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Marine mammal critical habitats, connectivity, and health indices in the Oceania region

Principal investigator: Dr. Chandra Salgado Kent1,2,3

Co-investigator: Mr. Benjamin Kahn4

Institutions: Centre for Marine Science and Technology (CMST), Curtin University (Western Australia)1; Oceans Blueprint (Western Australia)2; Centre for Marine Ecosystems Reserch, School of Science3; Edith Cowan University (Western Australia), APEX Environmental (Western Australia)4.

Introduction

Currently, there are insuf�icient data on critical habitats, connectivity, health, and potential threats for most marine mammals in the Oceania region for governments and states to assess best management strategies and for many, their accurate listing (such as under the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016).

This project will focus on the collection of information necessary for management on the following marine mammal groups:

• baleen whales (including blue, southern right, and humpback whales among other species).

• delphinids (including bottlenose, common, snub�in, and Indo-Paci�ic humpback dolphins, among others)

Most of these species are data de�icient, some are endangered (pygmy blue whales and right whales) or vulnerable (humpback whales).

Much data can be obtained when opportunities arise to undertake a dedicated survey or a survey as part of unrelated work. This project leverages on these opportunities through the collection of marine mammal sighting information, images, behaviour, potential threats/disturbance in the area, and acoustics. In addition, telemetry will be used on a select number of species to gain greater clarity on critical habitats and foraging sites.

Sighting information provides data on the distribution, abundance, habitat use and trends of species over time, which is critical to understanding population status. The applicant produced population estimates of humpback whales with her co-authors off of North West Cape as a result of sighting information (Salgado Kent et al. 2012).

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The collection of images can be used for many species to identify individuals and their movements to different sites (site �idelity and ranging and migration patterns), obtain demographic information (sex, age class, reproduction rate, etc.), and to monitor and assess health (lesion occurrence, scars, and fat reserves; Payne et al. 1983, Pettis et al 2004 and Figure 1 below). Images can also help collect information on entanglements. Placing this information into context with the use of the area is critical to improving management practices. This study will record the number of vessels/people and any other threats within proximity of animals sighted. In addition, the collection of acoustic information when a species is sighted can help identify the calls of many species with unknown vocalisations so that species-speci�ic vocalisations can then be used for future passive acoustic monitoring. For instance, the applicant has recently published with her PhD student on new calls emitted by blue whales which are now being used to monitor blue whales in Geographe Bay (Recalde-Salas et al. 2014), and is a principal investigator on the development of passive acoustic techniques for monitoring snub�in dolphins in the Kimberley as part of a Western Australian Marine Science Institute project (WAMSI).

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Figure 1. From Pettis et al 2004.: Right whale (E. glacialis) skin condition was scored based on the absence–presence of skin lesions, blisters, excessive sloughing, and coverage of cyamids on large areas of the body. (a–c) Whales with black skin that showed limited sloughing were scored as 1. (d–g) Whales with swath lesions (d).

Observational techniques described above are undertaken with nil or extremely low impact (short duration disturbance at most) on species as these methods are observational. A wealth of information can be gained using these techniques in dedicated

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and opportunistic studies. There are some insights, however, that can only be gained through telemetry studies (tracking of animals using satellite, radio, or GSM transmitters). Telemetry is recognised as a powerful tool for collecting information on critical habitats, animal home ranges, and migratory corridors by producing high resolution animal movement data. For marine mammals, dive and surfacing patterns and �ine scale movement (pitch, roll, and yaw) indicative of activity and behaviours (foraging, resting, travelling, socialising, etc.), location, time and date information are produced. Other sensors such as acoustic, cameras, salinity, and temperature can also be included in telemetry tags. This telemetry data, linked with documented sex, age class, and health status, provide a solid picture of marine mammal occupancy and ecological function of critical habitats. Telemetry data from marine mammal studies, however, continues to be limited due to the high cost of the technology (generally ~$AU 3000 to $AU 5000 per tag) and resources required to deploy telemetry tags. As a result, very limited high-resolution movement information has been gained to date, and the information is only available for a handful of species and locations. Thus, information on critical habitats for many threatened and endangered species is absent or incomplete, and most marine mammal species continue to be considered data de�icient by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Consequently, the overarching goal of this project is to marry observational and telemetry techniques to collect long-term data on critical habitat (using relative abundance, occupancy, and behavioural information) and health indicator of marine mammals in the Oceania region. This broad region includes trans-boundary waters likely used by a range of migratory marine mammal species. Thus, this information will contribute to managing critical ocean habitats and safeguarding the future of endangered and protected marine mammal species, including baleen whales and delphinids that do not adhere to state, commonwealth, and political borders. The knowledge will be communicated to governments, the scienti�ic community, industry and the public to use as a basis for transboundary marine conservation goals. In addition, this information will be vital to develop a sustainable and responsible marine mammal ecotourism economy in regions that currently are lacking or are developing legislation around the activity. This approach will help progress a "blue economy". The project leverages from data sets already collected from several other ongoing projects lead and/or supervised by the applicant, including: Southwest Whale Ecology Study (http://souwest.org) and dolphin research in the Swan River and in Roebuck Bay (WAMSI project). This project will improve current knowledge from existing information by collecting observational data during opportunistic and dedicated vessel, land-based, and aerial surveys and from focused telemetry work on select key species.

