Marketing Research Distribution

7/27/2019 Marketing Research Distribution

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Uses and benefits of market research

The Benefits of Crafting Marketing Strategies based on research

The marketing research-based approach to crafting marketing programs serves the

needs of marketing executive who no longer want to make plans based on:

Market assumptions and incomplete informal feedback from the field and from

other sources;

What is known to have worked in the past, the circumstances of which may no

longer apply to the present; or

How a competitor previously succeeded in a similar situation, the key success

factors of which may not hold true in this case.

In short, being research-based eliminates the guesswork.

Being marketing research-based in developing a marketing program reduces the risk of

failure and gives the product a better chance of succeeding. There are several reasons

for this.

In a research-based marketing program:

The marketing executives knowledge about the target market

segment is current and complete.

Target market segment may include:

Awareness of brands

Product usage practices

Purchase habits

Product and brand attitudes

Product needs and wants

Satisfaction of those needs and wants

The knowledge about the competitions marketing failures and

successes is based on facts, not on guesses or hearsay. It is also

comprehensive and not limited to what is merely observable in the

field.


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With market research, the marketing executive can now scientifically project the effectiveness of

his strategies for the following activities:

Product positioning

Product concept Branding

Packaging

Advertising

Pricing

Distribution and sales

Consumer and trade promotion

With research-based knowledge, marketing executives can make confident, reality-tested

decisions.


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Guidelines on Writing a Market Research Brief

Writing a brief can often be a very challenging and time consuming process especially for first

timers. However it is essential in order to get the best possible solution for your research needs.

Below are some guidelines to help clients put together a great brief.

A Great Brief:

Possesses clarity

Displays depth of thought

Provides direction

The bigger the scope of the project and the greater the importance of the outcome, the more

time and energy you should invest in developing the brief. It is not about carrying out some

research, but about achieving an outcome.

A brief should contain some, and ideally all, of the following information

1. Market and Strategic Overview

-This helps researchers understand where this project fits in the overall strategy, vision

and values, and business objectives:

Define the market and explain its dynamics

Major players and key competitors

Past and current activity

Target markets

Factors such as regulations, seasonality, distribution, pricing, communication,

etc.

2. Background and Role of the Research

-This is the most important part of the brief because it specifies where the research fits in

your marketing activity, and more specifically, the types of decisions and plans that will

be made on the basis of the research:

Reasons for the research

Where does it fit into marketing programme development?


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Which business units will the research impact and who is involved?

Identification of any constraints on the action you can take as a result of the

research

3. Objectives

There are usually two types of objectives that need to be explained:

Business objective- this is the objective of the marketing project the research is

for, it is the overall strategic objective.

Research objective - detailed objectives of what you need to know e.g.

attitudes, behaviour, usage expectations, perceptions. Is it to understand,evaluate of explore (more qualitative objectives) or is it to measure, record, or

ascertain (more quantitative objectives)

4. Suggested Approach & Research Target(s)

Identify any preferences you might have:

Are there any specific groups or subgroups you are interested in researching?

5. Reporting RequirementsIdentify any requirements you might have:

Topline or final report only

Word report and/or PowerPoint

Presentations and/or Workshops

6. Timing

Specify any real constraints that exist. Be realistic about whether your objectives can be

met within that timeframe.


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7. Budget

Any indication of budget is helpful, as it helps define the scale of the project, providing

some financial guidelines to work within. It also helps researchers to work on providing

the best solution within your means.

8. Existing research or other information

Look for any other relevant research or information. Often this helps refine how the

research is done. It also means that covering old ground can be avoided, and this

research builds on what is already known.


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How to use the UAI (Usage-Attitude-

Image) Study for Competitive Analysis,

and Market Opportunity SearchTwo designs of UAI study:

1) Traditional version

Around 100 core questionnaire items

Done every 2 or 3 years

Sometimes done every year by others who has competitors with a frequent

changing market.

