marxism childe archaeology.pdf

8/10/2019 marxism childe archaeology.pdf

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C H IL D E M A R X I S M A N D A R C H A E O L O G Y

Nicholas Thomas

The history of an area of knowledge can

never be seen as something which is fixed and

given in an unproblematic way. These histories

have more in common with the genealogies of

Hawaiian kings: they are manipulated and re-

constr ucted as orthodoxies and lineages are

developed and displaced. Somet imes a body of

work will be anxious to stress its connections

with earlier texts; at other times it will claim a

revolutionary distance from them. Sometimes

a particular body of past work is seen to belong

to one school, at other times to another. These

sentences are not meant to imply a simple rela-

tivistic conc eption of knowledge history, since

real issues are involved and some positions are

demonstrably more adequate than others. The

issues can be quite crucial, since history is used

to legitimate presen t strategies - strategies

which are not merely modes of explanation

but which can have real social and political con-

sequences as is most evident from debates

within the anthropology of development). It

is, however, crucial to recognize the ex ten t to

Nic h o la s Th o ma s i s As s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r in th e De p a r tme n t o f

P r e h i s to r y a n d An th r o p o lo g y , F a c u l ty o f Ar t s , Au s t r a l i a n

Na t io n a l U n iv e r s i ty .

which conceptions of the history of a discipline

are circumscribed and specified by the prob-

lematics which generate those conceptions.

Marxists are familiar with these principles

through various theoretical struggles over their

own history, bu t archaeologists are not, and

this is not because archaeological anthropology

has not been interpreted in ways commensurate

with particular orthodox ies but because these

interpreta tions and reinterpre tations have been

implicit and non-theorised.

Here I am conc erned with the place of the

work of V. Gordon Childe in archaeology.

While Childe 189 2-1 957 ) has generally been

recognised as a major figure, this recogni tion

has involved a restricted view of his work,

equating it entirely with the de velopmen t of

the culture-historical framework. Other crucial

areas, in pa rticula r a socio-historical interpre-

tation of prehistory and philosophical work on

the place o f knowledge in society, have been

almost enti rely ignored. This neglect has facili-

tated an uncritical attitude toward certain

facets of cont empo rary archaeological ortho-

doxy, which, as anyone who has dipped into

the literature will observe, is overwhelmingly

positivist and reductively cultural not, of

0 3 0 4 - 4 0 9 2 / 8 2 / 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 / 0 2 . 7 5 1 9 8 2 E l s ev i e r S c i e n t if i c P u b l is h in g C o m p a n y


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fers to Childe quite frequent ly in culture-

historical contex ts, but only once refers to

othe r aspects of his work, and only then to

describe

S c o t l a n d B e f o r e t h e S c o t s

as a

piece of anti-establishment whim sey [ 10].

The only infere nce to be drawn here is that

Daniel - and more significantly the world-

view of traditional British a rchaeology within

which he was working - had no real understand-

ing of what Childe was atte mpting to accom-

plish. It may well be the case that Childe pro-

duced the book partially in a spirit of radical

mischief, but this is quite irrelevant to any

evaluation of its theoretical significance.

The most revealing of the discussions of

Childe's work is that by Grahame Clark. He

explicitly states that Childe's contri bution is

to be seen entirely in terms of the culture-

historical approach. Like Piggot, Clark re-

ferred to the Preface to

T h e D a n u b e i n P re

h i s t o r y in which Childe elabora ted the culture-

historical perspective and stated that this

was his essential contr ibuti on to prehistoric

archa eology [ 11 ], and furt her that He had

achieved what he was going to achieve in this

genre essentially by 1930 [ 12]. This is a

dismissive statement, since about ninety per-

cent of Childe's work appeared after that date.

But the la ter work was spoilt for Clark by the

influence of the anti quate d folk-lore of Karl

Marx [ 13 ]. The overall tone of Clark's article

is worth indicating in a longer quote:

M a r x i s m e x e r t e d a s e r io u s l y i n h i b it i n g e f f e c t o n h i s m i d d l e

y e a r s . I t h e l p s t o e x p l a i n w h y a f t e r 1 9 3 0 o r s o C h i l d e s

c r e a t iv e p e r i o d w a s e s s e n ti a l ly o v e r a n d w h y a t t h e e n d o f

h i s li f e h e r e a l i s e d t h a t h i s p r o p h e t h a d p l a y e d h i m f a l s e .

