MAPPING THE POTENTIAL FOR DECENTRALIZED ENERGY GENERATION ... · mapping the potential for...

MAPPING THE POTENTIAL FOR DECENTRALIZED ENERGYGENERATION BASED ON RES IN WESTERN BALKANS

by

Daniel R. SCHNEIDER, Neven DUI], Igor RAGUZIN, Željko BOGDAN,Marko BAN, Borislav GRUBOR, Predrag STEFANOVI],

Dragoljub DAKI], Branislav REPI], Žarko STEVANOVI], Ana ŽBOGAR,Maja STUDOVI], Stevan NEMODA, Nikola OKA, Dejan DJUROVI],

Nikola KADI], Vukman BAKI], Srdjan BELOŠEVI], Aleksandar ERI],Rastko MLADENOVI], Milijana PAPRIKA, Nijaz DELALI], Alija LEKI],

Rasim BAJRAMOVI], Armin TESKEREDŽI], Izet SMAJEVI],Ejub DŽAFEROVI], Fajik BEGI], Haris LULI], Sadjit METOVI],

Semin PETROVI], Adnan DJUGUM, Džana KADRI], Nihad HODŽI],Fahrudin KULI], Anes KAZAGI], and Admir GAFI]

Original scientific paperUDC: 621.316:620.97

BIBLID: 0354-9836, 11 (2007), 3, 7-26

Al though the coun tries of the West ern Bal kans are mostly elec tri fied, thereare still re gions which do not have ac cess to the elec tric ity net work or where the net work ca pac ity is in suf fi cient. For the most part such ar eas are un derspe cial care of the state (i. e. un der de vel oped, dev as tated by war, de pop u -lated), on is lands or in moun tain ous re gions. Since the de cen tral ized en ergy gen er a tion cov ers a broad range of tech nol o gies, in clud ing many re new -able en ergy tech nol o gies that pro vide small-scale power at sites close to the us ers, such con cept could be of in ter est for these lo ca tions. This pa per iden -ti fies the ar eas in West ern Bal kans where such sys tems could be ap plied.Con sid er ation is given to geo graph ical lo ca tions as well as pos si ble ap pli -ca tions. Wind, hy dro, so lar pho to vol taic, and bio mass con ver sion sys temswere taken into con sid er ation. Since the re new able en ergy sources data forWest ern Bal kans re gion are rather scarce, the in ten tion was to give a sur vey of the pres ent sit u a tion and an es ti mate of fu ture po ten tial for de cen tral izeden ergy gen er a tion based on re new able en ergy sources. The de cen tral izeden ergy gen er a tion based on re new able en ergy sources in West ern Bal kanswill find its niche eas ier for the us ers that will pro duce elec tric ity for theirown needs and for the us ers lo cated in re mote ru ral ar eas (off-grid ap pli ca -tions).

Key words: de cen tral ized power pro duc tion, dis trib uted en ergy gen er a -tion, re new able en ergy sources, wind, bio mass, solar, hydro

Introduction

The West ern Bal kans re gion – here in clud ing Al ba nia, Bosnia and Herzegovina(B&H), Croatia, Kosovo/UN in terim ad min is tra tion mis sion in Kosovo (UNMIK), Mac -e do nia, Montenegro, and Ser bia – is re cov er ing from over a de cade of con flict and in sta -

DOI:10.2298/TSCI0703007S 7

bil ity, which are re sult of the dis so lu tion of the for mer Yu go sla via. As the re gion sta bi -lizes, the Bal kans will play an im por tant role not only as a tran sit cen tre for gas andelec tric ity as well as for the oil ex ports from the Rus sian and Cas pian sea re gion, but mayalso be come a part of a new de cen tral ised en ergy gen er a tion (DEG) sys tem of the widerEU.