Objectives

The overall aims of the project are to integrated complementary observational sampling techniques (photo-identi�ication, visual observation, and passive acoustic monitoring) with species-focused telemetry-based techniques to:

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1) provide insight on marine mammal occupancy (using relative abundance and relative encounter rates) at different locations within the Oceania region;

2) Identify critical habitats and insight on their connectivity for marine mammals at different locations within the Oceania region;

3) test non-invasive health indicators of several species; 4) collect required information for developing species-specific Passive Acoustic

Monitoring (PAM) tools (a cost-effective monitoring tool for monitoring species occurrence, abundance and habitat usage).

The specific objectives are to:

1. collect sighting information for mapping the occurrence, abundance and distribution of marine mammal at various locations along the Oceania region;

2. collect sighting information of vessels, people and other potential threats within proximity of marine mammals for quantifying levels of potential disturbance;

3. collect cetacean images to use for identifying re-sights, lesions/injuries present, sex, age class, and relative quantity of fat for assessing relative health, and to help inform habitat use, occupancy, and home range;

4. collect telemetry-based animal movement data on individuals of three selected high-pro�ile focal species (endangered pygmy blue whales and Australian sea lions, and sperm whales) to identify critical habitats and their connectivity; and

5. integrate acoustic and visual data to determine species-speci�ic vocalisations to further develop passive acoustic monitoring methods.

Methods

Species: The observational-based aspect of the study will include species that are commonly encountered in the broad region of the proposed study, which includes the highly biodiverse Coral Triangle region known to have >26 species of marine mammals. A list of species and numbers likely to be encountered from boats and aircrafts are provided in Table 1. Currently approved species and numbers under AEC_2016_16 (3rd column to the right) and the proposed new numbers of species (right-most column) are listed in the table. The proposed list includes an anticipated overestimate of numbers of individuals of different species that could be encountered during observational studies, most of which will be observed from several hundred meters to kilometres away. Numbers for certain species are high due to the nature of some sampling techniques optimised to survey marine mammals and the behaviour of the animals. For instance, humpback whales are often surveyed by aircraft over a large area in densely occupied areas such as Exmouth Gulf. Thus, hundreds are easily sighted within periods of less than an hour. Many of the species of delphinids occurring in offshore waters form mega-pods composed of hundreds of individuals. Thus, a vessel survey that encounters one mega-pod on a single day could easily observe >300 individuals within a 10 min period.

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Table 1. Focal study species (per year).

Common name Scienti�ic name EPBC Conservation Status Number Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae Vulnerable 2,500 Blue whale Baleanoptera musculus Endangered 1000 Southern right whale Eubaleana australis Endangerd 1000 Bottlenose dolphin Tursiops spp. NA 1000

Common dolphin Delphinus spp. NA 1000

Snub�in dolphin Orcaella heinsohni NA 1000

Indo-Paci�ic humpback dolphin Sousa chinensis NA 1000

Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus NA 1000

Dwarf sperm whale Kogia sima NA 1000

Pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps NA 1000

Short-�inned pilot whale Globicephala macrorhynchus

NA 1000

Orca (Killer whale) Orcinus orca NA 1000

False killer whale Pseudorca crassidens NA 1000

Pygmy killer whale Feresa attenuata NA 1000

Melon-headed whale Peponocephala electra NA 1000

Risso's dolphin Grampus griseus NA 1000

Fraser's dolphin Lagenodelphis hosei NA 1000

Spinner dolphin Stenella longirostris NA 1000

Pan-tropical spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata NA 1000

Rough-toothed dolphin Steno bredanensis NA 1000

Cuvier's beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris NA 1000

Mesoplodon spp. (unidenti�ied) Mesoplodon spp. NA 1000

Longman's Beaked Whale Indopacetus paci�icus NA 1000

Blainville's beaked whale Mesoplodon densirostris NA 1000

Ginkgo-toothed beaked whale Mesoplodon ginkgodens NA 1000

Bryde's whale Balaenoptera brydei NA 1000

Omurai’s whale Balaenoptera omurai NA 1000

* These numbers are considered over-estimates of numbers expected to be observed opportunistically and during dedicated aerial, boat and land-based surveys each year. For example, aerial survey-based observations of humpback whales undertaken in past research at 1000 ft high resulted in many more animals than anticipated. While the number seems large, these consist of instantaneous observations from an aircraft flying at 1000 ft over the ocean. In addition, many species, such as spinner and spotted dolphins, commonly form mega-pods of several hundred individuals, which can be observed within a single encounter.

Note: Numbers are per year.

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The collection of telemetry data using tags and biopsy sampling will only be undertaken for two species. These are listed in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Focal species included in telemetry (tagging) component of the study (per year).

