International Maize and Wheat Improvement CenterApdo. Postal 6-641, 06600 Mexico, D.F. Mexico

Masa Iwanaga and Rodomiro Ortiz

International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center

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Should energy be a productof 21st century agriculture in

developing countries?1

Masa Iwanaga and Rodomiro Ortiz 2

1 KeynoteonSession“FoodSecurityvs.BiofuelsinAsia”intheExpertConsultationonBiofuels,Co-sponsoredbyAPAARI,CIMMYT,IRRIandICRISAT,InternationalRiceResearchInstitute,LosBaños,Philippines,27-29August2007

2 DirectorGeneralandDirector,ResourceMobilization;InternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCenter(CIMMYT),Apdo.Postal6-641,06600Mexico,D.F.,Mexico;www.cimmyt.org.

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SUMMARY

Recentpoliciesfosteringuseofalternative,renewableenergysourcesintheindustrializedworldconfrontdevelopingcountrieswithdiverseopportunitiesandchallenges:howtointegratewithpotentialbiofuelmarkets,dealwithimpactsonfoodsecurity,alleviatepoverty,andmanagecropandnaturalresourcessustainably.Biofuelsshouldformpartofaglobal,cross-cuttingagendaofagriculturalresearch,involvingpartnersinthefarmingandenergysectors.Workshouldgeneratepublicgoods,includingbroad-basedknowledge,enablingtechnology,andtoolsforassessment.Theagriculturalsystemsrequiredwillfeature,amongotherthings,sustainableproductionand efficient use of biomass, partitioning it among energy, feed, food andCO2 fixation demands. They should be more efficient and pro-poor,anduseexistingfarmlandormarginal(dry,waterlogged,saline)tracts.OrganizationssuchastheConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)anditsresearchcentersmayplaythefollowingroles:• Developerofanalyticaltools.• Policyanalystandadvocate forbio-energy,livelihoodsandfood

security.• Provider ofallelesourcesoradvancedlinesandpopulationsof

improvedcropcultivars.• Catalyzerofresearchonusefulcroptraitsandeffectivecrop-

resourcemanagement.• Proprietarytechnologybrokertoensurebio-energyatthevillage

level.• Knowledge-sharingfacilitatorthroughoutthebio-energyvalue

chain.• Knowledgeintegrator for complex food-feed-fiber-fuel

environmentalservicesystems.

Public-privatepartnershipswillhavetoengagethebroaderagriculturalanddevelopmentpolicyresearchcommunity,addressingthe following issues in ways that benefit farmers and consumers:

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• Possible tradeoffs of food/feed/fiber versus fuel. Under what conditionscouldthedemandforbiofuels—especiallyfromfoodcropsources—increasefoodorfeedpricesandaffectfoodsecurity,locallyorglobally?

• Environmentalcostingofbiofuels.Theenergyoutputshouldbehigherthantheenergyusedtoproduceagivenbiofuel.

• Lesswater-demandingbiofuelsthancurrentalternatives.• Environmentalservices:eco-friendlybiofuelsmayreduceC-

emissions,mitigatingclimatechange.• Opportunitywindowsandrisksfrombiofuels,particularlyfor

resource-poorproducersandconsumers.• Energyinstitutionsandbio-energymanagement.• Policy-drivenversususer-demandeffects.Whataretherolesof

governmentsandtheirexpectationsinthefaceofunstableandrisingoilprices?Otherpoliticaloreconomicconsiderations?

• Partnershipsandrolesforinternational,regional,ornationalresearchorganizations:howtofosterinnovativeresearchfordevelopmenttoproducefoodandenergy,whileexpandingtheecologically-friendlyuseofmarginalorwastelands,increasingincomesandprovidingnewlaboroptionsforthepoor.

• Theroleofpublicagriculturalresearchorganizationstospeedthedevelopmentandadoptionofsecondgeneration,ligno-cellulosebiofueltechnologies.

Theagendaforcropimprovementwillincludeincreasingplantgrainandbiomassproductivity,optimizingthechemicalandphysical attributes of biofuel sources, and improving specific traits in first- and second-generation biofuel crops, within a framework ofsustainableagriculture.Frontierapproachesshouldbeappliedtostudythepossibleadvantagesofperennialbiofuelcropsthataremorephotosyntheticallyproductive,entaillowerinputcosts,andimprovesoilnutrientinputandretention.Throughallianceswiththebio-energyindustry,researchshouldalsoadaptindustrialprocessestobiomasssourcesandsourcestopromisingprocesses.

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“The fuel of the future is going to come from apples, weeds, sawdust – almost anything.

There is fuel in every bit of vegetable matter that can be fermented.”

