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Marine Fisheries Management
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Ocean• can be considered the last
frontier on this planet
• unique physical characteristics
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Ocean• can support wide variety of
plant and animal life
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Physical Characteristics
• four major areas
• zonation
• salinity
• temperature density
• water movements
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Zonation• classify ocean zones
• depth measurements
• temperature changes
• pressure variations
• light penetration
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Zonation• depth and light penetration
are the two most common methods
• five zones
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Zonation• supratidal
• intertidal
• neritic
• bathyal
• abyssal
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Zonation• supratidal and intertidal
• above the water level
• are omitted in some classifications
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Intertidal• sometimes called the littoral
zone
• area between high and low tide
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Neritic• begins at the water line
• contains more biological substance than any other part of the ocean
• 10-200 miles wide
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Neritic• 200-600 feet deep
• zone stops at the end of the continental shelf
• site of huge dumping of industrial and city wastes
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Bathyal• contains the continental slope
and rise
• is regarded as a geologically active area
• underwater avalanches and slides common
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Abyssal• ocean deep zone
• reaching depths of 5,000 meters
• trenches may extend to more than 6,000 meters
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Abyssal• trenches are referred to as the
hadal zone
• scarcity of food
• increased water pressure
• lack of dissolved oxygen
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Abyssal• animal life must be
specialized to live
• must be able to obtain nutrients from rich sediments on the ocean floor
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light penetration• euphotic zone - “twilight zone”
• part of the ocean where sunlight penetrates the water
• supports plant and animal life that requires sunlight to live
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Euphotic zone• from the surface to about 600
feet beyond the horizontal shelf
• below the euphotic is the cold, dark Abyssal zone
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Salinity• concentration of salts within
ocean water
• concentrations and types of salts vary throughout the ocean
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Salinity• most commonly found salt
compounds consist of:
• sodium - Na
• chlorine - Cl
• magnesium - Mg
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Salinity• calcium - Ca
• potassium - K
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Salinity• defined as the number of
grams of dissolved salt in 1,000 grams of sea water
• symbol for expressing salinity is %o
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Salinity• ranges in the ocean from
33%o to 38%o
• average is about 35%o
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Temperature Density• the ocean is a giant heat
pump that moves and transports heat from the equator to the poles
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Temperature Density• temp changes occur as you
move both to a different latitude and different depths
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Temp stratification• three layers• mixed surface layer• middle thermocline layer (10-
1,000 meters)• deep water layer (1,000 - 6,000
meters)
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Thermocline• below the light penetration
depth
• suggests that there is a transfer of heat vertically as well as horizontally
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Density• mass per unit volume
• dependent upon salinity
• temperature
• pressure
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Density• changes result from evaporation
and heating of the ocean’s surface
• higher temps -lower density
• density increases as the pressure and depth increase
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Water Movements• waves
• tides
• currents
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Water Movements• dictates temperature, salinity,
nutrient levels as well as animal and plant life
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Waves• classified as:
• wind generated
• internal
• catastrophic
• stationary
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Wind generated• most common
• sea
• swell
• surf
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Wind generated• sea wave is an irregular wave
with no systematic pattern
• sea wave travels at different heights and changes direction as it moves
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Wind generated• swell waves are uniform with
similar dimensions
• travel together because of their similar speed
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Wind generated-swell• remain at a constant speed as
they travel but decrease in height
• sometimes travel across an entire ocean
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Wind generated• surf wave is on occurring
close to shore
• water particles move in an orbital motion
• toward the beach
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Wind generated - surf• less depth
• energy is directed toward the shore
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underwater internal• found with the temperature
changes in the depths of the ocean
• travels more slowly but has a greater height
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Catastrophic waves• massive power behind them
• caused by storms, hurricanes and landslides on shore
• commonly known catastrophic wave is the tidal wave
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Stationary wave• occur in bays and calmer
waters
• does not move horizontally
• water surface moves up and down