Common name Scienti�ic name Number Technique Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus Average of 2-4 per

year (total of 10-20) Tagging, biopsying

Blue whale Baleanoptera musculus Average of 4-8 (total of 20-40)

Tagging, biopsying

While it is anticipated that average numbers indicated in Table 2 will be deployed per year, if more tags are available in a year and weather permits, the opportunity will be taken to deploy the tags available that year (with a maximum of the total stipulated here).

In addition, in-water slough skin and faecal matter and biopsies from deceased cetaceans will be obtained for selected species if the opportunities present themselves. Species and numbers are identi�ied in the Table 3 below.

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Table 3. Focal species included for close approach to collect in-water faecal matter and slouph skin (tagging) and biopsy samples of deceased cetaceans (per year).

Common Name Scienti�ic Name Number of individual cetaceans for which a close approach is proposed to collect in-water faecal matter and slough

Number of biopsy samples that can be collected from deceased cetaceans

Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae 100 200

Blue whale Baleanoptera musculus 100 200

Southern right whale Eubaleana australis 100 200

Bottlenose dolphin Tursiops spp. 100 200

Common dolphin Delphinus spp. 100 200

Snub�in dolphin Orcaella heinsohni 100 200

Indo-Paci�ic humpback dolphin Sousa chinensis 100 200

Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus 100 200

Dwarf sperm whale Kogia sima 100 200

Pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps 100 200

Short-�inned pilot whale Globicephala macrorhynchus 100 200

Orca (Killer whale) Orcinus orca 100 200

False killer whale Pseudorca crassidens 100 200

Pygmy killer whale Feresa attenuata 100 200

Melon-headed whale Peponocephala electra 100 200

Risso's dolphin Grampus griseus 100 200

Fraser's dolphin Lagenodelphis hosei 100 200

Spinner dolphin Stenella longirostris 100 200

Pan-tropical spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata 100 200

Rough-toothed dolphin Steno bredanensis 100 200

Cuvier's beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris 100 200

Mesoplodon spp. (unidenti�ied) Mesoplodon spp. 100 200

Longman's Beaked Whale Indopacetus paci�icus 100 200

Blainville's beaked whale Mesoplodon densirostris 100 200

Ginkgo-toothed beaked whale Mesoplodon ginkgodens 100 200 * These numbers are considered gross over-estimates of numbers expected, and are to allow opportunities for

in-water slough skin and faecal sample collection.

Note: Numbers are per year.

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Study location:

The region of Oceania includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, and covers an area of over 8 Mil square kilometres. Many baleen whale species migrate over expansive areas, such as from Antarctica through Australian waters, to waters in the broader Oceania region outside the Australian Exclusive Economic Zone. For instance, endangered pygmy blue whales are thought to migrate through Western Australian waters to their breeding and/or mating grounds in the Indonesian/Timor Leste/Maluku (Ambon) region and then back through Australian waters to the Southern Ocean. The exact breeding and/or mating grounds and migratory routes remain, however, poorly understood, with inter-seasonal and inter-annual variations in habitat use likely. Thus, by including this broader region, this study aims to capture broad spatial-scale movements to better inform trans-boundary conservation goals.

Figure 2. Study area in the Oceania region (Source: Ch1902, updated by kwami (Transferred by rohith_goura) - Own work based on: Australia (orthographic projection).svg -, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16426329)

Within Australia, the project will be undertaken in several key Marine Parks to maximise information on their management. These Marine Parks are located in Western Australia, and many are known or suspected critical habitat for a range of species, some of which travel from one to another through migratory corridors. The Marine Parks include:

• Jurien Bay • Marmion Marine Park • Shoalwater Islands Marine Park • Ngari Capes Marine Park • Yawuru Nagulagun / Roebuck Bay Marine Park

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• Ningaloo Marine Park

Observational survey methods: This project uses integrated and complimentary sampling techniques (photo-identi�ication, visual observation, and passive acoustic monitoring) during opportunistic vessel surveys resulting from: 1) opportunities to undertake a designed, dedicated survey (such as in Salgado Kent et al. 2012 attached), 2) transits resulting from unrelated activities outside of the scope of this project, and 3) imagery using a drone (for which permits and permissions from relevant land managers/owners will be sought as required). For dedicated surveys, the number of surveys and design will depend upon strategic funds available. However, wherever possible a survey will be designed to ensure equal probability coverage (as in Salgado Kent et al. 2012) and follow distance sampling methodology (Buckland et al. 2004). When insuf�icient funds are available or the vessel is one of opportunity, a log of the track will be recorded so that effort (in space and time) can be used to quantify observations. Surveys at any one location will be undertaken at frequencies ranging from 2 weeks apart for long-term surveys undertaken throughout the year to every day interspersed with days of poor weather conditions over several months to capture high resolution information during key periods (such as during migration for baleen whales). High temporal resolution surveying will not occur over prolonged periods. For migrating whales, the chance of re-disturbing the same animals are reduced signi�icantly since many are moving through the area. The importance of repeat observations is to establish trends in numbers, distribution, and residency periods.