W h e r e a s i n 1 9 4 6 h e c o u l d s ti l l a r g u e ( 1 9 4 6 b : 2 5 1 ) t h a t

t h e r e w a s a p r o s p e c t o f r e a c h i n g g e n e ra l l a w s i n di c a t iv e

o f t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h is t o r i c p r o g r e s s i n h i s V a l e d i c t i o n

h e h a d t o a d m i t t h a t w h i l e M a r x i s m h a d o n c e s e e m e d t o

m a k e i n t e ll i g ib l e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e a c h c u l t u r e i t

c o m p l e t e l y f a i l e d to e x p l a i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n o n e

c u l t u r e a n d a n o t h e r a n d i n d e e d o b l i t e r a t e d o r d i s m i s s e d

t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o b s e r v e d ( 1 9 5 8 : 6 ) [ 1 4 ] .

As Matthew Spriggs has pointed out, Clark

here was simply misquoting Childe, who was

referring to M a r r i s m (the mechanistic Soviet

doctrine) and not to M a r x i s m :

t h e r e i s l i tt l e e v i d e n c e c o n t a i n e d i n C l a r k s a r t i c l e o f a n y

c o n c r e t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g e i t h e r o f C h i l d e o r t h e M a r x i s t

t h e o r i e s h e w a s a t t e m p t i n g t o t e s t a r c h a e o l o g i c a ll y [ 1 5 ] .

Clark also attempted to put down Childe's

work by observing that he was the most bour-

geois person in the wor ld [ 16] while Piggot

suggested that there was a relationship between

Childe's interest in Marxism and the alleged

fact that

H e w a s v e r y u g l y , a n d h e w a s a n A u s t r a l i an . T h e s e t w o

f a c t o rs , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e r e s u l t a n t a w k w a r d n e s s a n d s h y -

n e s s a m o n g a l l b u t a v e r y f e w f r i e n d s a n d f o r v e ry s h o r t

i n t e r v a l s , s e e m t o h a v e d e c i s i v e l y a f f e c t e d h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l

s t a n d p o i n t . H e w a s a n O u t s i d e r , w i t h a f a m i l i a r l o v e - h a te

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h i s p o s i t i o n , r e s e n t i n g a n d d i s l i k i n g it , b u t

a t t h e s a m e t i m e e x a g g e r a ti n g hi s o d d n e s s b y s u c h m e a n s

a s w e a r i n g e c c e n t r i c b r o a d - b r i m m e d h a t s a n d d e l i b e r a t e l y

m a k i n g h i m s e l f a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s o l i t a r y [ 1 7 t .

Further:

H e m a y w e l l , a s a sh y , i d e a li s ti c , a w k w a r d y o u n g m a n ,

h a v e s e e n in h i s v e r s i o n o f C o m m u n i s m a s t r u c t u r e o f

s o c i e t y in w h i c h h o n o u r e d r e c o g n i t i o n f o r t h e i n t e l l e c tu a l

e n g a g e d i n s oc i al l y j u s t i f i e d w o r k w o u l d b e m o r e p o s s i b l e

t h a n i n t h e E n g l a n d o f t h e 1 9 2 0 s : t h e O u t s i d e r w o u l d b e

m o r e e a si l y a d m i t t e d t o p r i v il e g e i n s u c h a h y p o t h e t i c a l

s o c i e t y [ 1 8 ] .

This crude psychological reductionism is hard

to take seriously, but it did have consequences

for the devel opment of the discipline, most ex-

plicitly stated in Clark's article.

Having dismissed what Childe did after 1930,

Clark goes on to discuss prehi story since Childe.

He shows that the logical step from Childe's

culture-h istorical system is the ecological ap-

proach, influenced by functionalist anthro-

pology, involving the conce pt of human so-

cieties operating as systems, in which every

component contributed to the functioning of

the whol e [ 19]. Clark claimed that the eco-

logical approach was not only free from, but

was a denial of the dreary dete rminism of some


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o f t h e e a r li e r g e o g r a p h i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o a r c h a e -

o l o g y . T h e r e l a t io n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e s e v e ra l

d i m e n s i o n s o f h u m a n l if e a n d d i f f e r e n t f a c e ts

o f th e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t w e re s e en n o t a s

o n e - w a y b u t a s t w o - w a y [ 2 0 ] . B u t d e s p i te

l ip - s e rv i c e b e i n g p a i d t o s o m e k i n d o f f a c i le

c a u sa l i n t e r a c t i o n i s m , t h e ' e co l o g ic a l a p p r o a c h '

a s i t h a s d e v e l o p e d h a s b e e n , i n b o t h B r i t i s h

a n d A m e r i c a n a r c h a e o l o g y , i n c r e as i n g ly r e -

d u c t i v e a n d d e t e r m i n i s t .

