) than with the Palestinians (15 percent), with the remaining 26
percent not taking either side or not having an opinion (Jones, 2006).
Sources of negative perceptions
Most scholars agree on the existence of mostly negative perceptions of Arabs
and Americans in reference to each other. This section summarizes the possible
reasons for the negative perceptions. There are four predominant points of view in
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reference to this issue. Some believe that the religion of most Arabs is the main
source for the negative perceptions. Others believe that the United States' foreign
policy is the main cause. The third group supports the belief that Arab internal state
policies and low economic development are the causes of existing anti-American
attitudes. The fourth group of scholars believes public communication to be the cause
of negative perceptions.
Scholar Group One
Lewis (2001), a pre-eminent expert on the Middle East, believes that the
reason behind the negative perceptions that most Americans hold toward Arabs
involves the nature of Islam as a religion; followers of Islam see themselves as "the
center of truth and enlightenment," and others as "infidel barbarians." Lewis states
that,
In the classical Islamic view, to which many Muslims are beginning to return,
the world and all mankind are divided into two: the House of Islam, where the
Muslim law and faith prevail, and the rest, known as the House of Unbelief or
the House of War, which it is the duty of Muslims ultimately to bring to
Islam. But the greater part of the world is still outside Islam, and even inside
the Islamic lands, according to the view of the Muslim radicals, the faith of
Islam has been undermined and the law of Islam has been abrogated. The
obligation of holy war therefore begins at home and continues abroad, against
the same infidel enemy (p.19).
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Lewis also believes that Islam is inherently violent. Muslims, in daily life,
might appear to be harmless, and are able to live peacefully and participate in society
with those of other religions and ideologies. Yet, civilized attitudes and behaviors are
not applicable during crises. In these situations, somehow, peaceful Muslim people
are perceived as hateful and violent to others, destroying and hurting everything
around them, invulnerable to all powers that are thrown against them.
Another scholar who supports this point of view is Huntington (1993), who
formulated the controversial theory of "the clash of civilizations.” Huntington later
expanded his thesis in a 1996 book entitled The Clash of Civilizations and the
Remaking of World Order. Huntington (1993) believes,
Civilization identity will be increasingly important in the future, and the world
will be shaped in large measure by the interactions among seven or eight
major civilizations. These include Western, Confucian, Japanese, Islamic,
Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox, Latin American and possibly African civilization.
The most important conflicts of the future will occur along the cultural fault
lines separating these civilizations from one another (p.24).
Huntington believes that Islam, as a civilization, has traditionally had
difficulty dealing peacefully with other civilizations. Further, he predicted that "a
central focus of conflict for the immediate future will be between the West and
several Islamic-Confucian states" (p. 50).
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Scholar Group Two
Scholars from the second school of thought believe that United States policies
are the main cause of the negative perceptions that Americans and Arabs hold in
reference to each other. The effect of American policies in terms of enhancing anti-
American sentiment is based on four perceptions: 1) The United States' position
regarding its unwavering supports of Israel creates enormous credibility problems for
the United States in the region. In a survey of opinions, a majority of Arabs believe
that their attitudes regarding the U.S. are shaped by American policies, not American
values, and that United States support of Israel is the top reason that people in their
countries dislike America (Telhami, 2004, p.5); 2) There is a widespread belief that
the United States ignores the interests of Arab countries in deciding its international
policies. Anti-Americanism is driven by the perception that America acts unilaterally
on the world stage. A majority of people in five Arabic countries say that, in making
foreign policy decisions, the United States does not pay attention to their country's
interests (Kohut, 2003, p.3); 3) Many in the region maintain the view that the United
States does little to solve the world's problems. The United States has the essential
task of being a 'policeman' in terms of world problems; no other country is capable of
helping to maintain international stability. Yet, lately, the United States has been
criticized for not doing the job. 4) America's global popularity plummeted at the start
of military action in Iraq, and the United States presence there remains widely
unpopular among residents of Arab countries. Strong majorities in Arab nations think
the war has made the world a more dangerous place (Kohut, 2003, p.4).
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Scholar Group Three
The third scholar group supports the belief that Arab internal state policies, low
economic and social development, and the failure to establish civil societies and
democracy are the major causes of existing anti-American attitudes. Rubin (2002)
points out that the belief that anti-Americanism is caused by U.S. policies is
misleading; in reality, anti-Americanism in the Arab world is caused by some Arab
leaders who blame America for crises that are largely created by their own oppressive
regimes. There is also an element of desperation on the part of people in those
countries who feel powerless to reform their own governments (P. 81). In addition,
Khan (2002) believes that, in many Arabic and Islamic countries, the populations are
powerless against their own dictators and dysfunctional political parties, and are
dissatisfied with their substandard economic situations. The corrupt and authoritarian
regimes in these countries channel Arab discontent toward the West and at the United
States and Israel in particular (p.358).
Scholar Group Four
The fourth group of scholars believes public communication to be the cause
of negative perceptions. Following the events of September 11, 2001, President
George W. Bush, speaking about his administration's efforts to reach Arab and
Muslim audiences, said, "We are not doing a very good job of getting our message
out" (Zaharna, 2001). "Weak, very weak," is how a University of Qatar political
science professor describes the public communication effort. "It is reaching only the
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elite, who tend to support the United States anyway," he said. "There is more anti-
Americanism now than before September 11," he added. "That's not good. You have
to do something about it" (Weiser, 2002). For decades, U.S. foreign policy has
viewed the authoritarian governments in Arabic countries as being at the end of the
communication process. In other words they thought by maintaining good
relationships with these regimes, American policy planners have believed that they
were maintaining good relationships with their people. This approach worked in the
past because information was tightly controlled by the authoritarian governments, but
after the information revaluation of the 1990s, it is apparent that this approach is not
valid anymore (Telhami, p.7).
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LITERATURE REIVIEW
There is clear evidence that the Americans and Arabs have negative
perceptions toward each other. The roots of these views are deep and well entrenched.
Furthermore, previous studies have shown that although the negative perceptions and
attitudes between the Americans and Arabs existed years ago, in recent years these
attitudes have become sharper and possibility antagonistic.
Arab Perceptions of Americans
In research conducted by Pew, a group of people from Arabic and Muslim
countries (Jordan, Egypt, Indonesia, Turkey, and Pakistan) were asked to state
whether they associate each of eleven different character traits with Westerners, and
they asked Westerners the same set of questions about Arabs. The character list
included five positive traits (generous, honest, devout, tolerant, and respectful of
women) and six negative ones (violent, greedy, fanatical, selfish, immoral, and
arrogant). With just a handful of exceptions, majorities or pluralities of each Muslim
group associated all of the negative traits on the survey – and none of the positive
traits – to Westerners. In terms of judging positive traits, Muslims who were surveyed
found little good to say about Westerners. Minorities of the Muslim publics who had
been surveyed associated the following traits with people who live in the West:
generous, honest, devout, and tolerant. Also, fewer than half of those questioned in all
six Arabic and Muslim publics surveyed said that they associate Westerners with
respect toward women (Pew, 2006).
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Another study conducted on high school students in twelve countries
(including Saudi Arabia and Bahrain) by DeFleur (2002) measured attitudes of
teenagers toward Americans. He disseminated a questionnaire that included several
statements describing American characteristics (violent, generous, sexually immoral,
respectful of other people, intensity and quality of religious values, domination,
peaceful, criminal activities, sympathy for poor people, family values, and
materialistic). The findings illustrated that, in most countries, the respondents had at
least some degree of negativity in terms of their attitudes toward American people,
with the participants in Saudi Arabia and Bahrain having the most negative attitudes.
Americans Perceptions of Arabs
American perceptions of Arabs are also negative. Slade (1981) conducted a
telephone poll study about American attitudes toward Arab and Islamic countries.
The results revealed that the majority of opinions that Americans held in reference to
Arabs were more negative (49 percent) than positive (36 percent); the majority of
respondents felt that the Arabs can be described as, based on a given number of traits,
"barbaric, cruel" (44 percent), "treacherous, cunning" (49 percent), "mistreating
women" ( 51 percent) and "warlike, bloodthirsty" (50 percent). Also, the participants
held the view that "most" or "all" Arabs were "anti-Christian" (40 percent), "anti-
Semitic" (40 percent), and "want to destroy Israel and drive the Israelis into the sea"
(44 percent).
Recent surveys revealed that the image of the Arab world that is held by
Americans has become more negative. A Zogby International survey (2002) revealed
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that levels of support among Americans for Arab states had dropped to an all-time
low. Only ten percent of Americans viewed the Palestinian Authority favorably, and
72 percent were totally unsympathetic toward the Palestinian Authority. The lowest
ever level of support was recorded for Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
A good and healthy relationship between Americans and Arabs requires the
parties to have an accurate picture of each other's perceptions of the issue under
consideration. For this reason, this study used the coorienation model. The
coorientation model provides guidance for improving between-group relationships by
increasing the accuracy of perception the two groups hold about each other. This
means by identifying the coorienation state of the two parties, it should be possible to
develop specific communication strategy to help improve the relationship between
Americans and Arabs.
Coorientation
The coorientation model was originally developed by Newcomb (1953) to
analyze dyadic pairs. This model consists of two communicators, A and B and their
"coorientation" toward X. The object of communication (X) can be a physical object,
an attitude, activity, or a behavior. In this model each member of A and B has
simultaneous orientation toward each other and toward X. Newcomb proposed four
elements for this relationship:
1. A's attitude toward X.
2. A's attraction toward B.
3. B's attitude toward X.
4. B's attraction toward A.
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The basic argument of the coorientation model is that the perceptions and
attitudes of the communicator about the receiver directly affect the communication
process (McLeod and Chaffee 1973). In other words, human communication
behavior is not based only on an individual's interpersonal cognitions of the world,
but also upon his/her perception of the other's orientation and his/her orientation
toward them. It assumes that the actual cognitions and perceptions of others will also
affect an individual's behavior.