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Tides• specialized waves caused by
the gravitational attraction of the sun and moon on the earth
• tides occur at very exact times with one-half lunar day
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Tides• 12 hours 25 minutes between
high tides
• lunar day is longer than the solar day
• tides occur 50 minutes later each day
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Tides• an area will have either one
high tide and one low tide each day (diurnal)
• or two high tides an two low tides each day (semidiurnal)
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Tides• when the sun and the moon line
up with the earth a strong tide is produced
• this happens every 14 days at the time of the new and full moons
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Tides• this exceptionally high tide is
called the spring tide
• when the sun and moon are at right angles with each other
• occurs during the half moon
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Tides• an exceptionally low tide is
produced
• called neap tide
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Currents• most common are surface
currents, turbidity currents and bottom currents
• surface currents, which are caused by the prevailing winds
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Currents - surface• reach velocities of about 3
knots
• 1 knot = 1.15 mph
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Currents• when a hurricane reaches
shore or an earthquake occurs, landslides can occur
• landslides can produce a turbidity current underwater
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Currents• in the deep water become the
bottom currents
• responsible for moving sediments on the ocean floor
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Currents• transporting water from the
Atlantic Basin to the southern Atlantic Ocean
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Life• the ocean is a wonderland of
plant and animal life
• storehouse of food and nutrients is virtually untapped
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Life• with proper management the
ocean could provide wide relief to the world food problem
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Animal life• divided into four major groups
• microscopic
• marine fish
• marine shellfish
• marine mammals
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Microscopic• most common are the plankton
• zooplankton
• staple food for species ranging from tiny fish to whales
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Microscopic• many zooplankton are related to
marine crabs and shrimp
• plankton concentration varies
• average concentration is one tenth of a gram per cubic meter of water
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Microscopic• some scientists suggest
harvesting plankton because they contain the nutrients and amino acids found in human food
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Microscopic• would require filtering over
one million gallons of water with sophisticated nets to collect one pound of dry plankton material
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Marine Fish• four most important marine fish
species are:• salmon• tuna• menhaden• flounder
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Marine Fish• these species make up the world
fishing markets
• less economically important species include:
• haddock, herring, cod, and mackerel
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Salmon• seven main species
• Atlantic
• Cherry
• Chinook
• Chum
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Salmon• Coho
• Pink
• Sockeye
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Salmon• range in size from 16 inches
long and weighing 5 pounds to 36 inches and 25 pounds
• live in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
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Salmon• begin life in fresh water
• migrate to the ocean to live and grow
• Atlantic Salmon make the trip repeatedly
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Salmon• Pacific species
• include all or the seven except the Atlantic
• spawn only once and die soon afterward
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Salmon• spawn in shallow streams
during late summer or early fall• female finds a rocky stream
bed where she digs a saucer shaped nest with her tail
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Salmon• male salmon stays close by
to guard the female
• she deposits her eggs in the nest and the male fertilizes them
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Salmon• procedure is repeated
upstream
• female will lay 2,000 - 10,000 eggs during this spawning time
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Salmon• eggs hatch in 3-4 months
• fry retreat to the gravel bottom to try to avoid predators - birds and other fish
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Salmon• young salmon live off food
in the yolk sack attached to their stomachs
• some species move toward the ocean immediately
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Salmon• some stay in fresh water for up
to 3 years
• adult salmon remain in the ocean from 6 months to 5 years before returning to fresh water to spawn
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Salmon• Once the salmon reaches fresh
water it stops eating and depends on body fat for energy
• male develops a hooked snout
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Salmon• some species develop a hump
on their backs
• quality of the meat is decreased at this time as the salmon loses some of its flavor
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Salmon• management practices to
protect and preserve
• fish ladders to help salmon over dams
• artificial spawning channels
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Salmon• temp and water flow are
controlled in the channels
• use of hatcheries
• construction of escarpments which allow a certain number of fish to spawn
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Salmon• have also been used to control
other rapidly producing fish species
• coho salmon was introduced into the great lakes to control alewives
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Salmon• commercially are caught in
