Manufacturing Yogis Swami Vivekananda as a Yoga Teacher

Manufacturing Yogis: Swami Vivekananda as a Yoga Teacher

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UniversityPressScholarshipOnlineOxfordScholarshipOnline

GurusofModernYogaMarkSingletonandEllenGoldberg

Printpublicationdate:2013PrintISBN-13:9780199938704PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:January2014DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199938704.001.0001

ManufacturingYogis:SwamiVivekanandaasaYogaTeacherDermotKillingley

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199938704.003.0002

AbstractandKeywords

SwamiVivekananda(18631902)wasthefirstIndiantoteachyogaintheWest.Thisstudyexamineshislifeandbackgroundandhisparticipationinthe1893ParliamentofReligions,showingthatteachingyogawasnotpartofhisplaningoingtherebutwasratheraresponsetolocaldemand.ThedemandforyogateachingintheUnitedStatesdependsonideasthatwerecurrentinageneralexpansionofpopularknowledgeaboutIndia.Vivekanandahadacriticalattitudetoyoga,particularlytothedevelopmentofsupranormalpowers.HeusedtheYogastraasabasisbutshowedlittleinterestinsomepartsofit.TheothertextheusesasanauthorityforyogaistheBhagavad-Gt.Withthesetwotexts,orselectedpartsofthem,hedevelopstworecurrentandinterrelatedthemes:ahierarchyofreligions;andadistinctiveinterpretationofthetheoryofevolution.

Keywords:Vivekananda,Yoga,Yogastra,Theosophy,Evolution

Introduction


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SwamiVivekananda(18631902),thefirstteacherofyogaintheWest,hasbeencalledthecreatoroffully-fledgedModernYoga(DeMichelis,2004:90).Thewordscreatorandmodernaresignificant;hedidnotsimplybringyogafromIndiatotheWest.Hehadnotbeentrainedinanyyogaschool,andmuchofwhathesaidaboutyogawasdevelopedwhenhewasalreadyintheWest.Tosaythisisnottoquestionhisauthenticity,stilllesshissincerity,buttopointoutthecomplexityofhispositioninthehistoryofIndianandWesternthoughtandofmodernyoga.Beforediscussinghisyogateachingindetail,weneedtolookatthecircumstancesinwhichittookplace:hisbackgroundinIndiaandhiscareerintheWest,startingwiththeParliamentofReligionsinChicagoinSeptember1893.WeshouldalsoconsiderwhatwasalreadyknownandthoughtaboutyogaintheWest,particularlyintheUnitedStates.

VivekanandasLifeVivekanandawasbornin1863amongtheEnglish-educatedbourgeoisieofCalcutta(nowKolkata).HisbirthnamewasNarendranathDatta;butheisreferredtothroughoutthischapterasVivekananda,themonasticnamebywhichhewasknownwhenhewenttoAmericaandfortherestofhislife.SoonafterhegraduatedfromCalcuttaUniversityin1884,thesuddendeathofhisfather,asuccessfullawyer,plungedthefamilyintopoverty,withVivekananda(p.18) asitshead.HebecameafolloweroftheuncouthbutinfluentialsaintRamakrishna(1836?1886).AfterRamakrishnasdeath,Vivekanandaandsomeotherfollowersbecamesanysins,andfrom1888to1893hewanderedthroughIndia.InJune1893hesailedfortheUnitedStates,wherehespokeattheParliamentofReligionsinChicago(Seager,1995).Afterhissuccessthere,hetouredAmerica,givinglecturesonHinduismandbuildingafollowing,mainlyinNewYork.InAugust1895hesailedtoLondonandgavetalksthere,returninginDecember.InApril1896hesailedagaintoLondon;inDecemberhesailedtoIndia,landinginColomboonJanuary15,1897.InMayheorganizedhisfollowersintotheRamakrishnaMissioninBelurMah,Calcutta.In1899heagainvisitedLondonandtheStates,returninginDecember1900toBelur,wherehediedin1902.


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Figure1.1 :PhotoportraitofVivekananda.(CourtesyofWikiCommons.)