The Coorientational model (Figure1) of communication assumes "each person
in a coorienting pair has two distinguishable set of cognitions: he knows what he
thinks and he has some estimate of what the other person thinks" (Chaffee and
McLeod, 1968). The two sets of cognition that A and B has is: a "self perception" of
X or the attributes of the object and the "other –perception" of what the other person
thinks about the object or its attributes. The model has three variables to account for
the two sets of cognitions: accuracy, congruency, and agreement.
Accuracy
Chaffee and McLeod (1973) define accuracy as the extent to which A's estimate of
B's views match what B really thinks about X. The coorientational model offers a
conceptual definition of accuracy and an operational definition.
Agreement
Coorientational agreement is the extent to which A and B have the same evaluation of
X. According to Chaffee and McLeod, agreement is not a satisfactory criterion for
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communication. It can be argued that the total experiences that the individual has are
unlikely to be changed sufficiently by communication alone to produce complete
agreement.
Figure 1: Coorientational measure model
Congruency
Congruency is the extent to which A and B believe that the evaluation of the
other side is similar to theirs. It is also called perceived agreement. In the Chaffee-
McLeod model congruency is presented as the third variable necessary in the
Perception of B's cognition
Perception of A's cognition
A's cognition about "X"
B's cognition about "X"
Congruency A Congruency BAccuracy
Agreement
Person BPerson A
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coorientation model. In individual to group relationships person A is oriented to
group or collectivity B as a Unit A's congruency, in this case, will be his perceptions
of B's cognitions as a reified entity. As A's reification of B's cognitions are often the
result of his experiences or the values and beliefs of his own group environment, they
can be prejudices or stereotyped ideas learned from other sources. According to
Chaffee and McLeod, a direct communication between the members of the two
groups is responsible for the breaking down of these reifications. However,
congruency, just like agreement, does not necessarily improve with communication.
The coorientation variables are statistically dependent. The status of
congruency is directly affected by the status of agreement and accuracy. For example,
if agreement and accuracy are both low, consequently, congruency will be low and if
both accuracy and agreement are high, then congruency will be high (Oshagan,
1981).
Coorientation State
According to Scheff (1967) the perception of agreement between A and B can
be independent from real agreement and could have greater influence on the groups'
behavior than the real agreement. There are four consensus states suggested by
Scheff: 1) True or monolithic consensus which exists when A and B share the same
evaluation of an issue and both know that an agreement exists, 2) Dissensus exists
when A and B hold conflicting views about the issue and both know that a
disagreement exists, 3) False consensus occurs when there is actual disagreement but
A and B believe that they agree, 4)Pluralistic Ignorance False occur when there is
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actual agreement but A and B think they disagree.
Coorientation application in large social group studies
Many researchers utilized the interpersonal level; however McLeod and
Chaffee (1973) proposed that model can be utilized in analyzing relationship that has
more than just dyadic pairs (figure 2) ; "it may range in size from the dyad to the
small groups, to the organized collectivity or small community"(p.470). Many
researchers implemented the coorienational model to analyze the perceptions and
attitudes different groups held toward each other. Grunig (1972) used the model to
determine the level of understanding between organizations concerned with low
income housing in a suburban community. Kutzschenbach used the cooreintation
model to identify potential problems facing forest industries in communicating with
their consumers (Kutzschenbach, 2006). Stamm and Bowes (1972) employed
coorientation analysis to evaluate an army communication program regarding a
proposed flood control project in North Dakota.
Yet, very few studies have used such an approach in researching the
perceptions and attitudes between nations. To study potential communication
problems between Slovenia and Croatia, D. Vercic, A. Vercic and Laco (2006)
implemented the coorienation model. The researchers used the model to compare the
two nation's attitudes toward certain issues that consider being the source of such
misperceptions.
In particular, the researchers wanted to examine the level of accuracy,
congruency, and agreement the two nations achieved. Vercic et all. (2006) conducted
'unstructured personal interviews' with 20 participants from the two countries and
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used their responses with the media reports on the issues to create 12 statements that
represented "the major problems contaminating relationship between the countries".
To measure the two nations' coorientation toward the issues, the researchers asked
500 participants represented the two nations to estimate their agreement with the 12
statements and then estimate the other group agreement on the issues.
Figure 2: Coorientational model for large social group (Arabs and Americans)
Americans' Perception of Arabs'
cognition
Arabs' Perception of Americans' cognition
Americans' cognition of Arabs
Arabs' cognition of Americans
Congruency A Congruency BAccuracy
Agreement
ArabsAmericans
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Research Questions
This study's major objective is to assess the attitudes of Americans and Arabs
toward each other. It is not a study of peoples' orientations toward governments or the
political leaders. However, this study focuses on one important aspect: the two-sided-
story (the Americans' and Arabs' perceptions).
RQ 1: How do Arabs view Americans beliefs and attitudes?
RQ 2: How do Americans view Arabs beliefs and attitudes?
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METHODOLGY
Participants
Three hundred and sixty five participants completed the questionnaire which
was administered in classrooms on the universities. Students were briefed on the
nature of the research and instructed to pay attention to the second part of the
questionnaire where they provided estimated views of the other group’s average
citizen. Furthermore, they were assured confidentiality. The completion time ranged
from fifteen to thirty minutes.
Arab Sample
The final Arabic sample was composed of 205 respondents. In the sample,
Arabs were drawn from five Arab countries: Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Lebanon,
Jordan and Palestine. For a valid representation of the Arab world, the author selected
these countries to represent the main three subcultures or regions: First, the Gulf
Region represented by Kuwait and United Arab Emirates. Second, the Fertile
Crescent represented by Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine. Egypt was supposed to
represent the North Africa region, but the author was unable to obtain permission to
collect data in Egypt. The differentiation between the two participating cultures was
based on their location in different geographic areas and also their different ways of
life and their closeness in physical distance.
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American Sample
The final American sample was composed of 147 respondents. To provide an
accurate image of the Americans attitudes and perceptions, the American sample was
drawn from four universities located in four different states, including Kansas State
University located in Kansas, Villanova University located in Pennsylvania,
University of Arizona in Arizona and Grand Valley State University located in
Michigan. Table 2 presents the group profiles of the groups by university.
Questionnaire
1. Demographics
The questionnaire included information on year of enrollment, field of study,
age, gender, marital status, party affiliation (just for American participants) and
religious affiliation.
2. Media and Exposure
In this part the participants were asked to provide information about how many
hours per day during an average day they consume news from a variety of media
sources. Also, they were asked to rank the media outlets-Television, Newspaper,
Internet, Radio, Magazine and other- as their primary sources of news with "1" being
the source they use most frequently and "6" being the source they use least frequently.
3. Knowledge
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The purpose of this section is to test participants' knowledge about the other
group. They were presented with four different multiple choice questions and asked
to circle the right choice in each question. The questions for the American sample
were "What is the Percentage of Muslims in Arabic countries," "Which country is not
an Arabic country," "Which of the following is the Islamic equivalent to the Bible?"
and "What is the Capital of Egypt?" For the Arabic sample, the questions were:"
What is the Percentage of Christians in America," "Which of the following is not an
American City?," "Which of the following is the Christian equivalent to the Quran?"
and "What is the Capital of the United States?"
4. Personal Experience
The goal of this part was to measure the personal experience the participant
might have with the other group. Such personal interaction or experience is an
influential variable affecting the perception and attitude between the two groups
toward each other. The questions were: "Have you been in an Arabic country
(America) before? Where? How long?" and "How familiar do you believe you are
with Arab (American) culture?"
5. Religion Devotion
To measure the influence of religion on the Arabs and Americans perceptions,
the participants were asked to indicate their religious devotion through two questions.
The first multiple choice question for Americans was "How often do you attend
religious services?" For the Arab sample the first question was "Per day, how many
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times do you pray?" The second question for both groups was "how important is
religion in your life?"
6. Attitude Statements
This part of the questionnaire was divided into a self-evaluation and an other
evaluation part where participants were asked to answer each statement on a five-
point scale anchored by "Strongly agree" and "Strongly disagree." For the other
evaluation, the same scale statements were repeated and participants were then asked
to estimate how the other group would respond to the statements.
First they were asked to respond to 55 statements that were developed to
include Arabs' and Americans' views on politics, culture and religion. These
statements reflect both sides' views about issues and topics thought to be the source of
negative perceptions. Some statements represented the point of view of the four
schools of thought about the source of the negative attitude (for example: "America is
biased toward Israel." Or "Islam is inherently violent."). The other statements were
generated from media to measure the media role in constructing the image of the two
groups (for example: "Women are oppressed in Arab countries.").
Translation
The questionnaire originally was prepared in English then translated into
Arabic. The translation process went through to ensure that the translated version
conveyed the same information as the original. The first method was a group
discussion held by four bilinguals including the researcher. The questionnaire was
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translated to Arabic through discussion sessions. The second stage was backward
translation. In this stage, without reading the original questionnaire, a bilingual
translated the Arabic version to English. The final stage was testing the grammar and
structure of the translated version by two individuals who were good in Arabic
literature.
Pretest
The questionnaire was pretested with a group of 10 students from Kansas State
University. Five students were American and the other five were Arab students who
had been in the United States less than six months. They were encouraged to ask
questions if they needed clarification on any of the items. In addition they were
assured that the information that they provided would be held in strict confidence.