Rec og niz ing po ten tial ben e fits, and as part of a wider move ment to deeper re -gional in te gra tion, the gov ern ments of Al ba nia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bul garia,Croatia, Kosovo/UNMIK, Mac e do nia, Montenegro, Ro ma nia, and Ser bia signed theAth ens Mem o ran dum (2002, re vised in 2003, en tered into force on July 1st, 2006), inwhich it was agreed to es tab lish a South East Eu rope Re gional Elec tric ity Mar ket(SEE-REM) now known as the En ergy Com mu nity of SEE. Based on that agree ment aswell as an adop tion of the EU Di rec tives 2003/54/EC and 2003/55/EC on the in ter nalmar ket in elec tric ity and nat u ral gas, the grad ual liberalisation of en ergy mar kets sim i larto the EU liberalisation is fore seen. Ta ble 1 shows the cur rent state of mar ket open ing inWest ern Bal kans (WB) [1, 2].

Table 1. Market opening in WB countries

Coun tryMar ketopen ing

El i gi bil ity thresh oldUnbundling

TSO1 DSO2

Albania 8% 40 GWh/year Le gal None

Bosnia andHerzegovina

33%10 GWh/year(1 GWh/year from January 2008)

Le gal None

Croatia 25%9 GWh/year(for non-residential consumers from July2007)

Le gal Le gal

Kosovo/UNMIK 0%Eligible consumers (four) connected at 110kV and over

Man.3 None

Macedonia 28%20 GWh/year and connected to high voltage(threshold shall be reduced in 2007)

Le gal None

Montenegro 17%

Direct customers (110 kV) as well asEPCG4 (for tariff customers) meet aboutone third of their electricity demandthrough imports

Man. None

Serbia 16%25 GWh/year at all metering points of onecustomer

Le gal None

1 – transmission system operator; 2 – distribution system operator; 3 – management; 4 – Electric power generationcompany of Montenegro

Al though all WB coun tries have the pri mary en ergy leg is la tion (here cov er ingelec tric ity and the es tab lish ment of the ap pli ca ble reg u la tory au thor ity), some of the sec -

8

THERMAL SCIENCE: Vol. 11 (2007), No. 3, pp. 7-26

ond ary leg is la tion is still miss ing (tab. 2) [3, 4]. The Ar ti cle 20 of the Treaty es tab lish ingthe En ergy Com mu nity says that each con tract ing Party shall pro vide to the Eu ro peanCom mis sion within one year of the date of en try into force of the Treaty: (1) a plan to im -ple ment Di rec tive 2001/77/EC on the pro mo tion of elec tric ity pro duced from re new ableen ergy sources (RES) in the in ter nal elec tric ity mar ket and (2) a plan to im ple ment Di rec -tive 2003/30/EC on the pro mo tion of the use of biofuels or other re new able fu els fortrans port. In an other ar ti cle (Ar ti cle 35) of the Treaty is writ ten that the En ergy Com mu -nity may adopt mea sures to fos ter de vel op ment in the ar eas of re new able en ergy sourcesand en ergy ef fi ciency, tak ing ac count of their ad van tages for se cu rity of sup ply, en vi ron -ment pro tec tion, so cial co he sion, and re gional de vel op ment. Ta bles 3 and 4 give the cur -rent sta tus of trans po si tion and im ple men ta tion of Di rec tive 2001/77/EC [3-5].

Map of DEG potential in Western Balkans

As a re sult of re stor ing or der and sta bil ity in the re gion of WB, busi ness and in -dus trial ac tiv i ties have been in ten si fied re sult ing in greater elec tric ity con sump tion. Insome coun tries there is not enough ca pac ity to meet those greater needs (e. g. sev eralyears of power re duc tions in Al ba nia [6]) while the other coun tries’ power gen er a tion ca -pac i ties are stretched to the lim its (e. g. Croatia or Mac e do nia [7]).

Al though the coun tries of the WB are greatly elec tri fied, there are still re gionswhich do not have ac cess to the elec tric ity net work or where the net work ca pac ity is in -

9

Schneider, D. R., et al.: Mapping the Potential for Decentralized Energy Generation ...