VivekanandasBackgroundCalcuttainthenineteenthcenturywasamarketplaceofideas,offeringmanyofthewaresthatwerecurrentintheBritishIslesandNorthAmerica.Thiswasmadepossiblethroughdevelopmentsincommunications,includingprinting,steamtravelbyrailandsea,andchangesintheuseofvernacularlanguages.These,togetherwiththegrowingclassofpeoplefamiliarwithEnglish,made(p.19) possibletheall-IndialecturetoursoftheBrahmoSamajleaderKeshubChunderSen(18381884),1hisassociatePratapChandraMozoomdar(18401905),andlaterVivekananda.

Theeducationsystem,inwhichEnglishwasthedominantlanguage,providedabodyofknowledgewithwhichalimited,largelyurbanpubliccouldbeexpectedtobemoreorlessfamiliar.Atthesametime,communicationwithIndiaspastwasfacilitatedbyphilologicalandarcheologicalresearch,theprintingofSanskritandotherIndianlanguagetexts,translationsintoEuropeanlanguages,andhistoricalandliterarystudies.TheBuddhaandhisteachings,whichhadbeenknownmainlytopaitsthroughtherefutationsfoundinbrahmanicalliterature,becameaseriousoptionforreligiousseekers.

Likemanyofhisclass,VivekanandaspokeandreadBengaliandEnglish;hewasalsofluentinSanskrit.HebecameoneofthemostsuccessfulexportersofIndianideasinmoderntimes,reachingawidermarketthanhispredecessorssuchasRammohunRoyorevenKeshub.DemandintheEnglish-speakingworld,especiallytheUnitedStatesandEngland,forwisdomfromtheEastwhichoftenmeantIndia,theeasterncountrywithwhichtheUnitedKingdomwasmostcloselyconnectedpoliticallyandintellectuallyledto


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hissuccess.ThisdemandmotivatedtheParliamentofReligionsof1893,whereVivekanandahadhisfirstpublicsuccessintheWest.ThedichotomybetweenEastandWestwasanorganizingprincipleforVivekananda(Brekke,2002:48),butEasthereishardlyageographicalterm:hecametoChicagofromthewest,acrossthePacific.

Vivekananda,Keshub,andRamakrishnaAsastudent,VivekanandawasamemberoftheBrahmoSamaj,andlikeotherBrahmoshewasdrawntoRamakrishna.Whenhisfatherdied,Vivekanandasresponsibilitiesincludedperformingritualsforthedead.Thisledtoareligiousstrugglewithinhim,sincetheSamajcondemnedtheseritualsintheirtraditionalform.HeturnedagaintoRamakrishnaandbecamehisclosefollower.

VivekanandapresentshimselfasRamakrishnasforemostdisciple,authorizedbyhimtogivehismessagetotheworld,andderivinghisdoctrinesfromhim.HereferstohimrepeatedlyashisMaster,andattributesallhisownachievementstohim(TheCompleteWorksofSwamiVivekananda[hereafterCW]:3.312).Inparticular,Vivekanandaattributestohimseveralrecurrentmotifsofhisownteaching.OnesuchmotifistheharmonynotonlyofallthedoctrinaltraditionsofIndia(CW:3.2333.348;4.107),butofallreligionsoftheworld(CW:6.469);theseareallpathstothesamegoal,asRamakrishnahimselfhasexperiencedbytryingthemallinturn(CW:8.79).Anothersuchmotifistheuseofadvaitavedntaasthekeytoreconcilingconflictingdoctrines;anotheristhemoralimperativetohelpthepoor.ThisviewoftherelationofVivekanandas(p.20) teachingstothoseofRamakrishnaispresentedinthebiographiespublishedbythetwinorganizationsthatcarryonVivekanandaswork:theRamakrishnaMathandtheRamakrishnaMission.