No further revisions were needed after the pretest.
DATA ANALYSIS Factor Analysis
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The original data set contained 55 variables that were derived from academic
and communication literature and media to represent a variety of perspectives on the
main categories: politics, religion and culture. A factor analysis was used to reduce
the data to a smaller set of independent factors based on which original variables had
the highest intercorrelations. The data were screened to make sure that the data met
the assumptions for factor analysis. First a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO-test) measure
of sampling adequacy was conducted to check whether the sample was big enough.
The result was .892, which exceeded the minimum necessary value of .5. Screening
also showed that each variable was significantly correlated with several other
variables. No bivariate correlations of .90 or above were found, which means there
was no singularity among the variables. Also, no multicollinearity was detected in the
data. The determinant of the correlation was 7.88E-012, which exceeded the
minimum of .00001 (Field, 2000, p. 453).
Initial data reduction produced a solution of fourteen components with
eigenvalues of 1.0 and above, and accounted for 63 percent of the variance. Yet this
solution was heavily cross loaded with only half of the items loading solidly one
single factor. Ten items were eliminated because they were cross loaded at .400 and
above. Based on the initial data reduction, ratability test and the researcher knowledge
of the data, a solution of nine factors was implemented. This solution, in table (1),
included forty five items constructing nine main groups.
Table 1: Factors and Reliabilities
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Factors Statements Reliability
Negative perception of American Policies
4. America should follow the United Nations'
lead for international policy decisions.
5. In making international policy decisions,
the United States does not take into account
the interests of Arab countries.
6. America is biased toward Israel.
9. The war in Iraq is a war to control Mideast
oil.
10. American policies are causing the conflict
in the Middle East.
15. The war in Iraq has made the world more
dangerous.
16. American policies are primarily
responsible for the lack of
prosperity in Arab countries.
26. America's disrespect for the
Islamic religion is the root of the
problems.
.877
Positive perception of American Policies
1. America has a responsibility to maintain
the world order.
2. America supports democracy in the Middle
East.
8. The war in Iraq is a war against terrorism.
12. America is defending democracy by
fighting terrorism.
.802
Negative perception of Arab Policies
3. Arab countries are against democracy in the
Middle East.
.482
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11. Arab countries’ policies are causing the
conflicts in the Middle East.
13. Arab countries support terrorism.
17. A lack of education and political and
economic systems in Arab countries
are the main obstacles to their
prosperity.
Negative perception of American culture
38. Americans are generally violent.
43. Americans are abusive toward women
44. American women are sexually immoral.
46. Americans lack traditional family ties.
55. Americans like to dominate other people.
.751
Positive perception of American culture
41. Americans are a peaceful people.
48. Americans are open-minded regarding
others.
52. Americans treat the elderly with respect.
.530
Negative perception of Arab culture
39. Arabs are aggressive.
42. Arabs are abusive toward women.
45. Arab women are sexually immoral.
49. Arabs have a close culture that rejects
outsiders.
.714
Positive perception of Arab culture
14. Arab countries fight terrorism.
39. Arab countries are peaceful nations.
47. Arabs have strong family values.
50. Arabs have strong religious values.
53. Arabs treat the elderly with respect.
.693
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Negative perception of Islam
25. Terrorism is justifiable in Islam.
30. Islam itself is an obstacle to Arab
prosperity.
31. Islam is intolerant of different points of
view.
33. Islam is oppressive toward women.
34. Islam is inherently violent.
35. Muslims cannot adapt to Western societies.
37. Muslims have a hostile view toward
Christianity.
.856
Christianity and Islam are different
29. Christianity and Islam are very different.
32. Islam is fundamentally different from
Christianity and Judaism.
.625
Reliability Test
From table one it is noticeable that the ratability test of each group varies. The
reliabilities of the common variables in the nine categories were tested as scales. John
and Benet-Martinez (1999) suggest reliability of .70 or higher. In this study case, five
categories pass the .70 mark starting with .714 for "Negative perception of Arab
culture" category and going up to.877 for the "Negative perception of American
policies" category. The remaining four have reliability less than .70 starting with .693
for the "Positive perception of Arab culture" category and going down to .482
"Negative perception of Arab policies" item.
John and Benet-Martinez (1999) also suggested that the .70 is not a
"benchmark every scale must pass" but rather a guide (p.346). For this reason and for
25
the fact that this study is an exploratory study based on research questions rather than
hypothesis testing, the four categories that had reliability less than .70 were retained.
The symmetrical nature of the categories was another factor in deciding to retain
some factors with questionable reliabilities.
T-tests
In order to obtain the co-orientation scores, independent t-tests were used to
explore the relationships between several categorical independent variables (Arabs
self / other evaluation; American self/ other evaluations) and the nine dependent
variables derived from the factor analysis (negative perception of America policies,
positive perception of America policies, negative perception of Arab policies,
negative perception of American culture, positive perception of American culture,
negative perception of Arab culture, positive perception of Arab culture, negative
perception of Islam and Christianity and Islam are different).
26
RESULTSDescriptive analysis
1. Demographics The American sample consisted of 160 participants 30.6 percent were male
and 79.4 were female from four universities from four universities: Kansas State
University, University of Arizona, , Villanova University, and Grand Valley State
University (see Table 2). Their ages ranged from 17 through 20 (43.8 percent), 21
through 24 (53.5 percent), 25 through 28 (2.5 percent), and 29 through 55 (1.3
percent). The distribution of year of enrollment was freshman (13.1 percent),
sophomore (13.1 percent), junior (33.1 percent), senior (40.6 percent), and first-year
graduate (0 percent). The marital status for the sample was single (93.1 percent),
married (3.8 percent), divorced (0 percent), engaged (02.5 percent), and other (0.6
percent). The religious affiliations included Christian (83 percent), Muslim (0.6
percent), Jewish (1.9 percent), other (0.6 percent), and none (13.8 percent). The party
affiliations were Democrat (29.6 percent), Republican (42.1 percent), Independent
(10.1 percent), other (02.5 percent), and none (15.7 percent).
On other hand, the Arab sample consisted of 205 Arab students 52.2 percent
were male and 47.8 were female from five Arab countries (see Table 2). The
countries were Kuwait (41.5 percent), United Arab Emirates (12.2 percent), Jordan
(13.6 percent), Lebanon (17.6 percent), and Palestine. Their ages ranged from 17
through 20 (49.8 percent), 21 through 24 (27.4 percent), 25 through 28 (8 percent),
and 29 through 55 (14.9 percent). The distribution of year of enrollment was
27
freshman (16 percent), sophomore (30 percent), junior (22.5 percent), senior (22
percent), and first-year graduate (9.5 percent). The marital status for the sample was
single (78.9 percent), married (16.2 percent), divorced (1 percent), engaged (3.9
percent), and other (0 percent). The religious affiliations were Christian (2.9 percent),
Muslim (97.1 percent), Jewish (0 percent), other (0 percent), and none (0 percent).
2. Knowledge
Each group answered four questions to measure their knowledge of the
participants in the other group. For the Arab sample, 47.8 percent answered the four
questions correctly, 42.9 percent answered three out of four correctly, 7.8 percent
answered two out of four correctly, and 1.5 percent answered one out of four
correctly. For the American sample, 3.1 percent answered all four questions correctly,
47.5 percent answered three out of four correctly, 38.1 percent answered two out of
four correctly, 10.6 percent answered one out of four correctly, and 0.6 percent
answered all four questions incorrectly.
3. Personal Experience
Two questions were designed to measure the personal experience that the
participants from each group had about the other group. For the first question, 15.1
percent of the Arab sample had visited the United States. Of this subsample, 29
percent of them stayed for less than one month, 41.9 percent stayed from one to six
months, 12.9 percent from six months to one year, and 16.1 percent stayed for more
than one year. On the other hand, 84.9 percent of the Arab sample had never been to
the United States before. For the American sample, 2.7 percent had visited an Arabic
country. The period of their visit was as follows: 33.3 percent stayed for less than one
28
month, 33.3 percent stayed from one to six months, and 33.3 percent stayed for more
than one year.
Table 2 Demographic profiles of the American sample by University.
Kansas State
University
Villanova Universit
y
Grand Valley State
University
University of
Arizona
Total
Respondents 53.1 24.4 8.1 14.4 100
Age 17- 20 21- 24 25- 28 29- above
58.340.51.20
23.176.9
00
38.553.8
07.7
21.760.9134.3
42.853.502.501.3
Year in School Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate Student
24.717.625.931.8
0
00
56.443.6
0
023.138.538.5
0
013
17.469.6
0
13.113.133.140.6
0
Sex Female Male
81.218.8
56.443.6
53.846.2
56.543.5
69.430.6
Martial Status Single Married Divorced Engaged Other
91.83.50
3.51.2
1000000
92.37.7000
878.70
4.30
93.13.80
02.50.6
Religious Affiliation Christian Muslim Jewish Other None
87.11.21.20
10.6
89.7000
10.3
69.2000
30.8
63.60
9.14.522.7
83.00.61.90.613.8
Party Affiliation Democratic
3146.4
20.559.0
30.815.4
39.113
29.642.1
29
Republican Independent Other None
4.83.614.3
07.70
12.8
07.746.2
39.10
8.7
10.102.515.7
Table 3 Demographic profiles of the Arab sample by country.