2) Other versions

Made only for a specific purpose

Fewer questionnaire items(15 to 20)

Cost much less

Can be repeated two or four times during the year

The core data comprise the following (traditional version)

A. Awareness data: brand and advertising

1. Brand awareness: first mention, second mention, and aided mention

2. Sources of first-mentioned brand awareness

3. Advertising awareness: first mention, second mention, and aided mention

4. Advertising recall: quality of awareness measure

B. Product usage data

5. Product category use or non-use

6. Category form, variant and pack size used

7. How long the pack size lasts

8. When used and for what purposes

9. Who else in the household use the product category

10. Where used and with what

11. Brands ever used


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12. Brand last used

13. Brand used previous and last

14. Brand used most often

15. Brands on hand

C. Purchase Data

16. Where the last category purchase was made

17. Where category purchases are often/usually made

18. Frequency of category buying

19. Category pack size last bought

20. Quantity of category purchase

21. Price paid for last purchase

22. Brand had in mind during the last buying trip

23. If found brand in the store where last shopped

24. If not found, what did: bought any brand available, looked for brand in another

store, postponed buying till brand had in mind became available, or

other(specify)

25. What else bought with the product category in the last purchase

D. Attitude Data

26. What looked for, what expected in product category

27. What not like in brand last bought

28. What liked in brand last bought

E. Product and brand image data

29. Importance rating of product category attributes, product values

30. Rating of selected brands on each product attribute

The classification data comprise the following (traditional version)

Data are collected on respondent demographics

Age

Sex

Civil status

Number of children

Educational attainment

Household size

Total monthly household income


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Home ownership

Household possessions

Economic class

Data are collected on respondent sociographics (some companies)

Religion practiced

Leisure activities

Parental and family background

Community and social association membership

Reference persons

Media habits

The UAI data can be used for many applications:

To search for market and competitive opportunities that an existing or a new

product can advantageously explore and maximize

To determine the brands marketing health relative to competition, and to identify

its correct marketing problems and the solutions to these

To segment or to partition a total market for a product category, and then to

describe and profile the different identified market segments by each segments

brand awareness, category usage and purchase practices, category and brand

attitudes, and category and brand images, as well as by its socio-demographics

and psychographics.

Environment Analysis for Opportunity Search

Macro environmental is classified by the acronym P.E.S.T.

Political and regulatory environment

Economic environment

Social environment

Technological environment

External environment include the consumer market responsible for the products sales

performance and the competitive environment which contains the other brands that are

trying to reach the same consumer market.

Internal environment includes all those divisions of the company whose activities have a

direct bearing on implementing the marketing program.


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o Manufacturing division- on whose production capabilities and performance

depend what and how much marketing can actually market.

o Distribution and sales division- on whose selling efforts and activities rely the

trade and outlet placement and availability of the product.

1) Market Penetration Opportunities

To measure the market penetration of a product, we use the use the UAI core

data on product category use or non-use. Eg. Do you use mouthwash or not?,

In this question, the respondents answering yes measures the product

categorys size of market penetration, while the respondents answering no

measures the product categorys size of market penetration opportunity.

2) Product Life Recycling and Extension Opportunities

The UAI core data that can define the windows of opportunities are the following:

Data on what occasions the product is used and for what purposes, which

define possible new use opportunities.

Data on who else in the household uses the product, which bring out

new user opportunities.

Data on what other purposes the product has, which point to possible

more usage opportunities.

3) Market Size Opportunities

Three UAI data are useful in deriving estimates of the unit market size for a given

product pack size. The pertinent UAI data for each pack size are as follows:

Percent product category and pack size user

Number of days the pack size will last

Average price paid for the last purchase of the pack size

The unit market size estimation per pack size

Unit market size = x x

Target market

segment population

% product

category/pack size

users

(365 days/days th

pack size lasts)


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Purchase Frequency

Total Market size = x x

Opportunities for Improving the Competitive Status of the Brand

Three UAI questionnaire items that offer three different measures of a brands market share:

The brand-last-used item

The brand-used-most-often item

The brands-on-hand-check item

The brand-last-used question must only get one answer from each respondent. When this is

obtained, adding the resultant brand last used ratio to those of the rest of the other brands

will equal 100%. Any UAI statistic that sums up to 100% suggests a share measure.