Henry Ford, 1925

Convertingagriculturalproductiontoenergyhasbecomeanimportantandwell-fundedglobalresearchgoal,3aspetroleumoilreservesfallandpricesrise.Indeed,risingfuelprices,growingenergydemand,andconcernsoverglobalwarmingfromgreenhousegasemissionsanddomesticenergysecurityhaveputbio-energyatlargeandcropbiofuelsinparticularintheresearchagendaforagricultureworldwide.4

BiofuelsareattractinggreatattentioninAsia,forexample,wheresteadypopulationgrowthandattendantenergydemandsoutstripsuppliesfromfossilfuels.Percapitaenergyusebythetwogiants,ChinaandIndia,poselocalandglobalecologicalhazards.5Developingworldgovernmentselsewhereareshowingakeeninterestinrenewableenergysources,particularlybiofuels,bothtoreduceexpensivefossil-fuelimportsandtoexpandmarketsfortheircrops.Hence,globaldemandsforcleanenergyappeartocoincidewithlong-held interests in expanding agricultural markets to benefit the ruralpoor.Achievingthiswithoutendangeringtheenvironmentoraffordablefoodandfeedsupplieswillrequirethecreationofcomplex,cross-sectorlinkagesandpartnerships,creatingandstrengtheningstrategicalliancesamongpublicandprivateorganizationsandtheagricultureandenergysectors.6

3 E.Kintisch(2007)Science315:7474 S.E.Koonin(2006)Science 311:4355 IPCC(2007)Climate Change 2007: Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and

Vulnerability,IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange4thAssessmentReport–WorkingGroupII

6 S.Herrera(2006)Nature Biotechnology24:715−720

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THE IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT POLICY Governmentpolicy,sometimesincompliancewithinternationalagreementssuchastheKyotoProtocol,appearstobedrivingbiofueluse.ThegovernmentofBrazillauncheditsNationalFuelAlcoholPrograminthemid-1970s,andby1980ethanoluseovertookthatofgasoline.Sincepriceliberalizationin1999,ethanolhascostathirdlessthangasoline,andBrazilisnowtheworld’ssecond-leadingethanolproducerandexporter,usingsugarcaneasfeedstock(Table1).Morerecently, the US biofuel industry, the world leader, expanded as a result ofaPresidentialInitiativeonBio-energy.Inmid-2006therewere81plantsrangingincapacityfrom3.8to1,140millionlitersofannualoutputandhalfofwhicharefarmer-owned.In2005,36milliontonsof maize—fully 13% of the US maize crop—were used to produce 16.3 billionlitersofethanol.Since2001,China,thethird-largestethanolproducerworldwide,haspromotedethanol-basedfuelonapilotbasisin five cities in its central and northeastern regions. The Jilin Tianhe EthanolDistillery,thelargestintheworld,isproducing912millionliters per year, and has a potential final capacity of 1,216 million liters peryear.Chinahasusedmaize(2.1%ofitsoutput),andwheat(0.7%ofitsoutput)asfeedstocks,butisswitchingtocropssuchascassava,potato,sweetpotato,andsweetsorghum.Similarly,thegovernmentofIndiamandatedtheuseofbiofuelsinninestatesandenactedanexcisedutyexemptionforethanol.Sugarcaneisstillthemainfeedstockand

Table 1. Selected leading ethanol producers in the world (2005) Country Millionofliters Worldoutputshare(%)

USA 16,203.2 35.1Brazil 16,062.6 34.8China 3,815.2 8.3India 1,706.2 3.7Thailand 300.2 0.6Indonesia 171 0.4Australia 125.4 0.3Japan 114 0.2Pakistan 91.2 0.2Philippines 83.6 0.2Totalworld 46,170

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theIndianbiofuelindustryplanstobuild20newethanolplantsinadditiontothe10existingplants.

Thailand,whichusescassavaasmainfeedstock,approveda10%ethanolmixstartingin2007,whichwouldboostproductionto1,505millionliters.Asaresultofthisnationalpolicy,18newethanolplantsare being developed, and producers will benefit from tax breaks. The Thaigovernmentcalculatesthatafuelblendwouldbecheaperperliterthanconventionalgasoline.Since2000,Australiahasprovidedtaxexemptionsandsubsidiestoethanolproducers,aimingtohit350millionlitersofbiofuelby2010—enoughtoreplace1%ofitstotalfuelsupply.

As in the USA, national policies mean that the price of ethanol will dependmainlyonthepriceofgasolineandonthesizeofethanoltaxcredit,ratherthanonfeedstockprices.Increasingethanoldemandsignificantly may not affect its price, but would raise feedstock and foodprices.