During each vessel or land-based survey, one to two observers (whom will be documented) will scan continuously in all directions while ‘on-effort’. The time start, time end, and observation position/track will be recorded. Upon sighting a marine mammal, in the case of vessel surveys, the vessel will slow gradually and be placed in neutral. For vessel and land-based surveys, data on species, group size, distance and angle to the sighting, GPS position, depth, sea-surface temperature (when possible), and weather conditions will be recorded. If the animals can be easily approached (travelling slowly or remaining in the same location), the animal or group of animals will be approached slowly by the vessel or by a launched drone from the location of the researcher, according to the procedure described under ‘Method of approach’ below, and the following information collected:

• Species con�irmation • Number of animals in the group • Composition (including adult females and males, sub-adults, and juveniles where

these can be distinguished, and calves/pups) • Behaviour (behavioural states including foraging, resting, travelling/migrating,

socialising, and any key indicator instantaneous behaviours) • Images (photos & video) • Underwater acoustic recordings • Counts of vessels/people/other potential threats in the immediate area of

marine mammals • Time start and time end of group observation

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Before approach, the species, number of animals, composition, and behaviour will be obtained using the naked eye or 7 x 50 marine reticule binoculars as required. The distance and bearing will be obtained when possible using the binocular’s inbuilt compass and reticules (number of reticules down from the horizon).

If animals are within close enough proximity or upon approach, photos and images will be taken using: an SLR 6D Cannon camera with 300-400 m zoom lens, a high de�inition standard or 3D video camera (either held by the researcher on the deck of the vessel, or held underwater by the researcher on deck by extending a 1-m pole the camera is mounted off the side of the vessel), and/or a drone (operated under guidelines for safe operation). In good underwater visibility conditions, underwater video will allow for information on sex and health to be collected, including body condition, number of and position of lesions, possible pregnancies in females, prevalence of cookie cutter scars, scars or marks due to �isheries interactions. Underwater images will allow for a greater extent of the body to be assessed, as routinely only a small fraction of a marine mammals’ body is exposed above the surface of the ocean. 3D video are currently being tested for size measurements (as an indicator of health). Drones provide proven high-quality information on individual identi�ication (especially for right whales) and health indices (in addition to information on group spacing, numbers and behaviour).

In instances where the 1-m pole mounted camera cannot be deployed safely or be able to collect the required information, the underwater imagery will be obtained by the researcher slipping into the water near the vessel instead with the underwater camera in hand. The period in the water will be minimised to the least necessary time to collect the data, and image acquisition ceased upon any signs of disturbance to animals.

Acoustic recordings will be taken with a hand-held hydrophone (using a Song Meter 744T or similar recorder) held over the side of the vessel to ~4 m depth. Simultaneous acoustic and video recordings will also be collected when the opportunity allows using a small tow-�ish out�itted with a camera and hydrophone (Soundtrap), towed behind the vessel at approximately 10 m (image below).

Figure 3. Small tow�ish out�itted with camera and hydrophone (~60 cm long 10 cm wide)

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Method of vessel and drone approach: For all observations made, animals will be monitored and disturbance as outlined in Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching (2017) and the Wildlife Conservation (Close Season for Marine Mammals) Notice (1998) will be minimised at all times. The following will be monitored as indicators of disturbance:

• attempts to leave the area or moves away from the vessel quickly or slowly; • regular changes in direction or speed of swimming; • hasty dives; • changes in breathing patterns; • increased time spent diving compared to time spent at the surface; • changes in acoustic behaviour; and • aggressive behaviours such as tail slashes, and trumpet blows

Upon any signs of distress (aggressive behaviours, attempts to leave an area, regular changes in direction or speed of swimming), all observations will cease and the researchers or drone (if the researchers are at a distance) will slowly move away.

The vessel and drone when used will be manoeuvred in such a way as to minimise the disruption of behaviour. From boats, animals will be approached as outlined in the Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching (2017). Upon approach and departure, no sudden changes in course or speed will be undertaken, and if there is a need to stop the vessel’s speed will be reduced gradually and the vessel placed into neutral. Noise will be minimised, including from communications aboard the vessel. Areas of approach will be from the sides as outlined in the Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching (2017). There will be ‘no waiting in front of direction of travel’ and ‘no approaching from the rear’ (indicated in the �igure below). The vessel will not restrict the movement of animals against the shore, disperse or separate groups, or herd animals. Extra caution will be taken with cow-calf so that separation does not occur.

Figure 4. Approach zones (Source: Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching 2005).

While observations are anticipated to be made at ranges outlined in guidelines developed for the public whenever possible, to ensure that accurate data and images with suf�icient

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quality for photo-identi�ication and health indices are collected, minimum distances anticipated for this research vessel are:

• 20 m for baleen whales, • 15 m for odontocetes, and

For the drone, minimum distances will be 15 m for all species. This height is required to obtain the necessary resolution for small cameras that do not have a zoom lens. For whales, the vessel is above air and much smaller and quitter than a boat. For boats, if animals voluntary approaches the vessel at distances closer than the minimum distances described above, the engine will be completely disengaged. When deploying the tow-�ish, the vessel will be manoeuvred so that distances of > 30 m are targeted to control any potential risk of entanglement.