Formula for brand-used-most-often when there are multiple answers

To determine a brands competitive status using the relative share of market index

Market leader or champion status

Number of segment

buyers Spending amount

Frequency o

purchase

Market Share of brand = No. of counts of brand/ No. of counts of all brands packages

RSOM(Leader Brand) = Market share of leader brand/ market share of follower brand

RSOM(Follower Brand) = Market Share of Follower Brand/ Market Share of Leader Brand


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Brands competitive status will be based on this:

Market leader or champion status More than 1.00

o Formidable More than 6.00

o Dominant 3.01-6.00

o

Strong 1.51-3.00o Vulnerable 1.01-1.50

Challenger Status 0.31-0.99

o Threatening 0.61-0.99

o Serious 0.31-0.60

Contender Status 0.01-0.15

o Major 0.16-0.30

o Minor 0.01-0.15

Opportunities for Determining the Brands Correct Competitors

At times when the product a consumer is supposed to buy is unavailable, the question to be

asked should be What are you buying instead?, not What brand are you buying instead? in

order to give room to those who will switch not to another brand but to a product category or to a

product type or form under a product category.

Share of Mind

A brands share of mind is the consumers top-of-mind awareness for it. We measure a brandsshare of mind as the percent of product category users who first mention the brand when asked

open-endedly what brands come to their mind when thinking about the product category.

ProductCategory

Category's differentproduct forms or

types

Each form's or type's differingbrands


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Brand Awareness

No consumer response-be it attitude, image, motivation, or even purchase-can happen unless

there is awareness. Awareness is the start of any sequence of consumer response and

behavior.

Three awareness concepts

o First mentioned, top of mind

o Total unaided awareness

o Total awareness

1. % First mention = % share of mind

2. % total unaided awareness = (% first mention) + (% other mentions)

3. % grand total awareness = ( % total unaided awareness) + (% aided awareness)

Share of mind vs share of market

Brands

Share Indicators Brand A Brand B Brand C Brand D% share of mind 4 38 46 12

% share of market 6 42 37 15

How to Make Market Segmentation Decisions Using the U.A.I. & Psychographic

Studies

The Market Segmentation Process & Decision

The market segmentation process is both a marketer behavior and a consumer behavior.

STP

S - the first step referring to the act of segmenting the total market.

T - the act of targeting a specific market segment from among the segments generated in the

first step.

P - the 3rd & final step refers to the marketers act of positioning the product

Growing segment is possible only if the consumer in that segment behave in either three

ways:

They increase buying frequency.


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They are buying more amount per purchase occasion,

New customers joined the segment concerned.

The starting point is to bring in priority consumer values throughout all the three steps in

the STP process.

STP formulation means that consideration of consumer values must come in at the first

step.

The first step is to partition the total market.

Second step is to profile the obtained or generated partitions and segments.

This is now called as PPTP process.

The Market Partitioning Step

consists of cutting up the total market into partitions that are more popularly known as target

segments.

Four Segmentation Variables

1. Geographic

2. Socio-demographic

3. Psychographic

4. Behavioral

Geographic - regions, city, size, density and climate.

Socio-demographic - age, gender, family size, total monthly household income,

occupation, educational attainment, religion & SEC.

Psychographic - family life cycle stages, lifestyle measures & personality profiles.

Behavioral - user status, user rate, product attitude or predisposition indicators, usagepurchase occasions.

Marketers ultimately want to generate differentially responsive market partitions or segments.

To generate a set of segments that are maximally differentiated from one another in their

respective product usage purchase habits and priority values.


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The Socio-Economic Classes as Market Partitioning Variables

Two Definitions of the SEC

Social class is the horizontal stratification of a population by means of factors related to the

economic life of the society such as wealth, income, occupation, status,consumption level, and

family background.

Socio-Economic classes are relatively homogeneous and enduring divisions of society, which

are hierarchically ordered and whose members share similar values, interest, and behavior.

Socio-Economic Classes

% of Total Population in Each Class according to:

Socio-Eco

Classes

ACN TNS

Class AB 5% 1%

Class C 21% 9%

Class D 52% 48%

Class E 22% 42%

Class A - rich class(upper-upper)

Class B affluent class(lower-upper)

Class upscale C -prosperous class(upper-middle)


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Class broad C-average class(lower-middle)

Class D - below par class(upper-Lower)

Class E -poor class(lower-lower)

SEC Defining Indicators

Survey Interview

Observation Data

Criteria of Validity

Discriminability criterion

Temporal Stability Criterion

Discriminability validity asks :

To what extent are the SEC indicators able to discriminate or differentiate each of the four

to six socio-eco classes from one another?