Kuwait
United Arab
Emirates
Lebanon
Palestine
Jordan
Total
Respondents
41.5 12.2 17.6 15.1 13.6 100
Age 17- 20 21- 24 25- 28 29- above
64.320.26.09.5
28401220
17.652.914.714.7
86.713.3
00
2521.410.742.9
49.827.408.014.9
Year in School Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate Student
3.650.622.916.9
6
02020528
12.130.321.227.39.1
80.66.50
12.90
03.650
14.332.1
16.030.022.522.09.5
Sex Female Male
71.828.2
6040
27.872.2
0100
42.957.1
47.852.2
Martial Status Single Married Divorced Engaged
76.517.61.24.7
722440
80.60
16.72.8
96.83.200
70.418.5
011.1
78.916.201.003.9
30
Religious Affiliation Muslim Christian
1000
1000
88.911.1
1000
92.97.1
97.102.9
For the second question, the participants ranked their familiarity with the other
culture using a scale of 1 (not at all) to 5 (very familiar). The results for the American
sample were as follows: 0.7% were very familiar with the other culture, 4.8 percent
ranked 4 out of 5, 21.9 percent ranked 3 out of 5, 50.7 percent ranked 2 out of 5, and
21.9 percent were not very familiar with the other culture at all. For the Arab samples,
the results were as follows: 7.4 percent were very familiar with the other culture, 10.8
percent ranked 4 out of 5, 52.5 percent ranked 3 out of 5, 16.2 percent ranked 2 out of
5, and 13.2 percent were not at all familiar with the other culture.
4. Media Exposure
This part of the questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first part was
designed to measure the participants' consumption of news media. For Arabs, the
average exposure to news media per day was 1.6 hours of television, 1.3 hours of
Internet, 1.3 hours of radio, and an average of four days reading a newspaper per
week. For Americans, the average exposure to news media per day was 1.4 hours of
television, 1.3 hours of Internet, 1.1 hours of radio, and an average of three days
reading a newspaper per week.
The second part of the questionnaire measured the participants' reliance on the
different media outlets as their primary news source. The Arab sample ranked the
media outlets as follows: 59.3 percent television, 19.2 percent newspapers, 12.4
31
percent Internet, 7.8 percent radio, 1.8 percent people, and 0.6 percent magazines. On
the other hand, the American sample ranked the media as follows: 44.7 percent
television, 19.1 percent newspapers, 31.2 percent Internet, 2.8 percent radio, 2.1
percent people and 1.4 percent magazines.
5. Religion Devotion
To measure the religious devotion of Americans and Arabs, the survey
included two questions for each group. The American sample’s attendance at
religious services was as follows: once a week (22.1percent), once or twice a month
(20.7 percent), a few times a year (29.7 percent), seldom (19.3 percent), and never
(8.3 percent). For the second question where the participants indicated religion
importance in their lives, the American sample average responses were (3.1), which
means fairly important. For the Arab sample, the average number of prayers per day
was 4.5 out of 5. Also, the importance of religion in Arab life was considered very
important (4.7).
Co-orientation Variables
The co-orientation model offers three variables that describe self-other
relationships -agreement, accuracy, and congruency. In order to measure the level of
agreement, accuracy, and congruency between the two groups, SPSS was used to
calculate means, mean difference, and t-values (p < 0.05) for the nine items.
Responses were coded from 1 to 5 on a Likert scale, with (1) being strongly agree and
(5) being strongly disagree.
32
Agreement
Agreement is the extent to which Arabs and Americans have the same
evaluation of X (see Table 4). Differences in attitudes towards 7 of the 9 items were
statistically significant (p < 0.05). The items were: 1) negative perception of
American policies, 2) positive perception of American policies, 3) negative
perception of American culture, 4) negative perception of Arab culture, 5) positive
perception of Arab culture, 6) negative perception of Islam, and 7) Christianity and
Islam are different.
The two items for which the differences proved nonsignificant were the
positive perception of American culture and the negative perception of Arab policies.
For the first item, the two groups agreed on the positive characteristics of American
culture. This is an interesting finding; Arab participants had a strong negative view of
American policies, yet they still had a positive attitude toward American people and
culture. For the second item that proved nonsignificant, the two groups also agreed
with statements that depicted Arab policies negatively.
With regard to the other two items (i.e., the positive perception of Arab
culture and Christianity and Islam are different), the t-test showed significant
differences, yet these differences accounted for the strength of each group's
agreement with the statements. As the differences did not cross the boundaries of
agreement (< 3.0) according to the coding method, the two groups still indicated an
overall agreement with the three items, but differed in terms of the strength of their
agreement. The most significant difference in attitude among all nine items appeared
in two items: the negative perception of Islam (t = 22.1) and the negative perception
33
of American policies (t = -22.6). For the first item, the Arab students disagreed
strongly with the statement while the American students remained neutral. For the
negative perception of American policies, American students were also neutral while
the Arab students agreed strongly with the statement.
Table 4 Agreement variables Americans'
MeanArabs'Mean
t-testt
t-testd. f.
t-testp
Mean difference
Negative perception of American policies
3.0281 1.7202 -22.56 363 .000 -1.30792
Positive perception of American policies
2.5833 3.8431 15.001 362.156 .000 1.25976
Negative perception of Arab Policies
2.8281 2.803 .043 350.852 .966 .00277
Negative perception of American culture
3.4213 2.3873 -14.34 .362.539 .000 -1.03393
Positive perception of American culture
2.8146 2.7138 1.316 363 .189 .10076
Negative perception of Arab culture
3.1969 4.0407 12.778 362.997 .000 .84378
Positive perception of Arab culture
2.6700 1.8515 6.690 353.906 .000 -.81854
Negative 3.1979 4.4669 22.111 363 .000 1.6898
34
perception of Islam
Christianity and Islam are different
3.0031 2.6732 -3.104 361.510 .002 -.32995
Table 5: Arab sample accuracy of Americans' views
Americans'
Mean
Arabs' Other
sMean
t-testt
t-testd. f.
t-testp
Mean differenc
e
Negative perception of American Policies
3.03 3.41 5.605 361.47 .000 .384
Positive perception of America Policies
2.58 1.57 -14.58 363 .000 -1.01
Negative perception of Arab Policies
2.83 1.81 -17.01 362.73 .000 -1.02
Negative perception of American culture
3.4213 3.8510 6.411 .362.62 .000 .429
Positive perception of American culture
2.81 1.56 -18.63 363 .000 -1.25
Negative perception of Arab culture
3.17 2.03 -16.68 361.02 .000 -1.16
Positive perception of Arab culture
2.6700 3.0810 6.319 311.839 .000 .411
35
Negative perception of Islam
3.19 1.85 -19.62 361.51 .000 -1.35
Christianity and Islam are different
3.01 2.04 -10.78 363 .000 -.96
Table 6: American sample accuracy of Arabs' views
Americans' OthersMean
Arabs'
Mean
t-testt
t-testd. f.
t-testp
Mean differenc
e
Negative perception of American Policies
2.03 1.72 5.49 363 .000 -.31
Positive perception of American Policies
3.53 3.84 -3.5 361.37 .000 .31
Negative perception of Arab Policies
3.49 2.80 9.80 361.05 .000 .66
Negative perception of American culture
2.19 2.39 -3.86 362.54 .000 -.27
Positive perception of American culture
3.75 2.71 14.28 362.54 .000 1.03
Negative perception of Arab culture
3.74 4.04 4.490 359.89 .000 -.30
Positive perception of Arab culture
2.08 1.85 4.41 363 .000 .23
36
Negative perception of Islam
3.56 4.47 -14.69 295.28 .000 -.90
Christianity and Islam are different
2.65 2.67 -.25 359.53 .80 -.026
Accuracy
The Arab students could not accurately predict the view of Americans (see
Table 4). All items showed a significant difference (p < 0.05). The biggest error of
misperception occurred in three items: the negative perception of Islam, the positive
perception of American culture, and the negative perception of Arab culture. In the
first item, the Arab sample predicted that Americans would agree strongly (M = 1.85)
with the statements that depicted Islam negatively. However, the responses of the
American sample indicated that they were neutral (M = 3.0).
In the second item about American positive cultural characteristics, Arabs
overestimated (M = 1.56) the Americans’ agreement (M = 2.81) with the statement.
In the third item, the Arab sample overestimated the Americans’ agreement (M =
1.80) with the statement that presented Arab culture negatively; Americans’
agreement with this statement was (M = 2.82).
Although the t-test showed significant differences, these differences in the
remaining items accounted for the degree of agreement or disagreement where the
differences did not cross the boundaries of agreement (< 3.0) or disagreement (> 3.0),
which meant an overall agreement or disagreement with the items.
The American sample was relatively more accurate in predicting the Arab
evaluations (see Table 5). One item out of nine showed a nonsignificant difference
37
(i.e., Christianity and Islam are different). The American sample agreed (M = 2.6)
with the statement that Christianity and Islam are very different and predicted
accurately that the Arabs would agree (M = 2.67) with this statement.
The remaining eight items yielded significant differences. Yet the differences
in seven items accounted for the degree of agreement and disagreement, which
indicated that the Americans were relatively more accurate in their predictions than
the Arabs. This is an interesting finding because the knowledge and personal
experience measurement for the two groups showed that the Arabs were more
knowledgeable (M = 3.37) and familiar (M = 2.83) with American people and culture
than the Americans (Knowledge M = 2.41, familiarity M = 2.12) were familiar with
Arab people and culture. I expected that the Arab sample would have more
knowledge and personal experience with American people and culture, and would
therefore have more accurate predictions, but that was not the case.
The most significant differences in attitude were in two items: the negative
perception of Islam (t = -14.69) and the positive perception of American culture (t =
14.27). For the first item, the American sample underestimated (M = 3.56) the Arabs’
disagreement (M = 4.46) with statements that depicted Islam negatively. The
American sample predicted that the Arabs would disagree (M = 3.77) with statements
that described American culture positively while the Arabs agreed (M = 2.71) with
these statements.