B o t h t h e ' p a l a e o e c o n o m y ' s c h o o l a n d

A m e r i c a n c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l is m h a v e t r e a t e d

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a s e s s e n t i a l l y e p i p h e n o m e n a l

t o t h e e c o s y s t e m o r m o r e g e n e r a ll y t o e n v i ro n -

m e n t a l c o n s t r a i n t s . S o c ia l f a c t o r s h a v e a l w a y s

b e e n m a d e s e c o n d a r y t o t h e i n e x o r a b l e r a t i o -

n a l i ty o f ' a d a p t a t i o n s ' a n d t h e t e l e o l o g y o f t h e

h o m e o s t a t i c s y s t e m . V u l g a r m a t e r i a li s m a s a n

a p p r o a c h h a s a l w a y s b e e n e x t r e m e l y v u l n e r a b l e

t o c r i ti c is m f r o m n o n - r e d u c t i v e a p p r o a c h e s ,

a n d h a s a l m o s t a l w a y s b e e n a r g u e d f o r , n o t a s

a c o n c e p t u a l l y m o r e v i g o u r o u s a lt e r n a ti v e t o

s o m e k i n d o f so c ia l a r c h a e o l o g y , b u t s i m p l y

t h r o u g h j u x t a p o s i t i o n t o p r e v i o u s a r c h a e o lo g y ,

w h i c h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a s h a v in g b e e n p u r e l y

d e s c r i p t i v e a n d p u r e l y c l a s s i f i c a t o r y . I n

A r c h a e o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s , a c e n t r a l t e x t

f o r t h e c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a li s t N e w A r c h a e o l o g y ,

B i n f o r d c o u n t e r p o s e d a p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d e c o -

s y s t e m i c a p p r o a c h t o t h e d i f f u s i o n i s t, tr a d i-

t i o n a l c u l tu r e - h i s to r i c a l a p p r o a c h [ 21 ] . T h e

e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e te r m i n i s t a p p r o a c h d o e s p r o-

v i d e c o n c e p t s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s o f a c r u d e

f u n c t i o n a l i s t s o r t, a n d c a n t h u s b e r e p r e s e n t e d

a s a p r o g r e s s iv e m o v e f o r w a r d f r o m a c la s si fi -

c a t o r y f r a m e w o r k w h i c h o f f er s n o e x p la n a -

t i o n s a t a ll , b u t o n l y i f t h e p o t e n t i a l a l te r n a t i v e

- t h e s o c ia l p e r s p e c t i v e o p e n e d u p b y C h i l d e -

h a s b e e n e r a s e d . T h i s c l o s u r e i s e s s e n t i a l ly t h e

f u n c t i o n C l a rk , P ig g o t a n d D a n i e l p e r f o r m e d

i n r e j e c t i n g C h i l d e ' s l a t e r w o r k a s u n s e r i o u s

a n d u n i m p o r t a n t . T h i s di sm i s sa l m a d e i t ea s y

f o r m a n y q u e s t i o n s o f t h e e c o l o g ic a l a p p r o a c h

t o r e m a i n u n a s k e d .

M o r e r e c e n t ly , t h e n a r r o w e n v i r o n m e n t a l ly

d e t e r m i n i s t a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n e x t e n si v e ly

c r i ti c i s e d [ 2 2 ] , a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l w o r k h a s

a p p e a r e d w h i c h h a s t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n

s o c i al r e l a t i o n s in a m o r e s e r i o u s w a y [ 2 3 ] .