The observation period will be the minimum necessary to collect accurate information. This period will usually range from 20 min to 1 hour. For a blue whale that surfaces on average once every 10 min for approximately 2-3 min, this gives two to �ive brief opportunities to collect photo-ID, health, pod composition, and behavioural state information). For odontocetes (dolphins and toothed whales) which surface more frequently, ~20 min will generally be suf�icient, unless the pod is large then the collection of images from all individuals could take up to an hour.

Finally, the vessel or location of observer on land will display a 'RESEARCH' banner.

Telemetry survey methods:

The team of Australian-based marine mammal experts proposes to tag an average of 4-8 blue whales and 2-4 sperm whales per year (and up to 20-40 blue and 10-20 sperm whales total). Providing funding becomes available, the same numbers each year of the duration of the study is proposed to build the sample size. Important habitats will be targeted in locations that tag deployment can be undertaken relatively easily and ef�iciently. Pygmy blue and sperm whales will be tagged in the Savu Sea off Dili as priority, Timor Leste where they pass through narrow migratory corridors (although waters off Australia, and in the broader Coral Triangle) will be a secondary option if an opportunity presents itself). The region off Timor Leste/Savu Sea is a prime location to locate and tag blue whales before they travel further north to presumed mating/calving grounds in the Banda and Ceram Seas, east Indonesia (Maluku Province and in particular the waters around Ambon) and then back south to waters off NW Australia on route along the western Australian coast to Antarctica. Very little is known about blue whale migration and populations, and about sperm whales in many regions of the world. Even the smallest insight into species with large knowledge gaps represents a wealth of high temporal resolution information.

Tagging will be undertaken by trained taggers using specialized equipment (tagging air ri�le and tags), and under all required licences (the researchers listed in this proposal that

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will be tagging whales have their WA �irearms licences, have been trained for tagging and have access to the appropriate air ri�le – see below). All tags used for whales are shallow implant tags of medium duration (weeks to months). While long-duration (months, and up to a year or more), deep-implant tags produce information over a longer period of time, the proponents prefer to take a minimal impact approach with the aim of removing any risk of discomfort and possible harm to whales. This low impact approach is also in accordance with the proposed project goals to investigate local to medium range movements and local habitat use, in support of conservation measures and improved marine spatial planning, including the development of new and/or expanded Marine Protected Areas for marine mammals. Tags that will be deployed on Australian sea lions will be glued on temporarily (several weeks) to the outer pelage, thus there are no risks associated with tag implantation itself.

For tagging blue whales, a specialised air ri�le will be used to deploy the tags. The ri�le is a veterinary device, routinely used to tranquilize large mammals (kangaroos in Australia, elephants and rhinos overseas). The ri�le, a Dan-Inject, is manufactured in Denmark, Europe by world leaders in this type of equipment. This ri�le, model JM ST13 CO2 JM ST/25 and mounted with a 13 mm bore barrel (https://daninject.com.au/p_category/ri�les/), has been designed for tagging whales, and is routinely used to tag large whales with satellite tags for tracking them along their large-scale migration routes. Tags that will be deployed with the ri�le are called Low Impact Minimally Percutaneous Electronic Transmitter (LIMPET) tags (https://wildlifecomputers.com/applications/cetacean-limpet/). LIMPET tags are especially made by Wildlife Computers, USA for large cetaceans and are exactly matched for deployment with the Dan-Inject JM model of ri�le. To date, these are the smallest yet “smartest” data tags available. They are designed to implant no more than 6.5 cm into the skin and blubber only (and importantly, not into the muscle). In summary, the combined ri�le-tag set-up is considered the very best in scienti�ic tagging practice for blue whales and is designed to have a low impact to whales by only entering their blubber tissue. Sperm whales will be tagged with MiniPAT-348F tags, a type of towed pop-up tag. The powerful MiniPAT-348F with FastLoc position is considered by our team to be the best solution to obtain maximum data at minimal impact for sperm whales (LIMPETS cannot be deployment on the deep-diving sperm whales as their skin is too thick and tough). These tags are attached with a small titanium, sterilised dart and short tether designed to implant only about 6 cm deep using a jab pole equipped with the tag. These tags are also manufactured by Wildlife Computers USA. Wildlife Computers states that “MiniPAT is a pop-up archival transmitting tag and a sophisticated combination of archival and Argos satellite technology”. Sensor data are collected during deployment and archived in on-board memory. Then on a pre-set date, the tag releases from its host animal, surfaces, and uploads a summary of the archived data to Argos satellites.

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LIMPET/PAT tags are light weight (≤60g), which is negligible in comparison to a whale’s bodyweight and the overall drag caused by parasites and barnacles that whales carry regularly. Compared to these the protruding stub of the tag is likely to create minimal drag. Throughout their lifetime, large cetaceans are also subject to numerous cookiecutter shark bite wounds. In fact, the selected tag types have a substantially smaller exposed wound area than a single cookiecutter shark bite. Therefore, we assume that the maximum effects of a LIMPET/PAT tag are likely comparable to such wounds.