SHAPING A MULTI-SECTOR BIO-ENERGY AGENDABecauseofthevalue-addedincentiveitoffersfarmers,useoffoodcrops as raw material for bio-energy production may significantly changerurallivelihoodsandgraintradedynamics,7butcouldalsoadverselyaffectfoodandfeedsupplychains,soilmanagementsystems,andenvironmentalconservation.8Ontheotherhand,marginallandscurrentlyunsuitableforfoodproductioncouldbecomeimportant for growing underutilized plant species that are efficient biomassproducersinlowinputsystems,thusprovidingcheapersourcesforbio-energyproductionthatdonotinterferewithcurrentfoodproductionsystems.9

7 C.Schubert(2006)Nature Biotechnology24:777−7848 J. Hill et al.(2006)Proceedings National Academy of Sciences, USA 103:11206112109 A.J. Ragauskas et al. (2006)Science311:484−489

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Dealingwiththecomplexityofinteractingfactorsacrossregions,end-usergroups,anddisciplinesdemandsaholisticapproach.10Onlyinthiswaywillitbepossibleforplantbreederstoprovideappropriatenewtraits,cultivars,andcropsthatenhanceincomesfordevelopingcountry farmers, improve efficiency in biofuel processing plants, and minimizenegativeimpactsongrainproductionandprices,livestockfarming,soilconservation,andtheenvironment.Governmentswillthusbeabletoenactpoliciesforcheap,environmentally-friendlybiofuelsthatprovideenhancedincometofarmersandprocessorsandalong-termcheaperalternativetopetroleumoil-basedfuels.11

Plantbreederswillneedtoconsidervegetativebiomasstraitsratherthansolelyongrain,tokeepfoodpricesfromrising.12Agronomistswillneedtodevelopsoilmanagementsystemsthatrequirelessresidualbiomassyetareinlineconservationagricultureprinciples.13Livestockscientistswillneedtooptimizefeedandfodderusesinsystemswherethereisapremiumonbiomassforbiofuelproduction;thisatatimewhenrisingincomesareexpectedtodoublethedemandformeatindevelopingcountries.14Socio-economistswillneedtoworkwithagriculturalscientiststosuggestthemostappropriateagriculturalspeciesforuseinvariousruralscenarios,consideringtradedynamics,thecompetitionamongfood,feed,andbiofuelmarkets,andthehighpricesofpetroleum-basedfertilizers.15Policyadvisersandgovernmentsneedtobalancetheneedforexportingsurplusgrainversususingitlocallyforbiofuels.16Somefarmerswillbenefit from increased incomes through access to new biofuel markets, butresultinghigheronfoodprices17willalsoimpactonpoorruraland

10 J.P. Holdren (2007) Science315:73711 United Nations (2007) Sustainable Bio-energy: A Framework for Decision Makers.

UN-Energy, New York12 K.Cassmanet al.(2006)CASTCommentaryQTA2006-313 R.L.Grahamet al.(2007)Agronomy Journal 99:1–1114 R.Nayloret al.(2005)Science310:1621−162215 A.A.Verteset al. (2006)Nature Biotechnology24:761−76416 A.Elobeidet al.(2007)AgBioForum 10:11−1817 M.Rosegrantet al.(2006)Vision 2020 for Food Agriculture and the Environment

– Bio-energy and Agriculture: Promises and Challenges 14:3

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urbanconsumers.18Lastbutnotleast,engineersandecologistswillneedtocalculatetheenergycostsofusingdifferentcropsforbiofuelproductionandtheirdifferentialeffectsoninternationallymonitoredenvironmentalemissions.19

Theremainderofthisarticleprovidesanoverviewofagriculturalresearchissues,particularlyinplantbreedingandbioscience,importantforthedevelopmentofan“appropriate”biofuelindustry.Italsoaddressesprioritiesforagriculturalresearch-for-developmentonbiofuels,tomaintainabalancebetweenfoodsecurity,energyproduction,andagriculturalandenvironmentalconservation.Finally,it suggests how such research can best be organized and financed, includingthemostappropriaterolefortheConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)andnationalresearchanddevelopmentinstitutions.

CROP BREEDING AND BIOFUELSTodaymostworldethanolderivesfromeithersucroseorstarch.Thisstarch or grain-based bio-ethanol is termed “first-generation” biofuel. Thereare,totheauthors’knowledge,onlyafewbreedingprogramsdedicatedsolelytoimprovecropsasabio-energyfeedstocks.20Manyprogramsdotargetenhancedsilagequality,atraithighlyassociatedwithimprovedbio-energyoutput.