nets and sold
• fresh
• frozen
• smoked and canned
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Salmon• main fishing countries are:
• US
• Japan
• Canada
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Tuna• member of the mackerel
family
• leading game fish in the US
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Tuna• three most commercially
important types are:
• albacore
• skipjack
• yellowfin
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Tuna• species range in size from the
10 foot long, 2,000 pound northern bluefin to the 2 foot long 10 pound frigate
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Tuna• are fast swimmers
• reach speeds of up to 45 mph
• Does not have the ability to push water through its gills
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Tuna• must swim continuously in order
to live
• caught by bait fishing, long lining and purse seining
• bait fishing involves using live bait to attract tuna
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Tuna• long-lining
• reel out a line up to 75 miles long
• may have as many as 2,000 hooks
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Tuna• purse seining
• using nets called purse seines to catch fish
• tuna usually travel below schools of porpoises
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Tuna• pilots locate the porpoises from
the air and radio the location to the boats
• major problem is that many porpoises are netted at the same time
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Tuna• netting of porpoises is
accidental and unlawful
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Menhaden• also known as bony fish or
fatbacks
• live in the Atlantic Ocean and feed on plankton
• swim in schools close to the ocean’s surface
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Menhaden• easy to catch
• 12-18 inches long
• weigh about 1 pound at maturity
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Menhaden• most are used in products
such as livestock feed, soap, and fertilizer, rather than human food
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Flounder• also called “Plaice”
• lives on the sandy and muddy bottoms of bays
• have a flat body with both eyes on the same side of the head
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Flounder• feed on shrimp and small fish
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Marine shellfish• shrimp
• oysters
• crab
• lobster
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Shrimp• most economically important
of the marine shellfish
• live in salt and fresh water
• excellent swimmers
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Shrimp• large shrimp - called prawns
• feed from the ocean floor
• can grow to 12 inches in length
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Shrimp• most common used for food is
the Peneid shrimp
• hatched from eggs laid in the ocean
• female may lay 500,000 to 1 million eggs
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Shrimp• as the young shrimp move
toward shore
• 80 percent are lost to predators
• shrimp settle in bays and river mouths until 5-7 mos
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Shrimp• then move back to deeper
water for breeding
• female dies soon after laying her eggs
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Shrimp• nets called trawls are dragged on
the ocean floor
• once netted, shrimp are sold frozen or canned
• leading countries are US, Japan, India
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Oyster• type of mollusk
• shellfish with a two-piece shell protecting a soft inner body
• live in mild or warm climates
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Oyster• Oysters of the Persian gulf
and the Pacific Ocean are responsible for making pearls
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Oyster• female oyster lays about 500
million eggs each year, spraying them into the water
• young oysters, called spat, hatches 10 hours later
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Oyster• about the size of the point of a
needle
• within 24 hours the shell starts to form
• young oyster attaches to a rock
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Oyster• where it spends the rest of its life
• some live up to 20 years
• greatest enemies include: humans, fish, crabs, starfish and oyster drills
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Crabs• third economically important
marine shellfish
• habitats range from shallow waters close to shore to deep waters of the ocean
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Crabs• 4500 different kinds of crabs
• most common - Atlantic - lives in burrows on saltwater streams
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Crabs• largest is the Alaskan King Crab
• can weigh up to 12 pounds!
• Most sought after crab by American and Japanese fishermen
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Lobster• American Lobster lives on
ocean bottoms near the shore in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
• averages 12-24 inches in length
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Lobster• weigh from 1 - 20 pounds
• feeds by burrowing into a hole with only its claw at the edge
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Lobster• as prey comes close to the claw
it quickly becomes the lobster’s next meal
• main food consists of crab, snails, small fish and other lobsters
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Lobsters• female carries her eggs under
her tail for 11-12 months
• every 2 years she lays 5,000 - 100,000 eggs by shaking the eggs from eggshells
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Lobsters• eggs will quickly rise to the
surface
• young will drift on the surface for three to five weeks
• easy prey for birds and fish
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Lobsters• young then sink to the ocean
floor where they spend the remainder of their life
• life span up to 15 years
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Lobsters• caught in traps called pots
• allow the lobster to enter but vertical wooden bars confuse the lobsters and prevent them from finding their way out
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Lobsters• traps are checked daily