LIMPET/PAT tags are designed to be deployed from a distance of approximately 6 m from the bowsprit or similar of a small research vessel. The approach by the vessel to the whale is undertaken with the utmost care in boat handling to minimise disturbance and stress (often this means an approach from behind and parallel along one side as the whale surfaces). Straight after the sterilised tag has been deployed the animal is photographed for identi�ication purposes and to con�irm tag location, to document how it has been implanted, and to monitor the tagged individual over time in subsequent studies if the individual is resighted. In addition, a small biopsy of the whale’s skin and blubber will be collected to allow the sex of the individual to be determined, using the same careful boat handling techniques. Biopsying involves the collection of a small sample of skin and blubber using the same Dan-inject air ri�le, but instead equipped with a biopsy dart. The biopsy tip is composed of a sterilised stainless steel and hollow cylinder, approximately 1 cm wide and 2 cm long. The hollow cylinder is �itted with a sharp lip and small prongs to retain the sample. It is threaded into a light-weight orange coloured deployment case that �loats. When the dart rebounds from the body of the whale, it can easily be spotted in the water and collected. The biopsy dart is always cleaned and sterilised by �laming after each collection and immersing it in 70% ethanol before use. LIMPET/PAT tagging and biopsying using the proposed methods have been undertaken previously by animal ethics approved and licensed researchers in Australian waters.

To ensure that impacts are minimised, at all times, the behaviour of the individual whales will be monitored before tagging to establish baseline behaviours, during tagging to detect any changes in behaviours, and after tagging to monitor post-tagging recovery. Tagging will be ceases if any abnormal behaviours or evidence of undue stress are detected. The key to minimising impacts on marine mammals is the careful selection of low impact methods and researcher experience, including familiarity and experience in monitoring animals’ behaviours, the ability to manoeuvre vessels and work around marine mammals with minimal impact, and the efficient deployments of tags to avoid failure or repetition. The proponents have over 50 years of combined experience in marine mammal research.

In addition calves will not be tagged and pregnant whales will be avoided where possible in the following way:

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• For sperm whales it is possible to determine late stage pregnant females by: the white callous on the dorsal (indicating an adult female), the increased girth around the dorsal �in area and extending downwards, and the relatively high position of the body above the waterline. One of the co-investigators in this program (B. Kahn, a sperm whale ecologist) has extensive �ield experience with sperm whales (and in the Savu Sea especially) and will be involved in identifying individuals to tag. Sperm whales in the Savu Sea routinely move in groups, or closely related units of approximately 12-15 individuals of mature females, sub-adults and youngsters of both sexes. Sub-adults of both sexes in these groups can be con�idently selected for tagging, as they can be distinguished from mature females.

• For blue whales, it is not feasible to make the distinction between females and

males at sea and thus to actively avoid pregnant females. However, tagging is planned predominantly for the southbound migration when it is unlikely that pregnant females will be present, as most will have already mated and calved in northern calving grounds (Banda Sea is the likely mating/calving ground). Thus, on the southbound migration both females and males can be tagged. However, as a precaution to potential negative impacts on nursing females with calves, tagging mothers �lanked by their newborn calves will be avoided.

During the northbound migration, there is a risk that pregnant females may be tagged, however, in order to protect the whales and their habitats it is crucial that whales are tagged moving northward towards presumed calving grounds. Tagging blue whales along the northward migration will reveal which migration corridors they routinely use and whether these overlap with busy sea-lanes. There is growing evidence that these passages area not necessarily the same for the north-bound and south-bound routes.

Researchers & their Institutions: The investigators, Dr. Chandra Salgado Kent and Mr. Benjamin Kahn, combined, have over 50 years of experienced researching marine mammals in locations ranging from Australian waters, the Coral Triangle, Indonesia, and Timor Leste, among other locations. The investogators collaborate closely with a range of highly experienced marine mammal experts globally and state managers. The success of a research program that embraces opportunities as they arise, such as this one; either as funded dedicated survey work, observations from vessels of opportunities, or carefully conceptualised, planned and executed telemetry work, is made possible by leveraging from opportunities through a strong collaborative team and partnerships with supporting organisations. The investigators have the specialised knowledge and expertise required for this project. Their roles and institutional af�iliations are listed below in Table 4.

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Table 4. Research team, their organisations, areas of expertise and roles in this project.

Personnel Organisations Role Responsibility and Relevant Experience

Dr. Chandra Salgado Kent

Curtin University, Oceans Blueprint,

Edith Cowan University

Principal investigator

Oversee, manage, and lead all aspects of observational and telemetry-based research. Chandra has over 20 years of experience working on a wide range of marine mammals

(whales, dolphins, Australian sea lions, etc.) across a broad range of regions, from the southwest of Australia, to the Pilbara

cost, the Kimberley, Northern Territory and Timor Sea, and Timor Leste. She has been trained in cetacean tagging and

holds a drone pilot and firearms license.