While Validity Criterion of temporal stability asks:

Will the socio-eco classification made by an SEC indicator remain relatively the same and

will the primary SEC defining indicator remain a primary SEC indicator over an extendedperiod o time?

Temporal stability is the secondary significant validity criterion.

Product Positioning

A positioning strategy consists of 3 steps: to reveal possible competitive advantages to create a

positioning, to select the right competitive advantages and to choose a comprehensive

positioning strategy.

Later, the company should provide effective communication and distribution to market regarding

the selected position.

Positioningstrategies can be conceived and developed in a variety of ways. It can be derived

from the object attributes, competition, application, the types of consumers involved, or the

characteristics of the product class. All these attributes represent a different approach in
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developing positioning strategies, even though all of them have the common objective of

projecting a favorable image in the minds of the consumers or audience. There are seven

approaches to positioning strategies:

(1) Using Product characteristics or CustomerBenefits as a positioning strategy.

This strategy basically focuses upon the characteristics of the product or customer benefits. For

example if I say Imported items it basically tell or illustrate a variety of product characteristics

such as durability, economy or reliability etc. Lets take an example of motorbikes some are

emphasizing on fuel economy, some on power, looks and others stress on their durability. Hero

Cycles Ltd. positions first, emphasizing durability and style for its cycle.

At time even you would have noticed that a product is positioned along two or more product

characteristics at the same time. You would have seen this in the case of toothpaste market,

most toothpaste insists on freshness and cavity fighter as the product characteristics. It isalways tempting to try to position along several product characteristics, as it is frustrating to

have some good characteristics that are not communicated.

(2) Pricing as a positioning strategy - Quality Approach or Positioning by Price-Quality Lets

take an example and understand this approach just suppose you have to go and buy a pair of

jeans, as soon as you enter in the shop you will find different price rage jeans in the showroom

say price ranging from 350 rupees to 2000 rupees. As soon as look at the jeans of 350 Rupees

you say that it is not good in quality. Why? Basically because of perception, as most of us

perceive that if a product is expensive will be a quality product where as product that is cheap is

lower in quality. If we look at this Price quality approach it is important and is largely used in

product positioning. In many product categories, there are brands that deliberately attempt to

offer more in terms of service, features or performance. They charge more, partly to cover

higher costs and partly to let the consumers believe that the product is, certainly of higher

quality.

(3) Positioning strategy based on Use or Application Lets understand this with the help of

an example like Nescafe Coffee for many years positioned itself as a winter product andadvertised mainly in winter but the introduction of cold coffee has developed a positioning

strategy for the summer months also. Basically this type of positioning-by-use represents a

second or third position for the brand, such type of positioning is done deliberately to expand the

brands market. If you are introducing new uses of the product that will automatically expand the

brands market.
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(4) Positioning strategy based on Product Process Another positioning approach is to

associate the product with its users or a class of users. Makes of casual clothing like jeans have

introduced designer labels to develop a fashion image. In this case the expectation is that the

model or personality will influence the products image by reflecting the characteristics and

image of the model or personality communicated as a product user. Let s not forget that

Johnson and Johnson repositioned its shampoo from one used for babies to one used by

people who wash their hair frequently and therefore need a mild people who wash their hair

frequently and therefore need a mild shampoo. This repositioning resulted in a market share.

(5) Positioning strategy based on Product Class - In some product class we have to make

sure critical positioning decisions For example, freeze dried coffee needed to positions itself

with respect to regular and instant coffee and similarly in case of dried milk makers came out

with instant breakfast positioned as a breakfast substitute and virtually identical productpositioned as a dietary meal substitute.

(6) Positioning strategy based on Cultural Symbols -In todays world many advertisers are

using deeply entrenched cultural symbols to differentiate their brands from that of competitors.

The essential task is to identify something that is very meaningful to people that other

competitors are not using and associate this brand with that symbol. Air India uses maharaja as

its logo, by this they are trying to show that we welcome guest and give them royal treatment

with lot of respect and it also highlights Indian tradition. Using and popularizing trademarks

generally follow this type of positioning.