Congruency
Congruency is the average level of evaluations made by the Americans (or
Arabs) and the predictions made by the Americans (or Arabs) about the evaluations
38
made by Arabs (or Americans). For both samples, the results in Tables 6 and 7 show
a significant difference in all cases. The congruency variable contained the most
significant differences of the three coorientation variables.
Media Exposure and Religion Devotion influence
Pearson correlations were used to detect any relationships among the media
exposure variables, religion devotion variable and the nine dependent variables. The
media exposure consisted of four variables: television, internet, radio and newspaper.
The religion devotion variable presented the importance of religion in one's life. For
both groups, the calculation of Pearson correlation detected several significant, yet
weak, relationships between media exposure and religion devotion variables and the
nine dependent variables. However, some weak correlations were detected.
For the American sample, the radio variable correlated positively (r = .19,
p< .05) with the positive perception of American culture. The internet variable
correlated positively (r = .21, p< .01) with the Islam and Christianity are different
variable. For the religion devotion variable, weak correlations with three of the nine
items were detected. The religion variable correlated negatively(r = -.22, p< .01) with
the negative perception of American policy item. Furthermore, correlated positively (r
= .22, p< .01) (r = .17, p< .05) with the positive perception of American policies item
and with Islam and Christianity are different item.
For the Arab sample, more correlation existed between the media exposure
variables and several dependent variables. First, the television variable correlated
positively (r = .24, p< .01) with the positive perception of American culture variable.
Second, the internet correlated positively (r =.19, p< .01) (r =.16, p< .05) with the
39
positive perception of American culture and positive perception of American culture
variables.
Table 7: Arab sample congruency variable
Arabs'
Mean
Arabs' OthersMean
t-testt
t-testd. f.
t-testp
Mean differenc
e
Negative perception of American Policies
1.72 3.41 -26.31 383.49 .000 -1.69
Positive perception of American Policies
3.84 1.57 29.04 363.97 .000 2.27
Negative perception of Arab Policies
2.80 1.81 15.01 397.17 .008 1.02
Negative perception of American culture
2.39 3.85 -20.17 408 .000 -1.46
Positive perception of American culture
2.71 1.56 16.36 400.11 .000 1.15
Negative perception of Arab culture
4.04 2.03 28.39 408 .000 2.0
Positive perception of Arab culture
1.851 3.08 -18.71 377.28 .000 -1.23
40
Negative perception of Islam
4.47 1.85 42.88 365.01 .000 2.62
Christianity and Islam are different
2.67 2.04 6.29 367.26 .000 .63
Table 8: American sample congruency variable
Americans'Mean
Americans' OthersMean
t-testt
t-testd. f.
t-testp
Meandifferenc
e
Negative perception of American Policies
3.03 2.03 16.95 318 .000 .99
Positive perception of American Policies
2.58 3.53 -11.60 318 .000 -.94
Negative perception of Arab Policies
2.83 3.49 -11.62 318 .000 -.66
Negative perception of American culture
3.42 2.12 20.39 318 .000 .30
Positive perception of American culture
2.81 3.75 -13.61 318 .000 -.93
Negative perception of Arab culture
3.19 3.74 -8.63 318 .000 -.54
Positive perception of
2.67 2.08 12.21 298.66 .000 .59
41
Arab culture
Negative perception of Islam
3.19 3.56 -5.32 318 .000 -.36
Christianity and Islam are different
3.30 2.46 3.78 318 .000 .36
Third, the radio variable correlated positively (r = .14, p< .05) (r =.16, p< .05)
with the positive perception of American culture and positive perception of American
culture variables and negatively (r = -.15, p< .05) with negative perception of
American culture variable. Finally, the newspaper variable correlated negatively (r
=-.14, p< .05) (r = -.15, p< .05) (r = -.15, p< .05) with the positive perception of
American culture, the positive perception of Arab culture and with Islam and
Christianity are different variables. It also correlated positively (r = .23, p< .01) (r
= .16, p< .05) with the negative perception of Arab culture and the negative
perception of Islam variables. For the religion devotion variable, two negative weak
correlation was detected (r =-.15, p< .05) with the negative perception of American
culture variable and (r =-.15, p< .05) with the negative perception of Islam item.
42
DISCUSSION
The study was undertaken with two general objectives: 1) to identify the
negative attitudes the Americans and Arabs may have of one another; and 2) to
interpret the impact that the media might have in shaping the two groups’ perceptions
of one another. Limitations and suggestions for future research are also discussed.
Coorientation Variables
The coorientation variables were used to clarify the Arabs and Americans’
perceptions of and attitudes toward each other. The agreement variable presented
their direct attitudes about the issues in consideration. The second variable was
accuracy, where each group predicted the other group’s evaluation of the issues. The
last variable was congruency. Congruency compared each group’s own evaluation of
the issues with the group’s predictions of the other group’s evaluation of the issues.
RQ 1: How do Arabs view Americans beliefs and attitudes?
In general, the results (i.e., agreement) showed that the Arab sample held quite
negative attitudes about Americans based on their evaluations of five of the nine
items that were related to their views of Americans: 1) negative perception of
43
American policies, 2) positive perception of American policies, 3) negative
perception of American culture, 4) positive perception of American culture, and 5)
Christianity and Islam are different.
With regard to American policies, the Arab sample agreed strongly (M = 1.7)
with the negative depiction of American policies and disagreed (M = 3.8) with
statements that defended American policies. With regard to American culture, they
agreed (M = 2.4) with the negative description of American culture, yet they also
agreed with the positive view of American culture. The explanation for these
seemingly contradictory attitudes is that the Arab sample viewed the American
culture from different angles. They view some of the American culture characteristics
to be positive and view other characteristics to be negative. For example, the Arab
sample perceived the Americans as open minded people and at the same time they
perceived that Americans lack traditional family ties. Finally, the Arab sample agreed
(M = 2.67) that Islam and Christianity are very different.
The accuracy results showed that the Arab sample believed that Americans
had negative perceptions and attitudes about Arabs. This conclusion was based on the
Arab sample’s predictions of Americans’ evaluation of five items describing Arab
policies and culture. The five items were: 1) negative perception of Arab policies, 2)
negative perception of Arab culture, 3) positive perception of Arab culture, 4)
negative perception of Islam, and 5) Christianity and Islam are different.
Starting with the first item, the Arab sample predicted that Americans would
strongly agree (M = 1.81) with statements presenting the Arab countries’ policies
negatively. In the description of Arab culture, the Arab sample thought that
44
Americans would agree (M = 2.03) with the negative depiction of their culture and be
neutral (M = 3.1) for positive depictions. For the fourth item, the Arabs predicted that
the Americans would strongly agree (M = 1.85) with statements that presented Islam
negatively. With regard to the final statement, the Arab sample thought the
Americans would agree (M = 2.04) that Christianity and Islam are different.
The congruency was the lowest among the three co-orientation variables.
There was no similarity between the Arab sample’s evaluations and the perceptions
that they attributed to Americans. In other words, the Arab sample did not perceive its
view to be similar to the view of its counterparts. There are two possible explanations
for such a case. First, the three co-orientation variables are dependent on each other;
second, there is a tense relationship between the two groups.
The first explanation is that the co-orientation variables are statistically
dependent. A change in agreement or accuracy affects a change in congruency. Thus,
in this case, the agreement and accuracy were both low; consequently, congruency
was low. But if the agreement and accuracy are high, congruency will be high
(Oshagan, 1981).
The second explanation is based on that fact that the two samples belong to
different nations under conflict or tense conditions. The social identity theory (Tajfel
& Turner, 2001) explains that under such conditions, people tend to differentiate their
group from other groups to maintain positive self-esteem. By stressing and
emphasizing in-group similarity and out-group difference, the theory argues that each
group maintains a perceived positive social identity.
45
RQ 2: How do Americans view Arabs beliefs and attitudes?
Generally, the American sample’s attitude towards and perception of
Arabs proved to be less negative than the attitudes of Arabs towards Americans. The
results of the agreement of five items supported such a conclusion. The items were: 1)
negative perception of Arab policies, 2) negative perception of Arab culture, 3)
positive perception of Arab culture, 4) negative perception of Islam, and 5)
Christianity and Islam are different.
For the first item, the American sample agreed (M = 2.8) with the negative
presentation of Arab policies. The subjects were neutral (M = 3.2) with the negative
description of Arab culture and were in agreement (M = 2.67) with statements that
presented Arab culture positively. Their evaluations were neutral (M = 3.2) for the
item that presented Islam negatively. For the last item (i.e., Christianity and Islam are
different), their responses were also neutral (M = 3.0).
Although the American sample was less negative than the Arab sample in
their evaluations, their predictions were as negative as the predictions of the Arab
sample. The accuracy results of the five items supported this conclusion. The items
were: 1) negative perception of American policies, 2) positive perception of
American policies, 3) negative perception of American culture, 4) positive perception
of American culture, and 5) Christianity and Islam are different.
For the American policies, the American sample predicted that the Arabs
would agree (M = 2.3) with the negative statements about the policies and be neutral
(M = 3.5) when it came to positive statements about the policies. The participants
predicted that the Arabs would agree (M = 2.18) with the negative statements about
46
American culture and that many would disagree (M = 3.75) with positive statements
about American culture. Finally, they predicted that the Arabs would agree (M =
2.65) that Christianity and Islam are different.
Congruency was the lowest among the three coorientation variables. There
was no similarity between the American sample’s evaluations and perceptions that
they attributed to Arabs. In other words, the American sample did not perceive its
view to be similar to the view of its counterparts. The two possible explanations for
the Arab sample congruency are also applicable here.