Table 2. Legislation

Coun tryPri mary

leg is la tionSec ond ary leg is la tion

Draft

leg is la tion

Reg u la tory

au thor ity

Albania Yes Yes Yes Yes

Bosnia andHerzegovina(B&H)

Yes

3 electricity laws;

1 in B&H and 1for each entity

No Yes Yes

Croatia Yes Yes Yes Yes

Kosovo/UNMIK Yes No Yes Yes

Macedonia Yes Yes No Yes

Montenegro Yes No Yes Yes

Serbia Yes Yes

Pending; variouspieces of secondarylegislation, pursuant to the new energylaw

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suf fi cient. For the most part such ar eas are un der spe cial care of the state (i. e. un der de vel -oped, dev as tated by war, de pop u lated), on is lands or in moun tain ous re gions. In ad di tion, these re gions have good re new able en ergy po ten tial. Since the de cen tral ized en ergy gen -er a tion cov ers a broad range of tech nol o gies, in clud ing many re new able en ergy tech nol -o gies that pro vide small-scale power at sites close to the us ers, such con cept could be ofin ter est for these lo ca tions. This pa per iden ti fies the ar eas in WB where such sys temscould be ap plied. Con sid er ation is given to geo graph ical lo ca tions as well as pos si ble ap -pli ca tions. Wind, hy dro, so lar pho to vol taic (PV), and bio mass con ver sion sys tems weretaken into con sid er ation. Since the RES data for WB re gion are rather scarce, the in ten -tion was to give a sur vey of the pres ent sit u a tion and an es ti mate of fu ture po ten tial forDEG based on RES.

The is lands and coastal area of Adri atic sea (and partly Ionian sea re gard ing WBre gion of south ern Al ba nia) have very good so lar and wind po ten tial. A great num ber ofsunny hours with high ir ra di a tion (Croatia >1450 kWh/m2, Al ba nia >1500 kWh/m2 an -nu ally) and av er age wind ve loc i ties above 4-5 m/s rep re sent en ergy po ten tial that shouldnot be ig nored (figs. 1 and 2). The global hor i zon tal ir ra di a tion in fig. 1 was com piled us -ing the data from the Joint Re search Cen tre of Eu ro pean Com mis sion [8]. Data are givenon the re gional ba sis – NUTS 3 re gions (a sys tem of ad min is tra tive di vi sion of coun triessim i lar to that of the No men cla ture of Ter ri to rial Units for Sta tis tics [9]), es tab lished byEurostat, for the pur pose of uni form rep re sen ta tion.

Fur ther more, in the moun tain ous re gions of WB there is con sid er able wind po -ten tial as in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Sarajevo area and on the South) or as in Mac e do nia where there are lo ca tions in high moun tains which have av er age an nual wind speeds ex -

17


Figure 1. Global horizontal irradiation[kWh/m2 per year]

Figure 2. Average annual wind velocity[m/s]

ceed ing 7 m/s [10]. The sys tem atic mea sure ments were not con ducted in WB coun tries,so the wind po ten tial in many coun tries is not ex plic itly known (fig. 2, n. a. – not avail -able). That is cer tainly one of the bar ri ers to wider im ple men ta tion of wind power pro -duc tion in WB.

Al though col lected for many de cades in al most all WB coun tries, the data ob -tained from me te o ro log i cal sta tions are in com plete for the in vest ment pur poses (e. g.they lack data like ver ti cal wind speed pro files). Even know ing wind speed at themacro-level (wind at las) is not suf fi cient for po ten tial de vel op ers of wind power plantssince the on-site data (mi cro-level) are re quired. Ex cept for a cou ple of dozen lo ca tions,there are no con tin u ous mea sure ments of wind speed over sev eral years. There fore, var i -ous com pa nies will ing to in vest in this sec tor have dif fi cul ties to as sess the fea si bil ity ofthe pro jects.

The map on fig. 3 shows tech ni cal po -ten tial of wind units for elec tric ity gen er a -tion. The po ten tial is es ti mated based onpro posed fu ture wind power plant pro jects,with their ca pac i ties to talled per NUTS 3 re -gions. The load ca pac ity given in the fig urerep re sents the max i mum ca pac ity, as sumedto be solely ac tive power that could be pro -duced con tin u ously through out a pro longedpe riod of op er a tion un der rep re sen ta tive cli -ma tic con di tions [11]. Sim i larly, the en ergyca pa bil ity (e. g. figs. 7-9) is the max i mumquan tity of elec tri cal en ergy pro duced un der the most fa vor able con di tions. This re source avail abil ity takes no ac count of elec tric itytrans mis sion and dis tri bu tion con straints.