(7) Positioning strategy based on Competitors - In this type of positioning strategies, an

implicit or explicit frame of reference is one or more competitors. In some cases, reference

competitor(s) can be the dominant aspect of the positioning strategies of the firm, the firm either

uses the same of similar positioning strategies as used by the competitors or the advertiser

uses a new strategy taking the competitors strategy as the base. A good example of this would

be Colgate and Pepsodent. Colgate when entered into the market focused on to family

protection but when Pepsodent entered into the market with focus on 24 hour protection andbasically for kids, Colgate changed its focus from family protection to kids teeth protection

which was a positioning strategy adopted because of competition.


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Product Positioning and Differentiation Strategy

In a competitive business world, companies should constantly examine their products and

services to better serve customers. What worked and yielded profits last year may not work as

well this year. Product differentiation and positioning are key parts of a company's marketing

strategy and are necessary to keep ahead of competition. They also require an innovative spiritcoupled with careful analysis.

Product Differentiation

Product differentiation is the incorporation of attributes, such as quality or price, into a product to

encourage the intended customers to perceive it as different and desirable. For example, if your

company sells seat belts to automotive manufacturers, perhaps your unique value is never-fail,

on-time delivery with no rejected belts. If other seat belt manufacturers are not meeting these

desired goals, you will have a unique advantage against your competition, and will have

differentiated your seat belts from those ofyour competitors.

Product Positioning

Positioning is how you provide your product or service brand identification as you go to market.

It is the next step after you have determined how to differentiate your product or service. In the

seat belt example, the seat belt manufacturer can market itself on the premise that it does not

miss delivery times and that its products are free of flaws. The product is positioned against

those of competitors on the basis of timely delivery and excellence in manufacturing. All of the

seat belt manufacturer's major marketing efforts should emphasize this positioning in the

marketplace.

Positioning Statement

A positioning statement is a short sentence or phrase that conveys the essence of the

differentiation and positioning strategies and is developed after these have been set. This

statement is used as a marketing tool by which to judge all marketing materials to see if they arein keeping with the strategies. A positioning statement for the seat belt manufacturer might be,

"On-time delivery and flawless manufacturing." This statement can, though it does not have to,

appear in all of the seat belt manufacturer's marketing materials. Rather, it is often used as a

check to make sure all marketing materials produced convey the essence of how the product is

differentiated and positioned against competitors.

Relationships among the Three

Product differentiation, positioning and positioning statements go together one after the other.

Once you have decided how best to differentiate your product based on customer needs and

wants, the next step is to determine how to position it in the marketplace. The positioning

statement then follows the positioning strategy.

The Importance of Imagination

Successful differentiation and positioning strategies depend on an imaginative approach to the

marketplace. For example, if you are a tennis racket manufacturer making high-performance

rackets for the serious tennis player, you might consider opening up an entirely new market

segment. This might be the creation of high-performance rackets for the average player, who

can then benefit from the technology previously only offered to pros.


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There are five basic points for brand strategies:

a. It is a process which makes marketing functions easy.

b. Both macro and micro level marketing can be applied

c. The perceived position for a particular product by consumer can be based on the products

real and physical character, or on image created by the company having no physical presence.

d. Positioning should be oriented to the consumer.

e. Positioning will be successful only if it is based on good research. On research, consumer

needs to be detected, it should start with the attitudes and the way consumers use products,

and must end with revealing how consumers react to a certain position.

Positioning is a form of expression how a certain product or brand is perceived by customers. It

is not how products are presented or what is presented.

TEN MAJOR RULES IN PRODUCT POSITIONING

a. Establish a definition of positioning,

b. Keep it simple,

c. Make it unique,

d. Excavate product benefits and market needs,

e. Construct a credible position,

f. Ensure strong support by starting early,

g. Follow the market dynamics,

h. Make positioning visible in all communications,

i. Quantitatively test alternative positioning options,


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j. Do not test the positioning statement itself.