C h i l d e 's w o r k h a s t o o m a n y f la w s to b e d e -

p l o y e d a s a p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e o r a s a s ig n i fi -

c a n t s t i m u l u s f o r th i s c u r r e n t w o r k . M a n y o f

t h e M a r x is t n o t i o n s h e u s e d , s u c h a s t h e

M o r g a n s c h e m a o f s oc ia l e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e

' fa ls e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' v ie w o f i d e o l o g y , n o

l o n g e r s e e m a s h e u r i s t i c , o r a t l e a s t n o l o n g e r

s e e m t e n a b l e in a n u n m o d i f i e d f o r m . Y e t

C h i l d e ' s w o r k r e m a i n s e x e m p l a r y i n tw o i m -

p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , C h i l d e c o n s i s t e n t l y

a t t e m p t e d t o p r e s e n t h is in s i gh t s i n a f o r m

a c c es s ib l e a n d i n t e r e s t in g b o t h t o t h o s e o u t -

s i d e h is d i s c i p li n e a n d t o t h o s e o u t s i d e a c a -

d e m i c i n s t it u t i o n s . A t p r e s e n t , w h e n a c a d e m i c

k n o w l e d g e is in c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l -

i z e d , s p e c i a li z e d a n d m a r g i n a l i z e d , t h i s t a s k

i s m o r e u r g e n t t h a n e v e r . I n t e l l e c t u a l s w i t h a

c r i ti c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n a c a d e m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s

s h o u l d n o t m e r e l y p r o d u c e c r it ic a ll y r ig o r o u s

d i s c o u r s e : i t is v i ta l t h a t t h e y a l so a t t a c k t h e

p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n o f p r e s e n t d iv i-

s i o n s o f k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h f r u s t r a te r e a l u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g a n d f e t i s h i z e d i s c i p l i n a r y b o u n d a r i e s .

S e c o n d l y , C h i ld e d i d n o t n e g l e c t t h e e p i s t e m o -

l o gi c al f o u n d a t i o n s a n d i m p l i c a t io n s o f w h a t

h e w a s d o i n g . I t i s t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h is

p h i lo s o p h i c a l w o r k a n d p h i l o s o p h y i n c o n t e m -

p o r a r y a r c h a e o l o g y t h a t I n o w t u r n .

E M P I R I C IS M N D I D E O L O G Y IN R C H E O L O G Y

T h e c u r r e n t a r c h a e o lo g i c a l o r t h o d o x y s t il l

i n v o l v e s a c r u d e p o s i t i v i s m [ 2 4 ] . T h i s , a l o n g

w i t h t r a d i t io n a l e m p i r i c is t e p i s t e m o l o g y i n

g e n e r a l , h a s t w o b a s i c d e f i c i e n c ie s . F i r s t, i t

f a il s t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e s i g n i fi c a n c e o f t h e o r y i n

t h e k n o w l e d g e - p r o c e s s , a n d s e c o n d l y i t is d e -

v o i d o f a n y n o t i o n o f i d e o lo g y .

C h i l d e w r o t e l i tt l e r e la t i n g t o t h e f i r st p r o b -

l e m f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a rc h a e o l o g ic a l

e p i s t e m o l o g y , b u t h e c le a r ly r e c o g n i z e d t h a t

k n o w l e d g e w a s a c o n s t r u c t , c o n s t i t u te d o f

c o n c e p t s a n d t h e o r y [ 2 5 ] . I f a d e q u a t e e x p la n a -


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2 5 0

t i o n s i n v o l v i n g s o c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e t o b e

g e n e r a t e d , w e m u s t b r e a k a w a y f r o m t h e

l i m i t e d p o s i t iv i s t n o t i o n t h a t t h e o r y b u i l d i n g

is s im p l y s o m e t h i n g w h i c h p r e c e d e s t e s t in g .

K r i s t ia n s e n h a s m a d e t h e p o i n t w e l l:

One crucial probl em is concer ned with the relationship

between observed regularities in the archaeological record

and their underlying structural properties . Here most ex-

planations fail to transcend a purely empirical level, which

reflects a widely held positivistic belief that there exists a

testable one-to- one relationship between empirical observa-

tions and th e structural pro perties of prehistoric societies.

However, a mode of produ ction, or an economic system,

is not const ituted by the structur e of the empirical evi-

dence alone. It has to be reconstructed through an intel-

lectual process, using the formal system of theory as a

helping tool [ 26 I.

C h i l d e s m a i n c o n c e r n w a s w i t h t h e so c i a l

n a t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e . H e a d o p t e d t h e K a n t i a n

n o t i o n o f c a t eg o r ie s b u t i n c o r p o r a t e d i t in t o

a M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t iv e b y e m p h a s i z i n g t h e i r

so c i a l o r i g i n :

Space as a category is not that in which things are per-

ceived, but that in which members of a society co-operate

and act together on things [27].