CriticalstudieshaveshownthatthisviewpresentsaninadequatepictureofthepersonalityandinfluenceofRamakrishna(Neevel,1976)andofthesourcesofVivekanandasideas(Beckerlegge,2000;DeMichelis,2004:91110).Itisespeciallyquestionedwhetheradvaitavednta,whichforVivekanandaistheultimatetruthunderlyingallHindutraditionsandallthereligionsoftheworld,wasthebasisofRamakrishnasthought,andwhetherRamakrishnasetanyvalueonsocialaction,whichisimportantintheworkoftheMahandMission,thoughVivekanandasownattitudetoitwasambivalent.HisthoughtowesmuchtotheBrahmoSamajandperhapseventoFreemasonry,whichhealsojoinedinhisyouth(DeMichelis,2004:97100).Later,hedespisedtheBrahmosfortheirconformitytoBritishwaysofthinking(CW:8.477-8),andregardedMozoomdar,whorepresentedtheSamajattheParliament,asanobstacletohisworkintheStates(CW:5.31;6.282).WhenwritingforaBengalireadership,hecouldneverthelesscounttheBrahmoSamajamongthegreatreligiousmovementsofIndia(CW:4.462f.).HecontrastedKeshubunfavorablywithRamakrishna(CW:7.16),andthebiographiespublishedbytheRamakrishnamovementfollowhiminemphasizingtheroleofRamakrishnainhisdevelopment,attheexpenseoftheBrahmoSamaj.But,asweshallsee,someofhisideasmatchKeshubs,andhepresentedtheminanidiomwhichKeshubwouldhaverecognized,butwhichRamakrishna,evenifhehadknownEnglish,wouldnot.

Vivekanandatakeslibertieswithhisownbiography.InatalkinCaliforniainSeptember


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1900,forinstance,hedescribeshow,whenhewasaboutsixteen(CW:8.79),heandahandfulofboysgatheredatthefeetofRamakrishna,anoldman,andwereinspiredbyhimtoworkforUniversalreligionandtohavegreatsympathyforthepoor.Butthencamethesaddaywhenouroldteacherdied(CW:8.80).NextcomesthedeathofVivekanandasfather.Vivekananda,standingbetweenthetwoworldsofhisdestitutefamilyandhisbereftbandofyoungmonks,withtheirtaskforthegoodofIndiaandtheworld,foundsympathyonlyfromRamakrishnaswidowSarada(CW:8.81).Therefollowedtenyearsofwandering,afterwhichhedeterminedtogotoChicago(CW:8.84-5).

Thechronologyofthistouchingstoryisskewedatseveralpoints.Ramakrishnawashardlyold:hewasforty-five,oratmostforty-eight,whenVivekanandafirstmethim,andfiftytofifty-threewhenhedied.2Vivekanandawasnotsixteenbuteighteenattheirfirstmeeting,andtwenty-onewhenhebecameafull-timefollower.Thatwasafterhisfatherdied,contrarytowhathisnarrativeimplies.TheintervalbetweenRamakrishnasdeathonAugust16,1886,andVivekanandasembarkationonJune30,1893,allowslessthansevenyearsofwandering,notten.(InanearlierspeechheclaimstohavetravelledtwelveyearsalloverIndia(p.21) (CW:3.226).)Thechronologicallibertiesentailothers:itwastoRamakrishna,nottoSarada,thatVivekanandaturnedwhenhisfatherdied.

Theseinaccuraciescanbeexcusedbythecontext:Vivekanandawasgivingatalk,notwritinganautobiography.Hehadintendedtotalkaboutvedntabuthadbeenaskedinsteadtotalkabouthisworkandwhathehadbeendoing.This,hesays,isnotsuchaninterestingsubjecttohimastohishearers:thiswillhavebeenthefirsttimeinmylifethatIhavespokenonthatsubject(CW:8.73).Thisdisarmingintroduction,whichitselftakessomeautobiographicalliberties,3providessomeexcuseforlackofprecision.Thesameexcuseappliestomostofhispublishedworks:theyaretalkstakendownbyothers,andtheirstructureisrhetoricalratherthanlogical.Theymovequicklyfromonepointtoanother,astheargumentrequires,explainingnomorethanisneededinthecontext.Thecontextincludestheculturalbackgroundoftheaudience,sothatVivekanandasaysdifferentthingstoIndian,AmericaandBritishaudiences.Oftenthesamepointappearsdifferentlyindifferenttalks,andweneedtocompareseveralversions,eachpresentingthesamepointinincompleteform,tounderstandhisargument.Asastudenthehadbeenomnivorousratherthanthoroughormethodical(DeMichelis,2004:96),andthistraitappearsinhisworks.