Positioning characteristics

The goal of product positioning is to keep your product on top of your customers mind when

theyre considering a purchase. To be successful, product positioning must achieve three

objectives:

Differentiate your product from the competitions

Address important customer buying criteria

Articulate key product (or company) characteristics

Marketing messages and positioning have a lot in common

During the process of generating product positioning strategies, periodically review each one

against the following list of characteristics.

Is your product positioning strategy:

Single-mindeddoes it convey one primary message at a time?

Meaningfulwill it connect with the target audience?

Differentiatingdoes it contrast your strengths against the competition?

Importantis it pertinent and significant to the target audience?

Sustainablewill it resonate with the target audience well into the future?

Believablewill it ring true with the target audience?

Crediblecan you clearly substantiate your claims?

Perceptual Mapping


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Perceptual mapping is a tool used to discover how consumers differentiate products or organizations.

The perceptual map on the following page was developed using data from a market research study.

Relationships are visually portrayed by the relative position of points on a two-dimensional map. The

distance between the points represents the degree of relationship between the variables. Points that

cluster together reveal characteristics that are closely related.

The following example is derived from actual research. However, the names have been changed to

protect confidential information.

---Second American Bank is most preferred by lower-income, non-white, urban residents. Verbatim

comments collected during the survey interview indicated that the bank is perceived as doing the mostto finance mortgages in the inner city.

---First Security is most favored by older, middle-income adults. This bank was the city's only financial

institution not to renege on payments during the Great Depression.

---Middle-aged, white males tend to favor National Trust, while younger females prefer Guardian Bank.

The verbatim responses did not provide clear-cut explanations for these preferences.

---Federal Trust is most associated with upper-income suburban

residents, largely because their office locations are targeted for this market.

If Federal Trust were interested in attracting new customers, the most logical segments to target

would be the females and younger adults, rather than city residents or lower income individuals.

Decision-Tree Analysis

Decision-tree analysis uses cross-tabulations to examine results of a particular survey question based on

sub-segments of the survey population.

For example, the output of a question that asks, "What brand of automobile do you own?" can be


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analyzed by looking only at the results for individuals in one particular income category, say those who

have a household income of $25,000 or less.

Determining the specific categories of cross-tabulations that reveal differences among respondents can

be very complex. Thousands of combinations can be generated even with a small survey. The analysis

must identify as many potentially important combinations as is practical.

After the relationships have been isolated, a statistical test is necessary to reasonably ensure that the

data conveys real insight rather than just a reflection of sampling variability. This process, if conducted

manually, can be partitioned.

The example below illustrates the type of business most likely to be responsive to a training programcalled, "Applying Internet Technology To Business Marketing."

The research measured interest level in various training opportunities by using a 5-point scale where "1"

indicated "not at all interested" and "5" indicated "very interested".

USING THE FGD (FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION)

Focus Group Discussion

The focus group discussion (FGD) is a rapid assessment, semistructured data gathering

method in which a purposively selected set of participants gather to discuss issues and

concerns based on a list of key themes drawn up by the researcher/facilitator (Kumar 1987).

This qualitative research technique was originally developed to give marketing researchers a

better understanding of the data from quantitative consumer surveys. As an indispensable tool

for marketing researchers (Krueger 1988), the focus group discussion has become extremely

popular because it provides a fast way to learn from the target audience (Debus 1988; US

Department of Health and Human Services 1980). Marketing and media studies have shown

that the focus group discussion is a costeffective technique for eliciting views and opinions of

prospective clients, customers and endusers. In agriculture, focus groups have been used to

obtain insights into target audience perceptions, needs, problems, beliefs, and reasons for

certain practices.


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Focus group discussion guide

To keep the session on track while allowing respondents to talk freely and spontaneously,the

facilitator uses a discussion guide that lists the main topics or themes to be covered in the

session. It serves as a road map that guides the facilitator in covering the list of topics and

keeping the discussion on track. The number of items in the guide is generally kept to a

minimum to leave enough time for indepth discussion. It should focus only on relevant research

issues. The sequence of topics in the guide usually moves from general to specific (see Box 1

for sample FGD guide).

The following steps are suggested for developing the focus group discussion guide:

1. Specify the objectives and information needs of the focus group discussion.

Example

To understand how extension and plant protection officials make decisions in response of pest

outbreaks.