• two lobsters in confinement will fight till one dies
• claws are immobilized with a rubber band to prevent injury to other lobsters
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Lobsters• Lobsters are kept together for
shipping so immobilizing the claw is important
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Marine Mammals• differ from other marine life
in two important ways
• warm blooded rather than cold blooded
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Marine Mammals• mammals have lungs as
breathing devices rather than gills
• necessary to come to the surface to breath
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Marine Mammals• main marine mammals are
• whales
• porpoises
• walruses
• fur seals
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Whales• include the largest mammals
that have ever lived on the earth
• the largest blue whale was 100 feet long and weight 136 metric tons
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Whales• divided into baleen whales
and toothed whales
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Baleen Whales• obtain their food by straining
plankton from the seawater
• through plates called whalebone
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Baleen Whales• ten different types
• three major groups
• right, gray, and rorqual
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Baleen Whales• Right include the bowhead
• black right - longest baleen, averages 60 feet long
• pygmy baleen- smallest baleen
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Baleen• gray are black to gray in
color and dotted with white blotches
• feed from the ocean floor
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Rorqual baleen• fastest whale
• able to flee the whaler’s harpoon until the introduction of the diesel engine
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Rorquals• sometimes referred to as
finback
• fin protrudes from their back
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Rorquals• most common include
• blue
• bryde’s
• fin
• humpback
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Rorquals• minke
• sei
• common food is small shrimp like animal called krill
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Toothed whales• have a lower set of peglike
teeth
• over 65 different kinds of toothed whales
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Toothed whales• five major groups
• sperm
• beaked
• belugas and narwhales
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Toothed Whales• dolphins and porpoises
• river dolphins
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Sperm Whale• largest toothed whale
• about 60 feet in length
• blue gray to black in color
• enormous square head
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Sperm whales• live in the tropical waters
• feed off of squid, barracuda and sharks
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Whales• usually seasonal breeders
• mating during the winter months
• male - bull
• female - cow
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Whales• migrate to the equator for
mating
• most baleen whales migrate
• most toothed whales do not migrate
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Whales• pregnancy lasts 10-12
months
• when the calf is born it weighs nearly 4000 pounds
• 23 feet long
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Whales• cow nurses her offspring for
about 7 months
• because of the rich milk, some calves can gain as much as 200 pounds a day
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Whales• travel in herds of 100 - 1,000
• adult male will form a harem school consisting of himself, his females and their young
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Whales• nursery groups of females
and young and bachelor groups of males also travel along with the harem
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Migrating• mothers and young lead the
herd
• followed by males and non pregnant females
• pregnant females at the rear
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Whales• average life span is 15 years
for a porpoise and 40 years for a baleen whale
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Fur Seals• seals are divided into three groups
• eared - includes fur seals and sea lions
• earless
• walruses
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Fur Seals• most sought after seal
because eof its soft coat
• US annual catch of fur seals amounts to over $3.5 million
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Fur Seals• spend the winter off the coast of
California and the summer in Alaska
• male seal is called a bull and weighs between 500 and 700 pounds
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Fur Seals• female is called a cow
• weighs 50-100 pounds
• bears one offspring per year
• offspring are called a pup, whelp, or calf
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Fur Seals• bulls arrive at the breeding
grounds called rookeries in May or June
• stake out their territories
• about 40 feet in diameter
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Fur Seals• cows arrive in July
• immediately join a harem and bear their young
• cow mates again 1 - 2 weeks after the birth of the pup
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Fur Seals• bull is always being challenged
by other bulls for his territory
• usually must be at least 10 years old before he develops enough strength to defend
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Fur Seals• main predators include
sharks
• killer whales
• and parasitic round worms
• humans
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Fur Seals• thousands killed annually at their
breeding ground for fur
• 1911 North Pacific Fur Convention
• Japan, Russia, Canada, and the US
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Fur Seals• set a limit to the number of
seals that can be harvested each year
• Only Russia and the US can harvest 30,000 a year
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Fur Seals• each country gives 15% of
harvest to Japan and 15% to Canada
• US sealing is conducted by the government
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Fur Seals• money is deposited in the US
Treasury
• 70% of money is returned to Alaskan gov’t.