The max i mum load ca pac ity and themax i mum po ten tial en ergy pro duced (en -ergy ca pa bil ity) were cal cu lated [12] us ing

the in for ma tion con sid er ing all planned and po ten tial RES pro jects. The data used wereob tained from dif fer ent sources: pub lished lit er a ture, rel e vant min is tries and agen cies,and where rel e vant data were not avail able or ob so lete, ex perts were con sulted [13-23].

In some coun tries the ad min is tra tive bar ri ers limit the ex ploi ta tion of all vi a blewind po ten tial, like in Croatia where the gov ern ment has banned con struc tion and plan -ning of all new wind power plants (to gether with quar ries, ware houses, fac to ries etc.) onlo ca tions that are on is lands and less than 1000 m from the sea. The pro jects that had al -ready ob tained the lo ca tion per mits prior to that de cree are ex cluded. The act was ex -plained as a mea sure to pro tect the Cro atian coastal area. That, un for tu nately, in cludessome of the best wind po ten tial lo ca tions on Cro atian is lands and along the Adri atic coast(re gions of South ern and West ern Croatia).

Apart from elec tric ity pro duc tion from the large wind farms, there are also otherpos si ble ap pli ca tions, e. g. the small wind tur bines for ir ri ga tion in river del tas and on

18


Figure 3. Maximum load capacity of proposed wind facilities [MW]

lakes or as in the case of Al ba nia where the wind tur bines could be used for safe guard ingthe land from floods [13]. Also, there are plans for hy brid fa cil i ties, like a pro posed windfarm Stupiš}e on is land of Vis (planned in Na tional en ergy programme Enwind [14]),which is fore thought to sup ply en ergy for pumps for ir ri ga tion and wa ter de sa li ni za tion.

De spite good so lar po ten tial it is notlikely that large so lar power plants will bebuilt in fol low ing years in WB coun triesdue to high cost of these fa cil i ties. With the ex cep tion of a cer tain num ber of house -holds and other build ings, so lar PV sys -tems will be re served for iso lated ar eas and spe cific pur poses. Po ten tial ap pli ca tionscould be: tele com mu ni ca tion base sta tions, me te o ro log i cal sta tions, light houses, roadsigns, pub lic light ing, dif fer ent au ton o -mous mon i tor ing sys tems (pol lut ant emis -sion mon i tor ing, for est fire pro tec tion,tech ni cal pro tec tion of in di vid ual fa cil i tiesetc.). It is dif fi cult to es ti mate the max i -mum load ca pac ity of po ten tial PV sys tems be cause there are no of fi cial sta tis tics oftheir use. The PV po ten tial could be givenap prox i mately by the PV power shown infig. 4. Their fu ture im ple men ta tion willprob a bly in clude a large num ber of units of smaller out puts, whether on grid or off gridap pli ca tions. The costs of such fa cil i ties ex ceed 20 c€/kWh.

On the other hand, ther mal so lar sys tems for hot wa ter pro duc tion will be usedex ten sively due to their rea son able econ omy. At the mo ment how ever, the main ob sta clepre vent ing wider us age of such sys tems is the lack of leg is la tion that pro motes and sub si -dizes the use of re new able en ergy sys tems, con trary to other Eu ro pean coun tries.

There are also some other ex am ples of RES hy brid sys tems:– in B&H where the solar collectors of simpler design (no insulation, with a

half-cylindrical reflecting surface) are used in industrial objects, hotels and apartment buildings; they are typically installed in a combination with a wood burningboiler/furnace and they are used for low temperature heating and domestic waterheating,

– one of the first PV systems in B&H was installed and put into service as a part of aproject financed by the government of Spain; the system has a total power of 0.32 kWand is used as the energy source for the irrigation system in Popovo Polje, located incanton K7 and Republic Srpska,

– hybrid system at the Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Sarajevo; it consists of a solarsystem (4.2 m2 of solar collector area) and a conventional natural gas burner (15 kW),and is used for water heating, and

19


Figure 4. PV power (horizontal) [MWh peryear]

– in Albania, a pilot project on exploitation of photovoltaic systems for pumping ofirrigation and potable water.