It is owing to their social nature that categories appear

a priori

necessary and eternal. I n this sense they are in

truth anterior to private experience. They are ne ither dis-

covered nor invented by individuals, but imposed by

society [28].

C h i ld e e x t e n d e d t h is c o n c e p t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e

i n t o v a r i o u s a r e a s . F o r i n s t a n c e , h e d i s c u s s e d

t h e r o l e o f s c i e n ce , k n o w l e d g e a n d r e l ig i o n in

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f so c i e ty [ 2 9 ] . I a m c o n -

c e r n e d o n l y w i t h t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h i s p e r s p e c -

t iv e in f o r m e d s o m e c o m m e n t s C h i l de m a d e o n

t h e p l a c e o f a r c h a e o l o g y i n s o c i e t y . C h i l d e

r e c o g n i se d t h a t h i s t o r y , a s a f o r m o f k n o w l e d g e ,

w a s a n id e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e h i s t o r i a n s

s e l e c t i o n o f e v e n t s

is deter mined to a very small e xten t by his personal idio-

syncracies, but on the whole by t radition an d social inter-

ests. Indeed... the standar d of th e memorable is a social

one, dictated by interests shared by the whole community,

or mor e precisely by the ruling class in each commu nity.

Again, in so far as an historian import s judg ement s

into his narrative, the standard of value will be determined

socially. It is just no good demanding that history shall be

unbiased. The writer cannot help being influenced by the

interests and prejudices of the society to which he belongs

- his class, his nation, his church [30] .

T h e g e n e r a l p o i n t a ls o re l a t e d t o a r c h a e o l o g y ,

a n d C h i l d e w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d b y t h e

u s e o f r a ci al d i f f u s i o n i s t t h e o r i e s o f t h e A r y a n s

i n N a z i i d e o l o g y :

In 1933 it can hardly be alleged that Preh istory is a useless

study, wholely r emote f rom and irrelevant to practical life...

No one wh o has read

M e i n K a m p f

or even the extracts

therefrom in

The Tinzes

can fail to appreciate the profound

effect which theories of tile racial superiority of Aryan s

have exercised on co ntempo rary Germany [31 ].

A r c h a e o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s c a n f u n c t i o n i n m o r e

o r le ss th e s a m e w a y a s s o c i o b i o l o g y h a s d e m o n -

s t r a b ly d o n e i n l e g i ti m a t i n g ra c ia l a n d o t h e r

f o r m s o f o p p r e s s i o n . A r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e a t

p r e s e n t n o n o t i o n o f i d e o lo g y , w h i c h m e a n s

t h a t t h e d i s c i p l i n e c a n n o t b e c r i t i c a l l y s e l f -

c o n s c i o u s , it c a n n o t b e a w a r e o f t h e w a y s in

w h i c h t h e o r i e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

c a n f u n c t i o n in w a y s u n i n t e n d e d a n d u n s e e n

b y t h e i r p r o d u c e r s . S o m e f o r m s o f c o n te m p o

r a r y c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a v e a

g r e a t d e a l i n c o m m o n w i t h s o c i o b i o lo g y a n d

p r o v i d e e x t r a s u p p o r t f o r i ts p r e m i se s .

A r c h a e o l o g y n o w is i n c r e a s in g l y a r t i c u l a t e d

i n t o w i d e r s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e d e v e l -

o p m e n t o f s o -c a ll ed p u b l i c a r c h a e o l o g y a n d

t h r o u g h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f v a r io u s

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p r a c t i c e s i n g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t -

m e n t s a n d a f f il ia t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s . W o r k i n th i s

a re a e n ta i ls m a n y p r o b l e m s c o m p a r a b l e t o

t h o s e w h i c h h a v e a r is e n i n a p p l i e d a n t h r o -

p o l o g y : w h a t i s t h e s i g n i f ic a n c e o f k e y t e r m s

d r a w n n o t f r o m t h e o r et ic a l w o r k b u t f r o m

v a r i o u s o t h e r d i s c o u r s e s s u c h a s n a t i o n a l

h e r i t a g e a n d c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ? A r c h a e o l o g i -

c a l s a lv a ge w o r k m a y b e c o m e m e r e l y p a l l ia t iv e ,

f u n c t i o n i n g e s s e n t i a ll y t o l e g i t im a t e d e v e l o p -

m e n t a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f s it es ( w i t h w h i c h

a n i n d i g e n o u s g ro u p m a y i d e n t if y ) . T h e c u r-

r e n t f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e c o n s i d e r a t io n o f th e s e


7/8

2 5 1

i s s u e s i s e n t i r e l y i n a d e q u a t e ; t h e y a r e c o n -

c e i v e d a s i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c 'e t h i c a l ' c h o i c e s r a t h e r

t h a n a s p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s w i t h p r a c t i c a l c o n s e -

q u e n c e s .