Plantbiomassisabundant,renewable,carbon-neutral,andasustainable source of hydrocarbons. Biomass can therefore fill the gap betweenenergydemandandpetroleumavailabilityinthenearterm,andbearenewablesourceofhydrogeninthelongterm.Furthermore,cropscangeneratemorecelluloseperhectarethansucroseorstarch,suggestingthatcellulosefeedstockspossessgreatpotentialasafuelsource,if“biomassrecalcitrance”—i.e.,thenaturalresistanceofplant

18 C.F.Runge&B.Senauer(2007)Foreign Affairshttp://www.foreignaffairs.org/20070501faessay86305-p40/c-ford-runge-benjamin-senauer/how-biofuels-could-starve-the-poor.html

19 A.E.Farrelet al.(2006)Science 311:506-50820 C.Schubert(2006)Nature Biotechnology24:777−784

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cellwallstomicrobialandenzymaticdeconstruction—isovercome,loweringthecostsoflignocelluloseconversion.21

Plantbreedersshouldthereforeaimforacropwithabiomassontheorderof15tonsperhectareandtraitsthatmaximizefuelyieldperlandarea.Targettraitswouldincludethosethatfosterthecheapdecompositionofvegetativematerialandmatchgenesforthispurposeinfungiusedincellulose-processing.

Themainenergy-outputtraitsinthecropgeneticenhancementagendaarehighlevelsofcelluloseorhemi-cellulosecontentthroughincreasedcarbohydratecontent,andhighbiomassthroughanincreasedinitialcaptureoflightenergyorbymanipulatingnitrogenmetabolismgenes.Low-inputtolerancetraits,suchasincreasedwater-ornutrient-useefficiency or adaptation to zero or reduced tillage, are needed to ensure apositiveenergyoutput,whenincreasingbiomass.

Adaptingcropstomarginallandsaffectedbydrought,salt,ortemperaturestressesremainsanimportanttargetofcropbreeding,especiallytoavoiddivertingmostoftoday’slandgrownwithfoodstaplesintobiofuelcrops,ortoaccountforanyswitchtobiofuelfarmingofsuchlandinfoodexportingregionsoftheworld.Likewise,anyoftheimprovedtraitsshouldalsoassistinreducingcarbondioxide emissions, release less air pollutants, and should fit into conservationagriculturepractices.

WHAT BIOTECHNOLOGY OFFERS Biotechnologyresearchthataddressesfarmingandindustrialneedscould contribute significantly to sustainable biofuel production.22Inthisregard,afeedstockplantwithreducedligninlevelsisoneofthemainaimsforcropgeneticenhancementofsecond-generationbiofuelsources.23Forexample,maize’sandsorghum’sbmmutantsmaybe

21 M.E.Himmelet al.(2007)Science 315:804−80722 M.W.Weevan&M.C.R.Frassen(2006)Nature Biotechnology24:765−76723 M.Sticklen(2006)Current Opinion in Biotechnology17:315−319

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usedtoalterlignincompositionandamountsincellwalls.24“Omics”sciences(genomics,proteomics,metabolomics)canfacilitatetheunderstandingoftheligninbiosynthesispathway,andhelpmolecularbreederstomanipulategenesforoptimalprocessingtraits.Researchtodatehasshownthatmanygenesareinvolvedintheinheritanceof important forage characteristics, such as fiber type and content. Furthermore,thereisatightnegativeassociationbetweenlignincontentandfeedstockvalue.Othergenesofinterestincludethoserepressingligninbiosynthesis,reducinglignincontentwhileincreasingcellulose,ordown-regulatingligninbiosyntheticgenesthatresultincellwallseasiertodigestbybacteria,therebydoublingsugarrelease.

Effortshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoproducefermentablesugars utilizing maize stover and fiber as feedstock. An important limitationtotheuseofmaizestoveristhatitrequirespretreatmentandhydrolysistoconvertitslingo-cellulosicbiomasstofermentablemono-saccharides.Thepretreatmentaltersmacro-andmicroscopicbiomasssizeandstructure,alongwithchemicalcomposition,sothatenzymatichydrolysisofthecellulosefractionproceedsmorerapidlyandwithgreateryield.

DNAmarkersareshortsequenceslocatedneargenomesegmentsassociatedwithtraitsofinterest.Becausetheyco-segregatewiththetraitgene,theycanbeusedasatoolinselection.Theycanassistindiscoveringgenesfortraitsofinterestamongthehundredsofthousandsofgermplasmbankaccessions.Finally,suchmarkersarealsousedtoanalyzegeneticvariation,essentiallyprovidinginsightsintothegeneticarchitectureofacropspeciesaftermanydecadesofplantbreeding.Forexample,DNAmarker-aidedresearchonlong-term artificial selection of oil concentration in the maize kernel reveals thatatleast50genomelocationsaccountforabout50%oftotalgeneticvariation, which confirms that maize kernel oil content is highly polygenic.25Thisinformationcanbeaddedtothebreeder’stoolkit

24 S.Bout&W.Vermerris(2003)Molecular Genetics and Genomics269:205–21425 C.C.Laurieet al.(2004)Genetics168:2141−2155

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foruseinmarker-assistedselectiontoenhancekerneloilcontent.AsaresultofsuchknowledgeandavailableDNAmarkertools,ashifttowardprecisionbreeding—thatis,re-introducingatargetgeneintoaplantunderdifferentgeneregulationsystems,eitherthroughmarker-assistedselectionordirectgenetransfer—willbethenextstep.