Social construction of reality
The process of learning about the physical and social realities of the world in
which one lives is a social one, resulting from communication with others. This idea
was originally addressed by Plato many centuries ago. He set forth his ideas in the
well-known “Allegory of the Cave” (Plato, 1958), in which he describes a sort of
psychological experiment. In the allegory, Plato likens people untutored in the Theory
of Forms to prisoners chained in a cave. All they can see is the wall of the
cave. Behind them, fire illuminates a parapet, which is kept between the fire and the
cave wall. The puppeteers, who are behind the prisoners, hold up puppets that cast
shadows on the wall of the cave. The prisoners are unable to see these puppets, the
real objects that pass behind them. What the prisoners see and hear are shadows and
echoes cast by objects that they do not see. To the prisoners, it appears that
the shadows are making the sounds. Plato maintained that the
chained prisoners would try to interpret the shadows; that is, they
would assign meanings for only the realities that they are able to
47
experience under their circumstances. They would believe that the
shadows were reality.
The Americans and Arabs living in different countries in this study
participated only in the processes of communication that were available to them. The
results of the personal experience test showed that 84.9 percent of the Arab sample
and 97.3 percent of the American sample had never visited or had a personal
experience with the other group. Also, in a different test, the two groups ranked the
media outlets, especially television, to be their primary source of information.
Therefore, it is valid to say that the two groups constructed most of their
personal understandings, perceptions, attitudes, and evaluations of the other group
based on media reports as their main source of information. Harris (1989) explains it
more clearly:
One of the major perceived realities that media help create for us involves
information about groups of people. Through TV and other media we are
exposed to a much broader range of people than most of us would ever
encounter in our own lives. Not only are media our introduction to these
people, but often they are practically the only source of information about
them. Sometimes everything we know about some kinds of people comes
from television (p. 37).
Conclusion
This study found that American and Arab students held quite negative attitudes
and perceptions toward each other. The coorientational analysis showed significant
48
differences with almost all the issues. The results showed that both groups’
participants had limited or no direct experience with the other group, and they relied
on the media as their primary source of information about the other group. Therefore,
there is little question that the media have an important role in improving the
relationship between the two cultures.
Personally, I believe that both group media outlets, especially the newsrooms,
operate with an attitude of us vs. them. Most Arab media present the war in Iraq as a
war for oil and call it an invasion. On the other hand, the media in the United States
link, with different degrees of objectivity, Islam and Muslims with terrorism. This is,
I would say, the wrong approach and one that will help to improve the situation.
To help close the gap between the two nations, the media can start by
increasing the transparency and objectivity of their coverage. That could be done by
diversifying the media professionals. Media professionals with diverse backgrounds
and different points of view can be a crucial tool to increase the objectivity of media
coverage. Through their actions, they can support deeper public understanding of
each group about the other. They can weaken stereotypes by providing
multidimensional representations of the story. A good degree of objectivity in the
media will lead to improving the accuracy of each side's view of the other, which
eventually will build a solid ground for effective communication.
49
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Held By Teen-Agers in Twelve Countries. Unpublished manuscript, Boston
University, Boston.
Field, A (2000). Discovering Statistics using SPSS for Windows. London: Sage
Publications, Ltd.
Gruning, J.E. (1972). Communication in community decisions on the problems of the
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Muslim World. The Brown Journal of World Affairs, 5(1), 55-63.
Kohut, A. (2003). American Public Diplomacy in the Islamic World: Remarks of
Andrew Kohut to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee Hearing.
Philadelphia, PA: Pew Center for the People and the Press.
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Global Politics View: Their Lives, Their Countries, The World, America.
Philadelphia, Pew Global Attitude Project.
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Sociological Review, 32(1), 32-46.
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Slade, Shelly. (1981). The Image of the Arab in America: Analysis of a Poll on
American Attitudes. Middle East Journal, 35(2), 143-162.
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Gannet News Service. Available:
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strategic communication analysis. Foreign Policy in Focus, 36, 1-4.
Zogby, J.J. (2002) What Arabs Think: Values, Beliefs, and Concerns, NY: Zogby
International.
54
APPENDIX A. American sample questionnaire
Americans and Arabs:How They Perceive Each Other
Purpose:
I am a master's student at Kansas State University’s School of Journalism and Mass Communications. My name is Talal. The goal of this research project is to examine and clarify basic perceptions held by Americans and Arabs toward each other. I am conducting a survey to gather information from students at your university.
General direction:
The questionnaire should take about thirty minutes. Instructions precede each set of questions. As questions formats vary, please read the instructions before you start inserting your answers in the spaces provided.
55
Your participation is helpful and greatly appreciated. Your answers will remain anonymous. You can ask me any type of questions you would like about my research and about this survey; to do so send an email to: [email protected]
For each statement below, please indicate the extent of your agreement or disagreement.
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Stronglyagree nor disagree disagree
America has a responsibility to maintain the world order.
1 2 3 4 5
America supports democracy in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries are against democracy in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
America should follow the United Nations' lead for international policy decisions.
1 2 3 4 5
In making international policy decisions, the United States does not take into account the interests of Arab countries.
1 2 3 4 5
56
America is biased toward Israel.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries are biased against Israel.
1 2 3 4 5
The war in Iraq is a war against terrorism.
1 2 3 4 5
The war in Iraq is a war to control Mideast oil.
1 2 3 4 5
American policies are causing the conflict in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Stronglyagree nor disagree disagree
Arab countries’ policies are causing the conflicts in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
America is defending democracy by fighting terrorism.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries support terrorism.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries fight terrorism.
1 2 3 4 5
The war in Iraq has made the world more dangerous.
1 2 3 4 5
American policies are primarily responsible for the lack of prosperity in Arab countries.
1 2 3 4 5
A lack of education and political and economic
1 2 3 4 5
57
systems in Arab countries are the main obstacles to their prosperity.
Arab political attitudes are greatly influenced by religion.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans' political attitudes are greatly influenced by religion.
1 2 3 4 5
Democracy would not work in Arab countries.
1 2 3 4 5
The best way to ensure peace is through military strength.
1 2 3 4 5
Diplomacy is the best way to ensure peace.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Stronglyagree nor disagree disagree
America is a Christian nation.
1 2 3 4 5
Religion plays a major role in creating wars and conflicts in the world.
1 2 3 4 5
Terrorism is justifiable in Islam.
1 2 3 4 5
America's disrespect for the Islamic religion is the root of the problems in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
The differences between Christianity
1 2 3 4 5
58
and Islam are the real cause of the United States and Arab countries’ conflicts.
Islam and Christianity have a lot in common.
1 2 3 4 5
Christianity and Islam are very different.
1 2 3 4 5
Islam itself is an obstacle to Arab prosperity.
1 2 3 4 5
Islam is intolerant of different points of view.
1 2 3 4 5
Islam is fundamentally different from Christianity and Judaism.
1 2 3 4 5
Islam is oppressive toward women.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Stronglyagree nor disagree disagree
Islam is inherently violent. 1 2 3 4 5
Muslims cannot adapt to Western societies.
1 2 3 4 5
Muslims are isolated in Western societies.
1 2 3 4 5
Muslims have a hostile view toward Christianity.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans are generally violent.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs are aggressive. 1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries are peaceful 1 2 3 4 5
59
nations.
Americans are a peaceful people.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs are abusive toward women.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans are abusive toward women
1 2 3 4 5
American women are sexually immoral.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab women are sexually immoral.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans lack traditional family ties.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs have strong family values.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans are open-minded regarding others.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Stronglyagree nor disagree disagree
Arabs have a closed culture that rejects outsiders. 1 2 3 4 5
Americans have strong religious values.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs have strong religious values.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans treat the elderly with respect.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs treat the elderly with respect.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs value life less than other people do.
1 2 3 4 5
60
Americans like to dominate other people.
1 2 3 4 5
The same statements from the previous section are repeated in this section, but this time you will indicate how you think an average Arab would respond to these statements.
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Stronglyagree nor disagree disagree
America has a responsibility to maintain the world order.
1 2 3 4 5
America supports democracy in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries are against democracy in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
America should follow the United Nations' lead for international policy decisions.
1 2 3 4 5
In making international policy decisions, the United States does not take into account the interests of Arab countries.
1 2 3 4 5
61
America is biased toward Israel.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries are biased against Israel.
1 2 3 4 5
The war in Iraq is a war against terrorism.
1 2 3 4 5
The war in Iraq is a war to control Mideast oil.
1 2 3 4 5
American policies are causing the conflict in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Stronglyagree nor disagree disagree
Arab countries’ policies are causing the conflicts in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
America is defending democracy by fighting terrorism.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries support terrorism.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries fight terrorism.
1 2 3 4 5
The war in Iraq has made the world more dangerous.
1 2 3 4 5
American policies are primarily responsible for the lack of prosperity in Arab countries.
1 2 3 4 5
A lack of education and political and economic systems in Arab countries are the main
1 2 3 4 5
62
obstacles to their prosperity.
Arab political attitudes are greatly influenced by religion.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans' political attitude are greatly influenced by religion.
1 2 3 4 5
Democracy would not work in Arab countries.
1 2 3 4 5
The best way to ensure peace is through military strength.
1 2 3 4 5
Diplomacy is the best way to ensure peace.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Strongly agree nor disagree disagree
America is a Christian nation.
1 2 3 4 5
Religion plays a major role in creating wars and conflicts in the world.
1 2 3 4 5
Terrorism is justifiable in Islam.