KeshubhadalreadymetRamakrishnain1875,anditwasthroughtheBrahmoSamajthatVivekanandacametoknowhimin1881.KeshubsmeetingwithRamakrishnapromptedanincreasingacceptanceofHinduideasandpractices,asshownbyhisspeechesduringthelastnineyearsofhislife.VivekanandaconfessesthatheusedtoobjecttoidolatryatypicallyBrahmoattitudeuntilhelearnedotherwisefromRamakrishna(CW:3.218).ItwasRamakrishna,too,whowonhimovertotheworshipofKl,aftersixyearsofstruggleagainstit(CW:8.263).4

Inseveralways,VivekanandasmethodsresembleKeshubs.Bothwereflamboyantcharacterswhousedtheirgiftsformusicanddramaintheirpreaching.Bothusedthe


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opportunitiespresentedbysteamtravelwithinIndiaandoverseas,bytheEnglishlanguage,andbythefamiliarityoftheirhearerswithsomefeaturesofWesternsecularthought,Christianity,variousHindutraditions,andtosomeextentBuddhismandIslam.Bothbelievedthatsocialproblemscouldbesolvedonlybyspiritualmeans.Bothwerespeakersratherthanwriters,andtheirpublishedworkshavetobeexaminedasrhetoricratherthansustainedargument.Thatis,eachnotonlysetsforththeideasthatareinhismindbutalsomanipulatesideasthatarealreadyinthemindsofhisaudience.TheseideasincludethepolarityofspiritualEastandmaterialWest,theharmonyofreligionandscience,humanpotential,andevolution.

Ontheotherhand,KeshubshowsnoneofVivekanandasfluencyinSanskritandextensiveknowledgeofSanskritliterature.NorishesoconcernedtoanchorhisteachinginHindutradition.WhileinvokingelementsfromtheBibleandEuropeanhistoryaswellasfromIndia,heemphasizesthenewnessofhisteachinganditsfreedomfromanyethnicidentity.Vivekananda,ontheother(p.22) hand,emphasizestheantiquityofhisteachingandclaimsthatwhileitistobefoundintheoriginalformsofallreligions,onlyvedntapreservesitinitspurity.

WhileKeshubstreatmentofyogaismuchmoregeneralthanVivekanandas,hegivesitanimportantplace.HisNewDispensationisnotonlytheharmonyofallscripturesandallsaintsandallsects...ofreasonandfaith...oftheeastandthewest;itisalsotheharmonyofyogaandbhakti(Scott,1979:344).HeassociatesyogawithhisowninterpretationofthedivinityofJesus,whichhesaysmustbeframedinIndiantermsifIndiansaretoacceptit.Accordingly,ChristisatrueYogi,andhewillsurelyhelpusrealizeournationalidealofaYogi;ChaitanyaandGuruNanakembodythesameideal(p.215).ThetermyogidenotesnotonlywhatChristisbutalsowhathisfollowersaretobecome.Hewillcometoyouasself-surrender,asasceticism,asYoga,asthelifeofGodinman,asobedientandhumblesonship(p.217).Keshubdoesnottelluswithanyprecisionwhathemeansbyyoga,butitseemsthat,likeVivekananda,heregardsthemeaningjoinoftherootyujasakeytoit,indicatingaunionofthehumanwiththedivine.Yogaiscommunion(p.266),andChristslifewasonecontinuedyogaorcommunionwiththeHeavenlyFather(p.332).ThecrucifixionmeansYogaposture,humanitydeadyetalive(p.295).