Mr. Benjamin Kahn APEX Environmental Co-investigator

Coordinate all aspects of observational and telemetry-based research in Asia and the Coral Triangle. Benjamin has over 15 years working in the region, and has experience tagging blue

and sperm whales and holds a firearms license.

Relationship of the researchers to the permit applicant

The permit applicant (Assoc. Prof. Chandra Salgado Kent) is a researcher and the principal investigator. The second researcher (Mr. Benjamin Kahn) is the co-investigator on this project.

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Anticipated outcomes and conservation / management bene�its

This project aims to improve understanding of marine mammal critical habitats, migratory corridors, health. There is currently little knowledge regarding how these animals are using coastal and offshore waters, which are often located near populated areas and have the potential to coincide with areas used for human activities. By further developing our understanding, we will be better placed to support conservation efforts aimed at protecting these species.

This project will have a high level of signi�icance to national and international governmental bodies and industry, as it will contribute towards the effective management of marine mammals and their key habitats by providing data that informs decision-making.

Planned Outcomes include:

• Improved capacity to plan and manage network of the marine parks and reserves; • Enhanced capacity to identify and manage current human impacts and predict risks in

coastal waters; • Improved capacity to plan and manage tourism and recreational and commercial

�isheries; • Improved regional understanding, context and relative ecological and conservation

significance of key marine biodiversity assets; • Increased capacity to assess the regional environmental significance of resource

projects; • Improved capacity for marine science knowledge transfer and uptake into policy,

planning and management in Western Australia; • Improved knowledge for planning and management by industry, NGOs and

community; • Improved links and collaboration in marine science between State and Federal

agencies, universities, industry and NGOs in and outside of Australia; • Improved community understanding and support for Government conservation and

management programs in the Oceania region.

Ultimately, the broad regional approach in this study will contribute to managing critical ocean habitats and safeguarding the future of endangered and protected marine mammal species that do not adhere to state, commonwealth, and political borders. The knowledge will be communicated to governments, the scienti�ic community, industry and the public to use as a basis for transboundary marine conservation goals. In addition, this information will be vital to develop a sustainable and responsible marine mammal ecotourism economy in regions that currently are lacking or are developing legislation around the activity. This approach will help progress a "blue economy".

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Communication of Results

Results and outcomes will be communicated to the scienti�ic community, commonwealth and state managers and agencies, and the general public through public talks, conference presentations, published peer-reviewed papers. The principal investigator has a track record of communications of �indings directly relevant to government and community. Marine mammal research that the applicant has led in Australia as a principal investigator or supervisor has resulted in the following peer reviewed publications:

[1] Ward, R., Parnum, I., Erbe, C., and Salgado Kent, C. 2016. Whistle characteristics of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in the Fremantle Inner Harbour, Western Australia. DOI 10.1007/s40857-015-0041-4.

[2] Marley, S.A., Erbe, C., Salgado Kent, C.P. 2016. Underwater sound in an urban estuarine river: sound sources, soundscape contribution, and temporal variability. Acoustics Australia. DOI 10.1007/s40857-015-0038-z.

[3] Paiva, E. G., Salgado-Kent, C., Gagnon, M. M., McCauley, R, and Finn, H. 2015. Reduced Detection of Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in an Inner Harbour Channel During Pile Driving Activities. Aquatic Mammals 2015, 41(4), 455-468, DOI 10.1578/AM.41.4.2015.455

[4] Paiva, E. G., Salgado-Kent, C., Gagnon, M. M., Parnum, I., & McCauley, R. 2015. An assessment of the effectiveness of high definition cameras as remote monitoring tools for dolphin ecology studies. PLoS ONE, 10(5): e0126165. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126165

[5] Osterrieder, S., Salgado Kent, C., and Robinson, R. 2015. Variability in haul-out behaviour by male Australian sea lions Neophoca cinerea in the Perth metropolitan area, Western Australia. Endangered Species Research. Vol: 28: 259-274.

[6] Osterrieder, S.K., Salgado Kent, C., Anderson, C.J.R., Parnum, I.M., and Robinson, R.W. 2015. Whisker spot patterns: a non-invasive method of individual identification of Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea). Journal of Mammalogy: 1-10.

[7] Bouchet, P., Meeuwig, J., Salgado Kent, C., Letessier, T., Jenner, C. 2014. Topographic determinants of mobile vertebrate predator hotspots: current knowledge and future directions. Biological Reviews.

[8] Recalde-Salas, A., Salgado Kent, C.P., Parsons, M.J.G., Marley, S.A., and McCauley, RD. 2014. Non-song vocalizations of pygmy blue whales in Geographe Bay, Western Australia. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 135(5).

[9] Salgado Kent, C.P., Gavrilov, A.N., Recalde-Salas, A., Burton, C.L.K., McCauley, R.D., and Marley, S. 2012. Passive acoustic monitoring of baleen whales in Geographe Bay, Western Australia. Proceedings of the Acoustical Society of Australia, Fremantle, Australia.