H e n c e , a p a p e r i n o n e o f t h e m a j o r c o l le c -

t io n s o n c u l t u r e r e s o u rc e m a n a g e m e n t u r g e d

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s t o s l l t h e d i s c i p l i n e t o t h e p u b l i c

a n d t o g o v e r n m e n t , w h i le p r e s e n t i n g d e ta i l e d ,

e v a l u a t e d s t ra t e g ie s f o r e f f i c i e n t m a r k e t i n g [ 3 2 ] .

I s t h i s re a ll y t h e k i n d o f r h e t o r i c t h a t a r c h a e -

o l o g is t s s h o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e i n o r e n d o r s e ?

A r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e o f t e n t a k e n p a r t i sa n

p o s i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g c o n s e r v a t i o n i s s ue s [ 3 3 ] .

H e r e w e s e e t h e c e n t r a l e r r o r o f t h e e c o l o g i c a l

a p p r o a c h in p r e h i s to r y a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y re -

p r o d u c e d i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l it ic a l c o n -

t e x t . T h e m o s t c r u c ia l i n a d e q u a c y o f t h e

v a r i o u s e c o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t i e s i n t h e f a i l u r e

t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e r o l e o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n

d o m i n a t i n g , i n d e e d c r e a ti n g , p a t t e r n s o f r e-

s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d s u b s i s t e n c e s tr a te g i es .

A s E n z e n b e r g e r h a s a r g u e d i n a d e t a i l e d c r i -

t iq u e o f t h e e c o lo g ic a l m o v e m e n t in c o n t e m -

p o r a r y p o l i ti c s [ 3 4 ] , e n v i r o n m e n t a l is s u es c a n -

n o t b e i s o l a t e d f r o m s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a n d e c o -

n o m i c s y s t e m s . W h e r e a r c h a e o l o g i s ts a r e i n-

v o l v e d in q u e s t i o n s o f p u b l i c p o l i c y , t h e y

m u s t r e c o g n i z e th e d o m i n a n c e o f c e r ta i n i n te r -

e s ts , a n d t h e c o n s t r a i n t s th i s d o m i n a n c e i m -

p o s e s u p o n t h e p o s s i b il it y o f i n f o r m e d d e c i -

s i o n m a k i n g . I f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a re t o a c t in a n

a d e q u a t e l y s u b v e r s i v e b u t c o n s t r u c t i v e w a y

i n t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e , c o n f r o n t i n g d e v e l o p e r s ,

t h e n t h e ir p r ac t ic e m u s t b e i n f o r m e d b y a

c r i t i c a l s o c i a l t h e o r y w h i c h s i t u a t e s d e v e l o p e r s

a n d p u b l i c a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , c a p i t a l , a n d t h e

s t a t e r e la t iv e t o e a c h o t h e r , p u t t i n g a r c h a e -

o l o g ic a l k n o w l e d g e w h e r e i t b e l o n g s - i n th e

s e rv i ce o f i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s . A n e w c o h e r e n c e

is n e c e s s a r y b e t w e e n a t h o r o u g h g o i n g s o c ia l

a r c h a e o l o g y a n d a c r i t i c a l s o c i a l p e r s p e c t i v e o n

t h e r o le o f a r c h a e o l o g y a s a f o r m o f k n o w l e d g e

w i t h s p e c i f ic i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n t e x t s , c a u s e s a n d

c o n s e q u e n c e s i n p o l i c y a n d p o l it ic s .

C h i ld e 's w o r k o p e n e d u p t h e t e r ri to r i es o f

s o c ia l a r c h a e o l o g y a n d t h e s o c ia l lo c a t i o n o f

a r c h a e o l o g y . H i s p o s i t i o n s h a v e b e e n o b s c u r e d ,

d i s m i s se d a n d m i s r e a d , b u t f r o m w i t h i n t h e

p e r s p e c t i v e o f th e s e t e r r i t o r i e s as t h e y h a v e

d e v e l o p e d , w e ca n r e c o g n i z e n o t o n l y h i s

p i o n e e r i n g r o l e , b u t a l s o t h e l o g i c o f i t s d is -

m i s s a l a n d m i s r e a d i n g .