1 2 3 4 5
America's disrespect for the Islamic religion is the root of the problems in the Middle East.
1 2 3 4 5
The differences between Christianity and Islam are the real cause of the United States and Arab countries’ conflicts.
1 2 3 4 5
63
Islam and Christianity have a lot in common.
1 2 3 4 5
Christianity and Islam are very different.
1 2 3 4 5
Islam itself is an obstacle to Arab prosperity.
1 2 3 4 5
Islam is intolerant of different points of view.
1 2 3 4 5
Islam is fundamentally different from Christianity and Judaism.
1 2 3 4 5
Islam is oppressive toward women.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Stronglyagree nor disagree disagree
Islam is inherently violent. 1 2 3 4 5
Muslims cannot adapt to Western societies.
1 2 3 4 5
Muslims are isolated in Western societies.
1 2 3 4 5
Muslims have a hostile view toward Christianity.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans are generally violent.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs are aggressive. 1 2 3 4 5
Arab countries are peaceful nations.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans are a peaceful people.
1 2 3 4 5
64
Arabs are abusive toward women.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans are abusive toward women
1 2 3 4 5
American women are sexually immoral.
1 2 3 4 5
Arab women are sexually immoral.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans lack traditional family ties.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs have strong family values.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans are open-minded regarding others.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree neither agree disagree Stronglyagree nor disagree disagree
Arabs have a closed culture that rejects outsiders. 1 2 3 4 5
Americans have strong religious values.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs have strong religious values.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans treat the elderly with respect.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs treat the elderly with respect.
1 2 3 4 5
Arabs value life less than other people do.
1 2 3 4 5
Americans like to dominate other people.
1 2 3 4 5
65
The following questions will be used only for statistical purpose.
Knowledge
The percentage of Muslims in Arab countries is: (Circle)
100% 40% 50% 85% 25%
Which country is not an Arab country? (Circle)
Kuwait Egypt Iran Jordan Syria
Which of the following is the Islamic equivalent to the Bible? (Circle)
Torah Quran Madrasah Allah
What is the capital of Egypt? (Circle)
Al-Riyadh Cairo Baghdad Amman
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Media Exposure
How many hours per day, on average, do you spend watching television for news or other political material? (Place a check)
______ Less than 1 hour ______ 1 to 2 hours______ 2 to 3 hours______ 3 to 4 hours ______ 4 to 5 hours______ 5 to 6 hours______ More than 6 hours
How many hours per day, on average, do you spend browsing the internet for news or other political material? (Place a check)
______ Less than 1 hour ______ 1 to 2 hours______ 2 to 3 hours______ 3 to 4 hours ______ 4 to 5 hours______ 5 to 6 hours______ More than 6 hours
How many hours per day, on average, do you spend listening to the radio for news or other political material? (Place a check)
______ Less than 1 hour ______ 1 to 2 hours______ 2 to 3 hours______ 3 to 4 hours ______ 4 to 5 hours______ 5 to 6 hours______ More than 6 hours
How many days per week do you read a newspaper? (Place a check)
______ 0 day ______ 1 day
67
______ 2 days______ 3 days ______ 4 days______ 5 days______ 6 days______ 7 days
Please rank the media below as your primary sources for news (with "1" being the source you use most frequently and "6" being the source you use least frequently)
______ Television______ Newspaper______ Internet ______ Radio ______ Magazine ______ Others (please list______________)
Background What year are you in school? (Circle)
Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate Student
Sex: (Circle)
Male Female
Marital Status: (Circle)
Single Married Divorced Engaged Other
Religious Affiliation: (Circle)
Christian Muslim Jewish Other______ Non
Party Affiliation: (Circle)
Democratic Republican Independent Other Non
68
Field of study:
Age:
Nationality:
General Information
Have you been in an Arab country before? (Circle)
Yes No
If so, where?___________
How long did you stay there? ____________ How familiar do you believe you are with Arab culture? (Circle)
Not at all Very Familiar 1 2 3 4 5
Religion
How often do you attend religious services? (Circle)
Once or more Once or twice A few times Seldom Never a week a month a year
How important is religion in your life? (Circle)
Not Very important Fairly important Very important 1 2 3 4 5
69
APPENDIX B. Arab sample questionnaire
واألمــريـكــي الــعــربـــي الشــعـــباآلخر إلي منهم كل ينظر كيف
البحث :هدفو التوافق درجة معرفة هو اإلستبيان هذا الهدفمن
األمريكيون و العرب المواطنون نظرة اإلختالففيالعائلية القيم و التقاليد و العادات و الدين و للسياسة
علىعالقة اإلختالفات هذه تأثير و اإلنسانية ومبنية. عبارات و إسئلة يتضمن اإلستبيان هذا الشعبين . قد عبارة أي وجدت إذا موضوعية علمية بحوث علىأو مسيئة األحوال من حال أي في رأيك في تراها
70
فيعدم, الكاملة الحرية لديك الحالة هذه في جارحةاإلستبيان .إكمال
عامة إرشادات :
يقارب ما اإلسئلة علىجميع اإلجابة مدة تستغرق . أجزاء من جزء كل فيمقدمة توجد دقيقة ثالثين
. اإلجابة قبل اإلجابة طريقة تبين إرشادات اإلستبياناإلرشادات قراءة .الرجاء
هي للماجستير. إجابتك الباحث رسالة من جزء اإلستبيان هذا لبحثا في قيمة مساهمة .
للعبارات أورفضك موافقتك درجة يوضح الذي الرقم حول دائرة التالية ضع
أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقأعارض
بشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 عن مسؤولة أمريكاالنظام حفظ
العالمي
5 4 3 2 1 تدعم أمريكافي الديمقراطية
األوسط الشرق
71
5 4 3 2 1 ضد العربية الدولفي الديمقراطية
األوسط الشرق
5 4 3 2 1 إتباع أمريكا على يجبالدولية القرارات
المتحدة لألمم
5 4 3 2 1 , قراراتها صنع فيبعين التأخذ أمريكا
الدول مصالح اإلعتبارالعربية
5 4 3 2 1 دائما متحيزة أمريكاإسرائيل لمصحلة
5 4 3 2 1 متحيزة العربية الدولإسرائيل ضد دائما
5 4 3 2 1 هي العراق في الحرباإلرهاب ضد حرب
5 4 3 2 1 هي العراق في الحربفي للتحكم حرب
الشرق في النفطاألوسط
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكية السياساتفي األزمات سبب
األوسط الشرق
أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقأعارض
بشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 العربية السياساتفي األزمات سبب
72
األوسط الشرق
5 4 3 2 1 عن تدافع أمريكياخالل من الديقراطية
اإلرهاب ضد حربها
تدعم 1 2 3 4 5 العربية الدولاإلرهاب
5 4 3 2 1 تحارب العربية الدولاإلرهاب
5 4 3 2 1 العراق في الحربآمن غير العالم جعلت
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكية السياسةفي رئيسي سببإزدهار و تقدم إعاقة
العربية الدول
5 4 3 2 1 النظام ضعفالسياسي و التعليمي
العقبة هو اإلقتصادي وو لإلزدهار الرئيسية
الدول في التقدمالعربية
5 4 3 2 1 في بشدة يؤثر الدينالسياسية التوجهات
العرب لدى
5 4 3 2 1 في بشدة يؤثر الدينالسياسية التوجهات
األمريكيين لدى
5 4 3 2 1 تصلح ال الديمقراطيةالدول في تطبق أن
73
العربية
5 4 3 2 1 لضمان طريقة أفضلهو العالمي السالم
القوة إستخدامالعسكرية
أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقأعارض
بشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 لضمان طريقة أفضلهو العالمي السالم
الدبلوماسي الخيار
5 4 3 2 1 مسيحية دولة أمريكا
5 4 3 2 1 دورا تلعب األديانخلق في رئيسيااألزمات و الحروب
العالم في
5 4 3 2 1 في ر �ر� م�ب اإلرهاباإلسالم