Use of bio mass is fa vor able in the low plains of Pannonia ba sin. Here ag ri cul turalres i dues such as, sun flower, soy bean, rape seed, and beans (shown in fig. 5) are plen ti ful*.Fruit res i dues are avail able all over WB, while ol ive res i dues could be found in the coastalre gions. In the moun tain ous for ested re gions (and par tially in plains), for est res i dues andwood waste from wood pro cess ing in dus try (fig. 6) could be re cov ered in large quan ti ties.This bio mass could be used for the pur pose of dis trict heat ing and, on a smaller scale, elec -tric ity pro duc tion. Some of the coun tries al ready use en ergy from the bio mass e. g. Ser bia[15]. One of the re cent ex am ples of bio mass use is the con struc tion of 3 MW fur nace (cig a -rette-type, do mes tic pro duc tion) burn ing soy straw (in forms of jumbo bales, 2 m height, di -

20


Figure 5. Agricultural biomass potential [t](a) sunflower, (b) soybean, (c) rapeseed, (d) beans

* The figures showing usable biomass are calculated based on existing (at the time of evaluation) arable land and donot take into account potential agricultural land, which is not yet developed

am e ter 1.2 m) com menced in ag ri cul ture in dus try farm PKB-Padinska Skela, near Bel grade, Ser bia. The fa cil ity will servefor heat ing of green house.

En ergy po ten tial from bio mass iscon sid er able and it is ex pressed as theen ergy ca pa bil ity (in GWh) given infig. 7. This rep re sents the max i mumelec tric ity that could be pro duced fromthe planned and po ten tial bio mass co--gen er a tions and biogas units. It is es ti -mated that in BiH bio mass will be thesec ond most im por tant re new ablesource of en ergy af ter large hy dro elec -tric fa cil i ties.

Bio mass co-gen er a tion fa cil i tieshave rel a tively low en ergy pro duc tioncosts, com pa ra ble to those of large hy -dro and wind power plants. But un likethe wind farms, power pro duc tion fromthe bio mass has higher so cial ben e fits in terms of in creased em ploy ment of lo calworkforce and ad di tional ac tiv i ties for farm ers that will pro duce raw ma te rial.

In ad di tion, the sig nif i cant en ergy po ten tial of waste should be men tioned.Waste ma te ri als con sid ered here in clude: mu nic i pal solid waste, sewer sludge, land fillgas, solid and liq uid ma nures from live stock farms and ab at toirs. Gen er ally, waste re cov -

21


Figure 7. Energy capability of potentialbiomass facilities [GWh]

Figure 6. Woody biomass potential(a) forest area [ha], (b) annual production of wood assortment (logs, firewood, wood residue) [m3]

ery has been ne glected in WB coun tries and hence waste was al most un used as an en ergysource. Dif fer ent WB coun tries are cur rently mak ing ef forts to es tab lish their waste man -age ment sys tems. Among other things, they an tic i pate the en ergy re cov ery of waste (thatpart of the waste that can not be re cy cled or used in other ways). It can be ex pected that the im por tance of this sec tor will grow in the near fu ture.

Cer tainly, some neg a tive as pects of bio mass and waste com bus tion, such as airpol lu tion, should be kept in mind. Bio mass, al though con sid ered as re new able fuel andCO2 neu tral, can cause lo cal air pol lu tion if the prod ucts of com bus tion are not treated ad -e quately. There fore, a ba sic re quire ment when burn ing bio mass and solid waste is to en -sure ap pro pri ate flue gas clean ing and con trol sys tems, which will sat isfy lim it ing val uesof emis sions pre scribed by law. An es pe cially sen si tive is sue in solid waste com bus tion is the emis sion of toxic or ganic sub stances like di ox ins and fu rans that should be mon i toredvery care fully.

Hy dro po ten tial is tra di tion ally the most ex ploited re new able en ergy re source inall WB coun tries. Some coun tries, e. g. Al ba nia, are even overdependent on hy dro power(98% of to tal elec tric ity pro duc tion), which could re sult, in poor hy dro log i cal con di tions, in short ages.