2. Break down the major topics into discussion points or themes.

Example

a) Reporting of pest outbreaks

b) Management procedure for dealing with pest outbreaks

c) Worries and concerns about the BPH/virus outbreak

3. Prepare probe questions.

Example

1. Lets talk about reporting of the BPH/virus disease outbreak that hit the Mekong

Delta recently How are outbreaks reported?2

What is the flow of outbreak information from the field upwards?

And usually how long will this take to reach province directors?

How do provincial directors act on reports of outbreaks?


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Are reports of outbreaks from the field communicated upwards to the central offices or

contained within the province?

2. What is PPDs management procedure for dealing with a pest outbreak? What about the

Peoples Committee?

During the BPH/virus outbreak last season, what do you think was expected of you

as an extension official? As a Peoples Committee vice chairman?

What steps did PPD take to manage the BPH/virus problem last season? What about

the Peoples Committee in the area?

What virus disease management options were preferred and recommended by PPD?

(Chemical, escape strategy, etc.) Why was that option chosen?

4. Review the guide and eliminate any irrelevant questions.

Box 1. Sample FGD Guide

Rice Planthopper Outbreaks

1. How are outbreaks reported?

2. What is the flow of outbreak information from the field upwards?

3. And usually how long will this take to reach province directors?

4. How do provincial directors act on reports of outbreaks?

5. Are reports of outbreaks from the field communicated upwards to the central

offices or contained within the province?

6. What is PPDs management procedure for dealing with a pest outbreak? What

about the Peoples Committee?

7. During the BPH/virus outbreak last season, what do you think was expected of

you as an extension official? As a Peoples Committee vice chairman?


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8. What steps did PPD take to manage the BPH/virus problem last season? What

about the Peoples Committee in the area?

9. What virus disease management options were preferred and recommended by

PPD? (Chemical, escape strategy, etc.) Why was that option chosen?

10. What were your worries about the BPH/virus outbreak?

11. What were your worries about the disease management option you have

chosen and recommended to farmers?

12. How much was the budget allocation for virus disease control? How was this amount

determined? What was the basis for the budget allocation?

13. How was the budget allocation decided in PPD?

14. Who decides the budget allocation for pest outbreaks?

15. What extension mechanisms were used to communicate to farmers about virus disease

control? Asking questions during focus groups. The quality of questions asked in a focus group

can make a large difference in the kind of information obtained. Krueger (1988) gives some tips

on how to handle openended and dichotomous questions in these discussions:

Openended questions are most appropriate at the start of the discussion because they allow

participants to answer from different angles. As the possible responses are not preconceived,

openended questions give the participants opportunities to express their thoughts and feelings

based on their specific situations. Krueger warns that some questions may appear to be

openended but are really closedended because they include phrases such as satisfied, to

what extent, or how much.

Dichotomous questions are ones that can be answered by a yes or no or othersimilar

twoalternative items. As yesno questions are deadends, they usually do not trigger the

desired group discussion. They also tend to elicit vague responses that do not lead to an

understanding of the key issues being discussed (Moulton and Roberts 1993).

How to conduct a focus group discussion Facilitator


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In selecting a person to moderate a focus group, it is important that this person havethese

qualities:

familiarity with the discussion topic

ability to speak the language spoken of the area

cultural sensitivity, including not acting as a judge, a teacher, does not looking down on

respondents, not agreeing or disagreeing with what is said, and notputting words in the

participants mouths.

genuine interest in people

sensitivity to men and women

politeness

empathy

respect for participants

Steps in conducting the session

Before the focus group discussion begins, the facilitator should obtain the background

information of participants such as their age, crops grown, farm size, and other pertinent

information. The type of information to collect depends on the FGD topic. Once this is done,

this sequence of steps is carried out:

1. After a brief introduction, the purpose and scope of the discussion are explained.

2. Participants are asked to give their names and short background information about

themselves.

4. The discussion is structured around the key themes using the probe questions prepared in

advance. 4

5. During the discussion, all participants are given the opportunity to participate.

5. Use a variety of moderating tactics to facilitate the group. Among these tactics that the

moderator can use include:

Stimulate the participants to talk to each other, not necessarily to the moderator.


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Encourage shy participants to speak.