[10] Salgado Kent, C.P., McCauley, R.D., Parnum, I.M., and Gavrilov, A.N. 2012. Underwater ambient noise of Fremantle Inner Harbour: dolphins, pile driving and

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traffic. Proceedings of the Acoustical Society of Australia, Fremantle, Australia. [11] Salgado Kent, C.P., Jenner, C., Jenner, M. Bouchet, P., and Rexstad, E. 2012. Southern

Hemisphere Breeding Stock 'D' Humpback Whale Population Estimates from North West cape, Western Australia. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management. 12(1): 29-38.

[12] Salgado Kent, C.P. and Crabtree, B. 2008. The effectiveness of an established sanctuary zone for reducing human disturbance to Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea) at Carnac Island, Western Australia. Tourism in Marine Environments. Vol 5(1): 29 – 42

The applicant has also led or co-investigated research on marine mammals outside of Australia and research on other marine ecology topics that have resulted in over 50 other peer-reviewed publications. The applicant has produced over 80 technical reports, has attracted over 70 radio, article, or TV segments on marine mammal research, and has been an invited expert on International Whaling Committee panels, Marine Parks and Reserves Authority’s on the proposed Camden Sound Marine Park, WA (2011), CSIRO National Biodiversity Strategy on Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity report card (2012), to co-author national marine science plans and priorities, and presented at international workshops on the impact of seismic on marine mammals.

The following related technical reports and conference presentations were also produced over the last two years:

Technical reports produced over the last two years

Irvine, L. and Salgado Kent, C. 2019. The distribution and relative abundance of marine fauna, with a focus on humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in Exmouth Gulf, Western Australia, 2018. Technical Report Provided to Subsea 7.

Salgado Kent, C.P., Burton, C. Elsdon, B., and Gagnon, M. 2018. Evidence of an emerging aggregation area for southern right whales (Eubalaeena australis) in Geographe Bay, south-western Australia. CMST report prepared for publication.

Salgado Kent, C., Parnum, I. and Landero Figueroa, M. 2018. Dolphin foraging behaviour and their response to pile driving in the Fremantle Inner Harbour. CMST Report 2018-10. Report prepared for Fremantle Ports.

Irvine, L. and Salgado Kent, C.P. 2017. The distribution and abundance of humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) calves within the Ningaloo Marine Park, Western Australia in 2016 – Final Report. Report prepared for the Department of Parks and Wildlife.

Salgado Kent, C. and Marley, S. 2017. Dolphin occupancy in the Fremantle Inner Harbour during underwater rock mound construction. CMST Report 2017-1.

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Conference presentations produced over the last two years

Salgado Kent, C.P., Parnum, I., Landero Figueroa, M., and Saunders, B. 2017. Dolphin Foraging Behaviour in the Busy Fremantle Inner Harbour, Western Australia. Australian Marine Science Association, Darwin, Australia.

Irvine, L., Salgado Kent, C.P., McMahon, C.R., and Hindell, M.A. 2017. The spatial and temporal distribution of humpback whale calves in the Ningaloo Marine Park. Australian Marine Science Association, Darwin, Australia.

References

Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P., Laake, J.L., Borchers, D.L. and Thomas, L., editors. 2004. Advanced Distance Sampling. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Kahn, B. 2014. Satellite Telemetry of blue whales in the Indonesian Seas: Initial assessment of habitat use and potential threats. Paper presented at Pan Ocean Remote Sensing Conference (PORSEC) 2014 - 12th Biennial Conference: “Ocean Remote Sensing for Sustainable Resource”. 4-7 Nov. 2014, Bali, Indonesia.

Kahn, B. 2007. Blue whales of the Savu Sea, Indonesia. Paper presented at the 17th Biannual Marine Mammal Conference - Blue Whale Technical Workshop. Cape Town, South Africa. 28 Nov – 3 Dec 2007

Kahn, B. 2005. Indonesia Oceanic Cetacean Program Report April-May 2005: Visual and acoustic surveys in Solor-Alor; Satellite telemetry tracking studies on Indonesia’s blue and sperm whales; Raja Ampat capacity building. APEX Environmental Technical Report AE03/01 AE05/02. 31pp.

Recalde-Salas, A., Salgado Kent, C.P., Parsons, M.J.G., Marley, S.A., and McCauley, RD. 2014. Non-song vocalizations of pygmy blue whales in Geographe Bay, Western Australia. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 135(5).

Payne, R., and Dorsey, E.M. 1983. Sexual dimorphism of callosities in right whales. In Communication and behavior of whales. Edited by R. Payne. AAAs Selected Symposia Series 76. Westview Press, Boulder, Co. pp. 295–329.

Pettis, H. M., R. M. Rolland, P. K. Hamilton, S. Brault, A. R. Knowlton, and S. D. Kraus. 2004. Visual health assessment of North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) using photographs. Can. J. Zool. 82: 8-19.

Salgado Kent, C.P., Jenner, C., Jenner, M. Bouchet, P., and Rexstad, E. 2012. Southern Hemisphere Breeding Stock 'D' Humpback Whale Population Estimates from North West cape, Western Australia. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management. 12(1): 29-38.