5 4 3 2 1 أمريكا إحترام عدمهو اإلسالمي للدينالعرب مع خالفها أصل
5 4 3 2 1 اإلسالم بين اإلختالفاتهي المسيحية و
في الحقيقي السببو أمريكا بين النزاع
العربية الدول
5 4 3 2 1 مشتركة قواسم توجدو اإلسالم بين كثيرة
74
المسيحية
5 4 3 2 1 بين كبير أختالف هناكالمسيحية و اإلسالم
5 4 3 2 1 عقبة ذاته بحد اإلسالموتقدم إزدهار في
العرب
5 4 3 2 1 اليتقبل اإلسالماألخرى النظر وجهات
5 4 3 2 1 جذريا يختلف اإلسالماليهودية عن
والمسيحية
5 4 3 2 1 المرأه يظلم اإلسالم
أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقأعارض
بشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 عنف دين اإلسالمبالفطرة
5 4 3 2 1 ال المسلمونفي التكيف يستطيعوا
الغربية المجتمعات
5 4 3 2 1 معزولون المسلمونالمجتمعات في
الغربية
5 4 3 2 1 لديهم المسلمونتجاه عدائية نظرة
المسيحي الدين
75
5 4 3 2 1 عنيفون األمريكيونعام بشكل
5 4 3 2 1 عدوانيون العرب
5 4 3 2 1 شعوبها العربية الدولمسالمة
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكي الشعبمسالم شعب
5 4 3 2 1 للمرأه يسئون العرب
5 4 3 2 1 يسئون األمريكيونللمرأه
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكية المرأهأخالقيا فاسدة
5 4 3 2 1 فاسدة العربية المرأهأخالقيا
5 4 3 2 1 عند العائلية الروابطضعيفة األمريكيين
أعارض أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقبشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 قيم لديهم العربقوية عائيلية
5 4 3 2 1 منفتحون األمريكيوناآلخرين تجاه
76
5 4 3 2 1 عادات لديهم العربتجعلهم وتقاليدمنغلقين
الغرباء ويرفضون
5 4 3 2 1 قيم لديهم األمريكيونقوية دينية
5 4 3 2 1 قيم لديهم العربقوية دينية
5 4 3 2 1 يعاملون األمريكيونبإحترام السن كبار
5 4 3 2 1 كبار يعاملون العرببإحترام السن
5 4 3 2 1 للحياة العرب تقديراألخرين تقدير من أقل
لها
5 4 3 2 1 يحبون األمريكيونعلى السيطرة
األخرين
77
لكن و السابقة نفسالعبارات تقرأ سوف الجزء، هذا فيتتوقع أن منك المطلوب المرة هذه المواطن في الأمريكي رأي
الذي الرقم على دائرة وضع خالل العباراتمن هذه فيتتوقعه الذي الرأي .يمثل
أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقأعارض
بشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 مسؤولة أمريكاالنظام حفظ عن
العالمي
5 4 3 2 1 تدعم أمريكافي الديمقراطية
األوسط الشرق
5 4 3 2 1 ضد العربية الدولفي الديمقراطية
األوسط الشرق
5 4 3 2 1 أمريكا على يجبالقرارات إتباع
لألمم الدوليةالمتحدة
5 4 3 2 1 , قراراتها صنع فيبعين التأخذ أمريكا
مصالح اإلعتبارالعربية الدول
5 4 3 2 1 متحيزة أمريكا
78
لمصحلة دائماإسرائيل
5 4 3 2 1 العربية الدولضد دائما متحيزة
إسرائيل
5 4 3 2 1 العراق في الحربضد حرب هي
اإلرهاب
5 4 3 2 1 العراق في الحربللتحكم حرب هيفي النفط في
األوسط الشرق
5 4 3 2 1 السياساتسبب األمريكيةفي األزماتاألوسط الشرق
أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقأعارض
بشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 العربية السياساتفي األزمات سبب
األوسط الشرق
5 4 3 2 1 عن تدافع أمريكيامن الديقراطيةضد حربها خالل
اإلرهاب
العربية 1 2 3 4 5 الدولاإلرهاب تدعم
5 4 3 2 1 العربية الدول
79
اإلرهاب تحارب
5 4 3 2 1 العراق في الحربغير العالم جعلت
آمن
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكية السياسةفي رئيسي سبب
و تقدم إعاقةالدول إزدهارالعربية
5 4 3 2 1 النظام ضعفو التعليمي
و السياسيهو اإلقتصادي
الرئيسية العقبةالتقدم و لإلزدهارالعربية الدول في
5 4 3 2 1 بشدة يؤثر الدينالتوجهات في
لدى السياسيةالعرب
5 4 3 2 1 بشدة يؤثر الدينالتوجهات في
لدى السياسيةاألمريكيين
5 4 3 2 1 ال الديمقراطيةتطبق أن تصلح
العربية الدول في
5 4 3 2 1 طريقة أفضلالسالم لضمان
هو العالميالقوة إستخدامالعسكرية
80
أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقأعارض
بشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 طريقة أفضلالسالم لضمان
الخيار هو العالميالدبلوماسي
5 4 3 2 1 دولة أمريكامسيحية
5 4 3 2 1 دورا تلعب األديانخلق في رئيسيااألزمات و الحروب
العالم في
5 4 3 2 1 في ر �ر� م�ب اإلرهاباإلسالم
5 4 3 2 1 إحترام عدمللدين أمريكا
أصل هو اإلسالميالعرب مع خالفها
5 4 3 2 1 بين اإلختالفاتو اإلسالم
هي المسيحيةالحقيقي السبب
بين النزاع فيالدول و أمريكا
العربية
5 4 3 2 1 قواسم توجدكثيرة مشتركة
و اإلسالم بينالمسيحية
81
5 4 3 2 1 كبير أختالف هناكو اإلسالم بين
المسيحية
5 4 3 2 1 ذاته بحد اإلسالمإزدهار في عقبة
العرب وتقدم
5 4 3 2 1 اليتقبل اإلسالمالنظر وجهاتاألخرى
5 4 3 2 1 يختلف اإلسالماليهودية عن جذرياوالمسيحية
5 4 3 2 1 يظلم اإلسالمالمرأه
أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقأعارض
بشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 عنف دين اإلسالمبالفطرة
5 4 3 2 1 ال المسلمونالتكيف يستطيعوا
المجتمعات فيالغربية
5 4 3 2 1 المسلمونفي معزولون
المجتمعاتالغربية
5 4 3 2 1 لديهم المسلمونتجاه عدائية نظرة
82
المسيحي الدين
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكيونبشكل عنيفون
عام
5 4 3 2 1 عدوانيون العرب
5 4 3 2 1 العربية الدولمسالمة شعوبها
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكي الشعبمسالم شعب
5 4 3 2 1 يسئون العربللمرأه
5 4 3 2 1 يسئون األمريكيونللمرأه
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكية المرأهأخالقيا فاسدة
5 4 3 2 1 العربية المرأهأخالقيا فاسدة
5 4 3 2 1 العائلية الروابطاألمريكيين عند
ضعيفة
أعارض أعارض و الأوافق أوافق أوافقبشدة ال أعارض بشدة
5 4 3 2 1 قيم لديهم العرب
83
قوية عائيلية
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكيونتجاه منفتحون
اآلخرين
5 4 3 2 1لديهم العربوتقاليد عادات
منغلقين تجعلهمالغرباء ويرفضون
5 4 3 2 1 لديهم األمريكيونقوية دينية قيم
5 4 3 2 1 قيم لديهم العربقوية دينية
5 4 3 2 1 األمريكيونكبار يعاملون
بإحترام السن
5 4 3 2 1 يعاملون العرببإحترام السن كبار
5 4 3 2 1 العرب تقديرمن أقل للحياة
لها األخرين تقدير
5 4 3 2 1 يحبون األمريكيونعلى السيطرة
األخرين
أحصائية أغراض في فقط تستخدم سوف التالية األسئلة
84
المناسبة اإلجابة حول دائره ضع
األمريكية؟ المتحدة الواليات في المسيحيين نسبة هي ما
100% 30% 80% 25% 50%
األمريكية؟ المتحدة الواليات مدن ليستمن التالية المدن من أي
أنجولوس لوس ميامي نيويورك ليدز
المسيحي؟ الدين المقدسفي الكتاب هو ما
إيسترن اإلنجيل عيسى التوراة
األمريكية؟ المتحدة الواليات عاصمة هي من
كاليفورنيا فلوريدا واشنطن نيويورك
المناسبة ( العبارة عالمة\ (X أمام ضع
البرامج, و األخبار فيمشاهدة اليوم في تقضي الوقت من كم تقريبا؟ التلفاز على السياسية
ساعة من ______ أقلساعتين إلي ______ساعة
ساعات ثالث إلي ______ ساعتينساعات أربع إلي ساعات ______ثالث
ساعات خمس إلي ساعات ______ أربعساعات سنة إلي ساعات ______ خمس
ساعات من ستة أكثر ______
85
السياسية, البرامج و األخبار لمتابعة اليوم في تقضي الوقت من كم تقريبا؟ اإلنترنت على
ساعة من ______ أقلساعتين إلي ______ساعة
ساعات ثالث إلي ______ ساعتينساعات أربع إلي ساعات ______ثالث
ساعات خمس إلي ساعات ______ أربعساعات سنة إلي ساعات ______ خمس
ساعات من ستة أكثر ______
البرامج, و لألخبار لإلستماع اليوم في تقضي الوقت من كم تقريبا؟ الراديو على السياسية
ساعة من ______ أقلساعتين إلي ______ساعة
ساعات ثالث إلي ______ ساعتينساعات أربع إلي ساعات ______ثالث
ساعات خمس إلي ساعات ______ أربعساعات سنة إلي ساعات ______ خمس
ساعات من ستة أكثر ______
) ) ؟, اليومية الصحف الصحيفه تقرأ األسبوع في يوم كم تقريبا
_____ قرأ أ ال1_____2_____3_____4_____5_____6_____
األسبوع أيام _____كل
) . لألخبار كمصدر عليها أساسإعتمادك على التالية اإلعالمية الوسائل رتب1 , عليه تعتمد مصدر (6أكثر عليه تعتمد مصدر أقل
_______التلفزيون_______ األنترنت
اليومية _______ الصحف_______ الراديو
_______المجالت(________ حدد ( _______أخرى
86
المناسبة اإلجابة حول دائره ضع
: الدراسية عليا 5 4 3 2 1 سنتك دراسات
أنثى: الجنس ذكر
اإلجتماعية مطلق: الحالة خاطب متزوج أعزب أخرى
______________)الديانة حدد: ( أخرى مسيحي مسلم
_________:التخصصالعلمي
_________:العمر
_______:الجنسية
األمريكية؟ المتحدة الواليات زيارة لك سبق ال هل نعم
, والية؟ أي في نعم الإلجابة كانت _________إذا
كانتمدة ؟إقامتككم ______________
, األمريكية؟ بالثقافة معرفتك مامدى إعتقادك في
معرف أي لدي ليس جدا عارف
1 2 3 4 5
اليوم؟ في تصلي مرة كم
1 2 3 4 5
حياتك؟ في الدين أهمية ما
إطالقا مهم غير األهمية متوسط جدا مهم
87
1 2 3 4 5
88