Discourage dominant participants through verbal and nonverbal cues. The following may be

used when the situation permits:

Call on other participants

Politely intervene by saying, Maybe we can discuss that in another occasion...

Look in another direction

Take advantage of a pause and suggest that the subject can be discussed in detail in another

session

Pay close attention to what is said in order to encourage that behavior in other participants.

Use indepth probing without leading the participant.

Guidelines in conducting focus group discussion (FGD)

1. The FGD is an opportunity for the research team to listen and learn, and not to lecture or

provide team members interpretation of the local biophysical and social system.

2. The team members agree on various task assignments including: a) facilitator/

interpreter , b) rapporteur, c) logistics incharge.

3. Each team member must have a copy of the FGD guide. The list of themes to be discussed

may be written on the board to serve as guide for FGD participants on the scope and progress

of the discussion.

4. Familiarize yourself with local terminologies/names to avoid misunderstanding of what

farmers say.

5. Keep an open mind and listen more. Do not push your own agenda (e.g. a new variety

you have developed which you think will solve farmers problems).

6. Avoid questions that yield Yes or No answers.

7. Avoid leading questions. Examples: Dont you think that variety X is an excellent


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variety?

8. Be sensitive to local norms and customs.5

9. Remember that farmers time is valuable to them. Strive to complete the FGD within the

time period that you mentioned to participants.

10. Dont forget to thank participants and local leaders after the conduct of the FGD.

Logistical arrangements for FGD

Invitations Participants are contacted in advance, at least one to two weeks before the

session. A letter of invitation may be sent to each participant, taking into consideration the

prevailing practices in the area. Participants are also reminded about the focus group

discussion one day before the session.

Group compositionThe choice of participants depends on the topic of the focus group.

Often, the people who are included are those knowledgeable about the topic but at the same

time, it is also wise to gather the views of certain groups in the target population.

The optimal number of participants is 8 10. If a group is too small, one person in the group

may dominate it; if it is too big, then it may be difficult to control. Group members should be

representative of the intended target population.

Transportation To ensure attendance, transportation is usually arranged for the participants

from their residence to the focus group venue. In rural areas where farm families may reside in

distant villages, participants could be asked to converge at a central location to facilitate pickup.

Venue Focus group discussions can be conducted in a place where 8 10 persons can be

seated and assured of some privacy. In the rural areas, the most readily available sites are

school buildings, health and community centers and churches. An appropriate venue is a

neutral place that is free from distractions and where participants can talk openly.

Seating arrangements A semicircular seating arrangement facilitates interaction among

participants because it allows them to freely see and hear each other.

Timing The timing of the meeting should be convenient to all participants. While waiting for

other participants to arrive, the focus group discussion team can use the time to break the ice by


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getting information about their backgrounds. To minimize boredom, focus group discussions are

generally not stretched beyond two hours.

Name tags It is best to remember the names of the participants. Often, a seating

arrangement will facilitate identifying each one. If the culture permits, providing nametags to

participants is useful because it enables facilitators to call on those who may be too shy to

express their opinions.6

Recording A trained rapporteur should capture the discussion in writing and note the

participants nonverbal expressions. Situations may occur where the discussion needs to be

taperecorded, but facilitators should weigh the advantages and disadvantages.

Refreshments When resources permit, serving refreshments after the session is a small

gesture of appreciation to the participants for having taken time off their work to participate.

Writing the FGD report

After conducting the focus group discussion, the key findings are described, analyzed and

written up in a report (see Box 2 for sample FGD report) . Debus (1988) suggests some useful

guidelines for analyzing data:

1. Develop a plan for analysis consisting of:

background of the research

objectives

methods

discussion details

focus group discussion guide

2. Analyze the content of the group discussion by

reviewing the notes from the focus group

listening again to the cassettes from the session (if tape recorded)

grouping research findings according to key themes


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identifying the different positions that emerged under each key theme

summarizing each of the different positions and assess the extent to which each position was

held by participants

pulling out verbatim phrases that represent each position.

2. Synthesize the group discussion by:

reviewing the notes of each discussion made by the moderator

identifying the recurrent ideas that came out during the discussion

interpreting these recurrent ideas based upon other findings that emerged in the groups.

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