NEW CROP USES AND NEW PLANT SPECIES Thechoiceofacropspeciesforbiofuelproductionwilldependonanex-anteanalysisofenergyinput-outputandenvironmentalimpacts.Newspeciesshouldproducemoreethanolperunitoffeedstockthantoday’s sources (sugarcane in Brazil, maize in the USA, or cassava in Thailand).26

Sweetsorghums,whicharesimilartograinsorghumsandhaverapidgrowth,highbiomassproduction,andbroaderadaptability,havegreatpotentialinethanolproduction.27Theyproducegrainandsugar-richstalksandhavereceivedhighpriorityinsomeareasoftheworld,especiallythesemi-aridtropics,becauseoftheirlowwaterrequirement, cultivation costs, and environmental benefits, relative to otherbiofuelcrops.

Bio-dieselplantationsgiveanotheroptiontorestoretheself-relianceand economic self-sufficiency in resource-poor rural areas.28Non-edibleoilsfromJatropha, Pongamia, Neem, Kusum, andPiluarebeingadvocated.Pongamia pinnata,knownalsoaskaranja,andJatropha curcas, knownasratanjot,areoptionsforvillagerstosupplementorreplacepollutingfuels.Theycanalsoprovideemploymentforlandlessandmarginalpeople.BothPongamiaandJatrophacanbeestablishedinlow-rainfall,infertilesoilsandwastelands,e.g.insomeSouthAsianlocations.Theyareeasytoestablish,fastgrowing,hardy,andarenotbrowsedbycattleandgoats.Whenusedinblendsofupto20%withdiesel(B20),biofuelfromthesecropsrequireslittleornoenginemodification. Likewise, the oilcake that is a by-product of oil extraction fromthesespeciesappearsattractiveasanorganicfertilizer.26 E.Marris(2006)Nature 444:673-67627 B.V.S.Reddyet al.(2005)International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter46:79−8628 S.Waniet al.(2006)Asian Biotechnology and Development Review8:11−34

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Switchgrass(Panicum virgatum)isanotherplantspeciespositedasapotentialbiofuelcrop.29NativetoNorthAmericanprairies,thisgrasscouldbetheprimaryperennialspeciesfordevelopmentasadedicatedcellulosicenergycrop.Switchgrass,togetherwithothernon-food plant species grown in the USA, could be used to produce over 380billionlitersofbiofuelperyear,whileallowingfood,feed,andexportdemandsforothercropstobemet,inpartbecauseswitchgrassgrowsonlandsincapableofsupportingtraditionalfoodcrops.Itscultivationresultsin1/8thenitrogenrunoffand1/100thesoilerosionoffoodcrops.Thelargerootsystemofswitchgrassaddscarbontothesoil,insteadofdepletingit.Breedingprogramsareaimingatleasttodoubleswitchgrassyields(currentlyatabout10tonsperhectare)andincreaseitsethanoloutputtoabout380litersperton,overthemid-term. Recently, a US private plant genomics program to enhance biomassyieldwithpublicfederalfundingannouncedthatitsresearchteamwascompletingtheanalysisofover12,000switchgrassgenesandcharacterizingtheirgeneticvariationtospeedenhancementofthegrass.Thiseffortispartofalargepublic-privatepartnershiptodevelopandmarketnew,high-biomasscropsforbiofuels.

Miscanthusgrassspecies,includingthosecommonlyknownasGiantChinese,SilverGrass,SilverBannerGrass,MaidenGrass,andEulaliaGrass,arereceivingattentionaspotentialbiomasssourcesforbiofuels.29GiantMiscanthus(Miscanthusxgiganteus)isahybridgrassthatcangrow4metershighandmaybeavaluablerenewablefuelsource.FarmersinDenmark,GreatBritain,andIrelandgrowMiscanthusanduseittoproduceenergyduetoitsrapidgrowth,lowmineralcontent,andhighbiomassyield.About5,700litersofethanolcanbeproducedfromthebiomassfrom0.4hectaresofMiscanthus.Afterharvest,Miscanthuscanbeburnedtoproduceheatandtopowerturbines.ThedirectburningofMiscanthusstems—aclean-burningfuel—producesonlyasmuchcarbondioxideasisremovedfromtheairwhiletheygrow,meaningtheprocessisgreenhouse-neutral.Miscanthuscanbemixedwithcoalinequalamountstobeusedinsome current coal-burning power plants without modifications.