The large hy dro power plants, al though be long ing to cen tral ized power gen er a -tion, are in cluded in this anal y sis for the pur pose of cost com par i son. It is not sur pris ingthat the cost of elec tric ity pro duced from the big hy dro power plants is the low est of allRES. The same how ever, does not stand for the small hy dro power plants. The small hy -dro power plants are of sizes less than 10 MW. De pend ing on the spe cific case they couldex hibit sub stan tial costs.

One part of hy dro po ten tial suit able for large hy dro power plants is per ma nentlylost due to ur ban, en vi ron men tal, and eco nomic lim its, or due to sig nif i cant tour ist po ten -

tial of rivers in WB re gion. Some of theWB coun tries still have a cer tain num -ber of un de vel oped sites where largepro jects could fit in. In most cases theen ergy ca pa bil ity of po ten tial (large)hy dro power plants re fers to an in creaseof ca pac ity/ca pa bil ity of al ready ex ist -ing fa cil i ties (ad di tional or im provedunits) and only at sev eral lo ca tions com -pletely new large hy dro power plantswill be built. Fig ures 8 and 9 show en -ergy ca pa bil i ties of po ten tial large andsmall hy dro power plants. In somecoun tries the con struc tion of new largerhy dro power plants is meet ing fierce op -po si tion of lo cal com mu ni ties and en vi -ron men tal non-gov ern men tal or ga ni za -tions. For ex am ple, even small hy dropower plant pro jects in Croatia are con -

22


Figure 8. Energy capability of potential largehydro power plants [GWh]

fronted with strong pub lic re sis tance due to in creased en vi ron men tal con scious -ness. There fore, the list that de fines thequite sig nif i cant hy dro po ten tial of small hy dro power plants, shown in fig. 9, willhave to be re vised.

Conclusions

The re moval of geo graph ical con -straints to the de liv ery of power (re centreconnection of South-East Eu rope intoa sin gle UCTE sys tem), the grad ual lib -er al iza tion of en ergy mar kets, the pri vat -iza tion of the util ity com pa nies and newen vi ron men tal leg is la tion in tro duce new fac tors into the con ven tional power sys -tems of WB coun tries. Thus, se cu rity ofen ergy sup ply, cli mate change mit i ga -tion and eco nomic com pet i tive ness (elec tric ity and gas mar ket de reg u la tion) open a pos -si bil ity for a novel con cept of dis persed power gen er a tion that could eas ily co ex ist withthe con ven tional cen tral ised sys tems in fu ture. The RES tech nol o gies, whether they ex -ploit wind, hy dro or so lar power, geo ther mal heat, bio mass and waste ma te ri als, havemany ben e fits like en ergy re source di ver si fi ca tion, de creased fos sil fuel use, and re ducedper unit GHG emis sions. How ever, con struc tion and uti li za tion of dis persed en ergysources should not di min ish the sig nif i cance of the con ven tional sources to main tain thein teg rity of power sys tem. In line with nu mer ous ad van tages of de cen tral ized pro duc tion, some of DEG-RES sys tems (wind, so lar, bio mass CHP) are char ac ter ized by their lim i ta -tion in pro vid ing an cil lary ser vices as well as fol low ing the daily con sump tion curve.Avail abil ity of wind and so lar PV con ver sion sys tems pro duc tion de pends on the me te o -ro log i cal con di tions, whereas elec tric ity pro duc tion in bio mass co-gen er a tion fa cil i ties is de ter mined by the lo cal heat re quire ments. As a re sult of the in creased share of dis persedsources, an in creased re serve ca pac ity will be re quired.

An in ter mit tent na ture of re new able sources can be par tially mit i gated by ap ply -ing dif fer ent en ergy stor age sys tems or en ergy car ri ers such as high ca pac ity bat ter ies(new tech nol o gies and elec tro lytes, flow bat ter ies) up to sev eral tens of MWh, ca pac i tors, fly wheels, com pressed air sys tems, re vers ible hy dro sys tems, and hy dro gen (fuel cells),which could pro vide power when it is needed.