• 30% goes to the National Marine Fisheries Service
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Walrus• the only tusked seals
• live in the Arctic, North Atlantic, and North Pacific Regions
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Walrus• their bodies have developed
flippers that make them excellent swimmers
• during winter and spring months, walruses drift on floating ice pieces
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Walrus• spend summers resting on
shorelines
• main food is clams
• Eskimo is the most common user of Walruses
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Walrus• meat is used for food
• hides for shelter
• oil for lamps
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Estuarine Ecosystem• area where freshwater source
opens into the ocean
• called an estuary
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Estuary• transition area supports a variety
of life that is found nowhere else
• life that can withstand rapid changes in salinity, temperature and density
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Estuary• continuously receives fresh
water from the rivers and streams and salt water from the tides and currents
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Estuary• transitional zone
• has characteristics common to neither rivers or the ocean
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Estuary• usually shallow and turbulent
• results in high amount of oxygen in the water
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Estuary• tides cause the area to be
nutrient rich
• rivers bring nutrients to the estuary from above and the tides bring nutrients from the ocean
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Estuary• acts as a nutrient trap
• bacteria count is high because of the high oxygen content
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Estuary• rapid decomposition of
organic wastes
• breakdown of organic matter to soluble nutrients causes plant life to prosper
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Estuary• high plant life attracts large
numbers of plant eating fish
• life in the estuary is grouped into three groups
• 1. Species that travel a short distance to the estuary
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Estuary• 2. Species found in both the
estuary and in other parts of the ocean
• 3. Species whose entire life cycles are in the estuary
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Estuary• economically important to
marine fisheries
• 90% of the marine fish harvested either comes from the estuarine ecosystem or passes through it
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Estuary• best known life in the estuary
include: fish larvae
• oysters
• clams, crabs
• lobsters, shrimp
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Estuary• problems facing estuaries
include conflict between land developers and fishermen
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Estuary• shorelines are the most
sought after types of real estate
• some estuaries have been used as a dumping ground
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Estuary• dumping destroys natural
habitat
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Artificial Ocean Cultivation
• scientists have developed ways to artificially propagate marine animals
• this form of agricultural production is called aquaculture
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Artificial Ocean Cultivation
• most commonly farmed marine resource crop is the oyster
• research is also being conducted with shrimp, salmon and milkfish
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Oysters• live in estuarine waters
• close to shore
• makes them one of the easiest marine animals to raise
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Oysters• improving habitat is first step
• providing a place for larvae to attach
• control parasites and predators
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Oysters• French Scientists have
developed a special algae as an improved food for the oysters to grow more quickly.
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Oysters• Japan’s most productive
oyster farm
• Inland Sea near Hiroshima
• water flow and mineral content are correct
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Oysters• very desirable oyster producing
area
• only management item needed is a stopping apparatus to which the larvae can attach
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Oysters• Japanese oyster farms consist
of bamboo poles tied together and floating on barrels
• wires are hung from the poles to a depth of 20 feet
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Oysters• wires hold clam shells
• act as the stopping place for oyster larvae
• In July and August, billions of oyster larvae attach to the artificially hung shells
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Oysters• larvae are thinned to the correct
amount
• midseason - October - wires are pulled and young oysters are cleaned and brushed which helps them grow
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Oysters• harvested in January and
February
• standard oyster raft measures 35-40 feet square
• may own as many as 100 rafts
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Oysters• number of barrels needed to
support the raft increases as the oysters grow and weigh it down
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Oysters• feed on plankton
• costs are low
• average yield is about 13,000 pounds of oyster flesh per acre farmed
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Oysters• shells are cleaned and sold for
poultry grit and lime
• Japan can attribute its successful oyster farming both to low labor costs and to preservation of habitat
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Oysters• pollution of waters has
almost stripped every other nation of an economically feasible oyster industry
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Laws and Regulations• who owns the ocean
• how many miles offshore can a country claim
• who owns the mineral resources on the ocean floor
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Laws and Regs• development of fishing
policy
• fish cannot be claimed as property like land wildlife can
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Laws and Regs• recent legislation is aimed at
conservation
• variety of commissions and committees have been formed
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Laws and Regs• most deal with regulation of one
specific resource ie: fur seals, whale, tuna
• major examples include:
• Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC)
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Laws and Regs• International Commission for
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF)
• International North Pacific Fisheries Commission (INPFC
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Laws and Regs• International Whaling
Commission (IWC)
• most commissions are formed after a resource develops problems
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Laws and Regs• commissions are only as strong
as their member nations want them to be
• most recent attempt to develop ocean regulations is the UN’s Law of the Sea
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Laws and Regs• a set of bargaining
conferences
• involve 150 nations
• first conference initiated in 1958
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Laws and Regs• other conferences held in
1960, 73, and 80
• three major items discussed
• 1. Territorial limits
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Laws and Regs• 2. Jurisdiction over an
exclusive economic zone
• 3. Seabed mining
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