29 K.Sanderson(2006)Nature 444:673−676

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CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE AND BIOFUELSAmongothercellulosesourcesbeingseriouslyconsideredforethanolproduction are the crop residues or straws that remain in the field followingtheharvestofgraincropslikemaize,rice,andwheat.30Thecontinuousremovalofcropresiduesforanimalfodder,cookingfuel,andasrawbuildingmaterials,amongotheruses,aswellastheextensivesoiltillageforseedingorforweedcontrol,affectagro-ecosystemsustainability,especiallyonmarginallands,resultinginextensivesoilerosionandlossofsoilorganicmatter,ultimatelyreducingcropyields.Suchdegradationalsoleadsfarmerstoapplyincreasinglevelsofinputs,especiallyfertilizers,tomaintainoutput.Furthermore,thealreadyhighandyetincreasingproductioncostsfacedbymanyfarmersaredirectlyrelatedtothelargeamountsoffuelusedforextensive,mechanicaltillageoperations.Thesolutiontotheseandmanyotherproblemsliesthereforeinappropriateconservationagriculturepractices,whichimpliesdramaticreductionsintillageoritscompleteelimination,coupledwiththeretentionofadequatelevelsofcropresiduesonthesoilsurfaceand,where relevant, diversified and economically viable crop rotations.

InareassuchasthesouthernconeofSouthAmerica,wherefarmershaveappliedconservationagriculturepracticessuchasdirectseedingintosurfaceresiduesonmorethan20millionhectares,therehavebeenclearanddramaticreversalsinsoildegradationandmajorreductionsinproductioncosts;mainlydieselfuelsavingsassociatedwiththeeliminationoftillage.Bythesametoken,researchatCIMMYThassuggestedthatzero-tillagewithoutretentionofcropresiduesisnotsustainable.

Thosewhoproposeusingcropresiduesforbiofuelsneedtotakeintoaccountthehazardsindicatedabove,especiallysoilerosionandthedepletionofcarbonandothernutrientsinsoils.Cropandsystemagronomistsshouldbeabletotellhowmuchcropresiduescanbetakenoffwithoutaffectingsystemsustainabilityorcropyields,as

30 S.Kim&B.E.Dale(2004)Biomass and Bio-energy26:361-375

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wellastheeconomicalfeasibilityofremovingcropresidues,especiallyiffertilizersareusedtoreplacenutrients.Inhigh-yieldingirrigatedsystems,itmaybepossibletoremoveamajorportionofcropresiduesandstillretainanadequatelevel(say,3-5tonsperhectare)forhealthysoils.Inrainfedcroppingsystems,mostresiduesmustberetained.

BIOSCIENCE INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR BIOFUEL RESEARCHClearly,addingbiofuelproductivityasatargettraitbringsnewresearchprioritiesincropimprovementandformanagingcroppingsystems. Multi-purpose crops combining food, feed, fiber, and biofuel traitsareneededsothatfarmerscanrespondtomarketchangesandreduceormanagerisks.Itappearsthatbasiccropbiofuelresearchmaybebetterundertakenbyacademicorganizationsandtheprivatesector,whereasgeneticdiversityassessmentand“allelemining”couldbethemaintaskofpublicgenebanks,particularlythoseoftheCGIARcenters.

Wearerecentlywitnessingchangesinthenatureofpublicandprivatesectorplantbreeding,withthepublicsectortakingoncharacteristicsorrolesoftheprivatesector,andviceversa.31Public-privatepartnershipsmaymakeeffectiveuseofresourcesbyfocusingpublicresearchontappingpotentialplantgeneticresourcesandinitialtraitgeneticenhancement,feedingoutputsintopublicorprivatebreedingprogramsworldwide.Withrecentbiofuelresearchandtechnologyadvancesinthedevelopedworld,oneroleofinternationalpublicorganizations,suchasCGIARcenters,willbetofosterapplicationofnewknowledgeandtechnologyamongsmall-scalefarmers,particularlyinresource-poorareasofthedevelopingworld.TheCGIARcenterscanalsobridgegapsinbiofuelresearch,facilitatinginformationsharingandeasingaccessofresource-poorfarmerstoproprietarytechnology.Onewayofachievingthelatterisbybrokeringagreementsbetweenthedevelopedworld’sprivatesectorandpotentialusersintheemergingdevelopingworld.