The DEG based on RES in WB will find its niche eas ier for the us ers that willpro duce elec tric ity for their own needs and for the us ers lo cated in re mote ru ral ar easwhere there is no elec tric ity net work or the net work ca pac ity is in suf fi cient (off-grid ap -pli ca tions). The us ers (most likely small com pa nies) that pro duce heat and/or power for

23


Figure 9. Energy capability of potential smallhydro power plants [GWh]

their own use (like ag ri cul ture, wood and food pro cess ing in dus try) could thus con troland re duce their costs for en ergy and achieve some sort of en ergy in de pend ence (e. g. ap -ply ing co-gen er a tion plant that uses bio mass). They could also be grid-con nected,islanded (off-grid) or em bed ded (in which case the ex tra gen er a tion could be sold to re -tailer).

Ex am ples of po ten tial ap pli ca tion of DEG based on RES in WB could in clude:– hotels and apartment houses, restaurants, auto-camps, nautical marinas, sports and

entertainment centers, chalets, also some facilities in rural and hunting tourism – ingeneral all tourist facilities that are situated in remote isolated areas on islands and inmountains where there is no possibility of network connection or it would be tooexpensive to connect or is not permitted by environmental laws (e. g. in national parks and nature reserves),

– cooling facilities for temporary storage of fish, meat etc., field ambulances (forelectrical medical appliances and cooling of medicines), electrical fences forlivestock ranching, autonomous electrical livestock/game feeders and water-troughs,for lighting and operation of agricultural facilities, hatcheries,

– irrigation in deltas of rivers, water desalination on islands,– telecommunication (base) stations, meteorological stations, lighthouses, road signs,

public lighting, different autonomous monitoring systems (pollutant emissionmonitoring, forest fire protection, technical protection of individual facilities etc.),

– households (permanent and weekend settlements) in isolated and rural areas(mountainous and coastal/island regions),

– saw mills situated near small rivers, in which power from the small hydro powerplants could be used, and

– hybrid combination of solar systems or wind turbines with liquefied petrol gas ordiesel aggregates could help solve the problem of energy infrastructure on islands and other remote locations. Furthermore, that could start development of traditional island activities with the engagement of local resources and workforce, which could, in turn,reduce depopulation of islands.

If ex ter nal costs con nected with global cli mate change and lo cal pol lu tion arein cluded in the cost of elec tric ity from con ven tional sources, which could reach up to10 c€/kWh (for coal power plants, ex ter nali ties in cluded), then the pro duc tion of elec -tric ity from re new able sources be comes quite at trac tive. The uti li za tion of these re -sources could also help the WB coun tries meet their Kyoto Pro to col re quire ments, withthe con di tion that the ad e quate in cen tives are pro vided.

Acknowledgments

This work was car ried out as a part of the ADEG “Ad vanced De cen tral ised En -ergy Gen er a tion Sys tems in West ern Bal kans” pro ject, fi nanced by the Eu ro pean Com -mis sion through INCO pro gram of 6th FRAMEWORK PROGRAM [12].

24


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Authors' addresses:

D. R. Schneider, N. Dui}, Ž. Bogdan, M. BanFaculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture,University of Zagreb5, I. Lu~i}a, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia

I. RaguzinMinistry of Economy, Labour and Entrepreneurship78, Ulica grada Vukovara, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia

B. Grubor, P. Stefanovi}, D. Daki}, B. Repi}, Ž. Stevanovi}, A. Žbogar,M. Studovi}, S. Nemoda, N. Oka, D. Djurovi}, N. Kadi}, V. Baki},S. Beloševi}, A. Eri}, R. Mladenovi}, M. PaprikaVIN^A Institute of Nu clear Sciences P. O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia

N. Delali}, A. Leki}, R. Bajramovi}, A. Teskeredži}, I. Smajevi},E. Džaferovi}, F. Begi}, H. Luli}, S. Metovi}, S. Petrovi},A. Djugum, Dž. Kadri}, N. Hodži}, F. Kuli}, A. Kazagi}, A. Gafi}Mechanical Engineering Faculty, University of Sarajevo9, Vilsonovo šetalište, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Corresponding author D. R. SchneiderE-mail: [email protected]

Paper submitted: July 21, 2006Paper revised: March 31, 2007Paper accepted: April 10, 2007

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