NOT S

1 V . G o rd o n C h i ld e , The Danube in Prehistory ( O x f o r d :

O x f o rd U n iv e r s i ty P res s, 1 9 2 9 ) , p p . v -v i . T h e a p p ro a c h i s

imp l i c i t i n v a r io u s e a r l i er w o rk s : O n th e d a te a n d o r ig in

o f M i n y a n w a r e , Journal of Hellenic Studies vol . 35

(1 9 1 5 ) , p p . 1 9 6 -2 0 7 ; t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f The Dawn of

European Civilization (L o n d o n : K e g a n P a u l , T re n c h ,

T ru b n e r a n d C o . , 1 9 2 5 ) ;

TheAryans

(L o n d o n : K e g a n P a u l ,

T re n c h , T ru b n e r a n d C o . , 1 9 2 6 ) .

2 The Danube in Prehistory

p. vi.

3 D e f in i t i o n s s im i l ar t o th a t q u o te d a p p e a r in : The Bronze

Age (C a mb r id g e : C a mb r id g e U n iv e r s i ty P res s, 1 9 3 0 ) , p p .

4 1 - 4 2 ; C h a n g i n g m e t h o d s a n d a i m s i n P r e h i s t o ry , P r o -

ceedings of the Prehistoric Society vol . 1 (1935) , p . 3 ;

Scotland Before the Scots (L o n d o n : Me th u e n , 1 9 4 6 ) , p . 2 ;

Prehistoric Migrations in Europe (O s to : A s c h e h o u g a n d

C o . , 1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 2 -3 ; A Short Introduction to Archaeology

(N e w Y o rk : C o l l i e r , 1 9 5 6 ) , p p . 15-16;Piecing Together

the Past (L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e a n d K e g a n P a u l , 1 9 5 6 ) , p . 1 6 ;

The Prehistory of European Society (London: Casse l l ,

1958), p. 10.

4 The Aryans

p. 81 ;

The Danube in Prehistory

p . 297 ,

p . 348 .

5 The Bronze Age pp . 128--30 , p . 199 .

6 Prehistoric Communities o f the British Isles ( L o n d o n :

C h a m b e rs a n d C o . , 1 9 4 0 ) , p . 9 9 , p . 1 2 8 .

7 T . Mu r ra y h a s d e v e lo p e d a s im i l a r a rg u me n t , a l th o u g h

f ro m a r a th e r d i f f e re n t p o in t o f v i ew . S e e T . Mu r ra y ,

Patterns in Prehistory: Gordon Childe Reconsidered

(U n iv e r s i ty o f S y d n e y , B A (H o n o u rs ) t h e s is , 1 9 7 8 ) .

8 S . P ig g o t, T h e D a w n : a n d a n E p i lo g u e , Antiquity vol .

32 (1958) , p . 77 .

9 S . P i g go t , V e r e G o r d o n C h i l d e : 1 8 9 2 - 1 9 5 7 , Proceed-

ings of the British Academy v o l . 4 4 (1 9 5 8 ) , p . 3 1 2 . T h i s

t e x t w a s d e s c r ib e d b y C la rk a s ' a k e y s o u rc e ' o n C h i ld e .

G . C la rk , P re h i s to ry s in c e C h i ld e , Institute of Archae-

ology Bulletin

vol . 13 (1976) , p . 2 .

1 0 G ly n D a n ie l , One Hundred and Fif ty Years of Archaeology

(L o n d o n : D u c k w o r th , 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 3 7 5 .

11 Cla rk , op . c i t . , 1976 , p . 5 .

12 ibid. p. 4.

13

Ibid.

p. 18.

14 Ibid. p. 3.

1 5 M. S p r ig gs , In t ro d u c t io n , i n M. S p r ig g s ( e d . )A rc h a e o lo g y

and Anthropology: Areas of Mutual lnterest ( O x f o r d :

B r i t i sh A rc h a e o lo g ic a l R e p o r t s , 1 9 7 7 ) , p . 5 .

16 Cla rk , op . cit. 1976 , p . 3 .

1 7 P ig g o t , V e re G o r d o n C h i ld e ,

op. cit.

1958 , p . 310 .


8/8

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