31 R.Ortiz & J.H. Crouch (2007) InG.Loebenstein&G.Thottappilly(eds.)Agricultural Research Management.Springer,Germany.pp.65-92

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WILL BIOFUELS TRANSFORM CROP IMPROVEMENT?Withoutadoubtcropbiomassitselfremainsanimportantbreedingtarget, and this trait benefits from ongoing genetic enhancement of yieldpotentialandstability,aswellasbycropbettermentforstress-proneenvironments.Withtheadventofnewgenomictools,basicresearchoncellwallandstarchchemistrywillallownewcomparativebiologyundertakings.Amongotheroutcomes,theseshouldbringimportantknowledgefromresearch-endowedcropstoimproveless-researchedcropsorplantspeciesthathavebio-energypotential.

Energy-savingagriculture,includezero-tillageanduseofinsect-resistantorweed-suppressingcrops,willhavearoleinaddressingcurrentenergyconcerns.Researchersshouldtackletheenergy-budgetfor agriculture at a global scale, as well as finding means to reduce wasteinagricultureandfoodchainsortoexploitwasteasabiofuelsource. For example, bio-nitrification inhibition can reduce production costsandtheenvironmentalimpactsofintensiveagriculture,especiallywhensomeavailableestimatesofcostsofcropbiofuelsarebasedontheassumptionofthecontinuoususeofhighinputagriculture.  

Thecurrentuseofgrainsasabiofuelsourcewillmovetomorecellulosicethanol32 and then finally to the use of lignin, which is themostabundantplantbiologicalmaterial.Suchaswitchinrawmaterialsprovidesanopportunityfortheapplicationof“green”genetic modification technology, which may be more easily accepted bysocietythancurrentproductsofagriculturalgeneticengineering,especiallyiftheaimisatransgenicbio-energy(ratherthanfood)cropgrowninamarginalarea.Likewise,engineeringmicrobesforbiomassprocessingwillbeanimportantcontributiontocheaperethanol.33,34Inshort,anewmind-setforproducingbiofuelsthroughasociallyresponsible,systemsbiologyapproachshouldbepursued.

32 D.Kennedy(2006)Science316:51533 H.Alper(2006)Science314:1565−156834 G.Stephanopoulos(2007)Science315:801−804

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A HOLISTIC, KNOWLEDGE-BASED BIOFUEL AGENDAAknowledge-basedresearchagendaonbiofuelsshouldfocusonsocio-economicsandpolicy,cropandnaturalresourcemanagement,species selection, and germplasm enhancement. The identification of researchableissuesshouldfollowavalue-chainapproachandwithpartnersthroughoutasindicatedbelow:

Socio-economicsandpolicyresearchmustaddressthefactorsunderlyingfeedstocksupplies,demandsidefactors,andopportunitiesforglobaltradeinfeedstocksorbiofuelsforthedevelopingworld.Likewise,researchwillincludetheassessmentofbiofuelproductioninindustrializednationsandpotentialnegativefoodsecurityimpactsinthedevelopingworld. Expectedoutputsinclude:

• Impactsoncommodityprices,theenvironment,foodsecurity,hunger,andpoverty.35

• Scenarioresearchtotargetfavorableenvironmentsforbiofuelproduction.

Traitdevelopment

Seedproduction

Feedstockproduction

Bioprocessing

Biofueldistribution

Consumerfuels

EndUser

CGIARARIPrivatesector

Seed/Biotechsector

Farmers

CoopsPrivate

Private

RefineriesOilcompanies

Consumerorganizations

NARS

Government

FAO

Local

Regional

National

International

Knowledgeexchange

Policies/recommendations/mandates

35 A.K.Chandel(2007)Biotechnology and Molecular Biology Review2:14-32

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• Ex-antebiofueltraitanalysistoguidebothcropgeneticenhancementandnaturalresourcemanagement.

• A value-chain bio-energy research approach to benefit the rural poor.

• Examiningtheroleofbiofuelsinclimatechangemitigationpolicies,anddesigningsmall-orlarge-scalebiofuelsystemstobeclimate-prooforresilientinareasthatarelikelytoundergoincreasingenvironmentalstress.36Forexample,biofuelcombustionisthelargestsourceofblackcarbonemissionsinIndia,anditscontrolmaymitigateclimatechangeSouthAsia.37,38

• Intellectualpropertymanagementfornon-foodorfeeduseofplantgeneticresources.

Conservationagriculturepracticeswillbeanimportantcomponentofcropandnaturalresourcemanagementresearch,sinceresidueremovalcontributestowaterrunoff,soilerosion,and,throughalossofsoilorganicmatter,long-termdegradation.39Agronomistsneedtherefore to define the minimum thresholds of crop residues for sustainableproductioninparticularfarmingsystems,especiallyinlow-yieldrainfedareas.Hence,thisresearchagendaneedstoaddress:

• Energybalancesindifferentfarmingenvironmentsandtechnologies.

• Crop,cropresiduesandbiofuelfeedstockinhighandlowpotentialfarming.

• Thebio-energybalance:inputs(includingwaterproductivity)andoutputs.40

• Potentialbiofuelfeedstocksfromintensivecroppingandsystemsandlivestock.

36 H.VonBlottnitz&M.A.Curran(2007)Journal of Cleaner Production.Inpress.37 J. Lelieveld et al. (2001)Science291−29638 C.Venkataramanet al.(2005)Science307:1454−145639 R.Lal&D.Pimentel(2006)Soil Tillage93:237-23840 T.D.Patzeket al.(2005)Environment,DevelopmentandSustainability7:319–336

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• Thepotentialofusinginvasivespecies(e.g.Prosopis julifloraindrylands)41forbio-energy.

• The need for environmentally-sustainable first- and second-generationbiofuelconversiontechnologiesandfeedstocks;e.g.,drieddistillersgrainswithsolubles.42

Lastbutnotleast,cropgeneticenhancementwillaimtodevelophigh-densitycellulose-biomassmulti-crops,witheasybreakdownforbiofuelconversion,andwithhighphotosynthesisandmetabolism,thereby resulting in more input-use efficient plants. Likewise, biofuel cropsshouldshowresiliencetostressfulenvironments—thatis,yieldstability—especiallyifmarginalenvironmentsareusedforbiofuelcrops.43,44,45Inthisregardtheresearchagendaforspeciesselectionandgeneticresourceenhancementneedstoundertake:

• Comparative analysis of crops and trees for efficient energy extractionanduse.

• Allelediscoveryingenebanksforbiofueltraits.• Molecularbreedingforbiofuelcrops.• Incorporationorintrogressionofwildresourcesbyre-thinking

selectionforsinkallocationandbringingtheperennialandbiofueltraitsintotoday’sannualcrops.

• Geneticenhancementofbiofuelcropsaimingatrainfedmarginalornon-agriculturalenvironmentsandexploringotherplantoptionsforbio-energy.

PUBLIC-PRIVATE-PARTNERSHIPS FOR MULTI-USE PLANTS TO BENEFIT THE POORPartnerships should refine and apply new paradigms to generate andaccessresearchresults.Theyshouldalsobringinnovationsininstitutionalarrangementsforinvestigatingatechnologyto

41 S.Raghuet al.(2006)Science313:174242 A.K.Rosentrater(2006)Ecology and Society 11(1):http://www.

ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/resp2/43 D.Tilmanet al.(2006)Science314:1598−159944 M.P.Russelle(2007)Science316:1567bDOI:10.1126/science.113938845 D.Tilmanet al.(2007)Science316:1567cDOI:10.1126/science.1140365

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sustainablymeetemergingsocietalenergyneeds.ThisiswhatProf.Chris Somerville (Stanford University, California) calls a new, mission-oriented “Manhattan Project” in the USA for accelerated development ofthecellulosic-basedbiofuelindustry.46Inthedevelopingworld,thepriority for this partnership will be to fill the gap in biofuel product development, aiming to benefit small- to medium-scale farmers and toimproverurallivelihoods.Thispublic-privatepartnershipshouldalsoprovidetoolsforgovernmentstoassessnationalbiofuelpotentialandtoenactenablingpolicyframeworksandincentivestructures.Intheprocess,suchapartnershipshouldgenerateaglobalknowledgenetworkthroughoutbiofuelvaluechainstolinkfarmersandconsumerstomarketsandempowerthem.

Traitdiscoveryingenebankswillbeanimportantactivity.Theprivatesectorhastoidentify,aspertheirresearchonbiomassconversion,newtraitsneededinfeedstocksources.Changesinplantarchitectureareenvisaged,sincefuturebio-energycropsmaylookquitedistinctfromtoday’savailabletypes.Oneexpectedchangemaybethepotentialconversionfromannualtoperennialgrowthhabit,whichmayalsore-shapeagroecosystemsinsomecropbiofuel-producingareas.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTWethankmanycolleaguesforprovidingvaluableinputsgivenoriginally through a previous policy briefing47andaconceptnote48foraChallengeProgramonthissubject.WealsoacknowledgetheeditingofsciencewriterMikeListmanandthelayoutofdesignerEliotSánchez,bothofCIMMYT.

46 C.Somerville(2006)Science312:127747 R.Ortizet al.(2006)Vision 2020 for Food Agriculture and the Environment – Bio-

energy and Agriculture: Promises and Challenges 14:748 AllianceofCGIARCenters(2007)Bio-energy: Growing Energy on Farms to

Generate Income and Protect the Environment.AproposalforCGIARChallengeProgram2ndCall–IdeaGenerationPhase1.

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