MissiontotheWestVivekanandaknewtheHindutraditionfarmoredeeplythanKeshub,andanchoredhisteachingmuchmoresecurelyinit.HisneedtodosofollowsbothfromhismissiontotheWestandfromtheplanofcampaign(CW:3.207227),whichheannouncedonhisreturnin1897:toregenerateIndiausingherownresources.InhisfirstspeechtotheParliamentofReligions,heannouncedhimselfasrepresentingthemostancientorderofmonksintheworld;...themotherofreligions;and...millionsandmillionsofHindupeopleofallclassesandsects(CW:1.3;cf.Chowdhury-Sengupta,1998:26).HehadbeenincludedintheprogramoftheParliamentonlyasaresultofnegotiationsafterhisarrivalintheStates,buthislackoforganizationalbackingmarkedhimasgenuinelyanduniversallyHindu,unliketheBrahmorepresentativeMozoomdar,whoseattendancehad


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beenarrangedinadvance.5RatherthanquestiontheuseofthemultivalenttermHindutocoverthevarious,sometimesconflicting,religioustraditionsofIndia,Vivekanandaexploiteditasstandingforareligionwhichhastaughttheworldtoleranceanduniversalacceptance(CW:1.3).

VivekanandahadnotsetoutfortheWestwiththeintentionofbecomingayogateacher.6Indeed,hemaynothaveintendedtobeateacheratall;attheParliamentofReligions,andinhisfirstlecturetours,hewasnotsomuchateacherasanadvocate.HebecameateacherduringhisstayintheStates,inresponsetothereceptionhefound,andhedevelopedhisteachingduringthattime(Raychaudhuri,1998;Burke,1966;Killingley,1998).Ithasbeen(p.23) saidthathehadtobeanauthenticHinduevenifitmeantmakingitupashewentalong(Hatcher,1999:48).Theideaofteachingyogamayhaveoccurredtohiminthecourseofthatdevelopment;thereisnoindicationofitinthespeechestotheParliament,orintheadmittedlyslightrecordsfromthetimebeforehecrossedtheseas.

TheevidenceforVivekanandasintentionsin1893isnotentirelyclear,butinadditiontogoingtotheParliamenthewantedtoraisefundsforreliefworkinIndia(Raychaudhuri,1998:4).ThisistheaimhedeclaredinaconfrontationalspeechtotheParliament:Icameheretoseekaidformyimpoverishedpeople,andIfullyrealisedhowdifficultitwastogethelpforheathensfromChristiansinaChristiancountry(CW:1.20).OnhisreturntoIndia,hesaidagainthathehadgonenotfortheParliamentofReligionsbutoutofaferventdesiretorelievethemiseryofhispeople(CW:3.226).ThoughheeventuallystayedintheWestforthreeandahalfyears,hehadnotintendedtobethereforsolong.However,aftertheParliamentendedinSeptember1893,hemadewell-paidlecturetours,arrangedbyanagency(Burke,1992:178179)andreportedinenthusiastic,ifillinformed,newspaperstories.ByMarch1894hewastiringofthelecturecircuit,mixingwithhundredsofvarietiesofthehumananimalandhavingtosuitanybodysoranyaudiencesfads(letterfromDetroit,March15,1894,3023).Instead,hewasbentuponseeingalittleofBostonandNewYork(letterfromDetroit,March12,1894,CW:8.301),rightlyexpectingmoreselect,stable,anddiscriminatingaudiencesthere.HewasalsodrivenbythehostilityofthesupportersofChristianmissions,whichgrewvehementfromlateFebruary1894(Burke,1966:289313).Accordingly,hemovedinAprilfromtheMidwesttotheEastCoast,andparticipatedintheannualconferenceofliberalChristiansinGreenacres,Maine(Jackson,1994:28).

FromJuly1894helecturedindependentlytovariousgroupsthatcanbedescribedascultic:7ChristianScientists,Spiritualists,Theosophists,occultists(DeMichelis,2004:112119).Hismotivesandimpressionsarepartiallyrevealedinhisletters.HetellshisfellowdisciplesinIndiathatheistheguestofbigpeoplehereandawidelyknownman(Bengaliletter,summer1894,CW:6.291),butheisbecomingwaryofacceptinghospitality,especiallyfromtherich(letterfromFishkillLanding,NewYork,toMrs.Hale,hismother,ashecalledher,inChicago,July1894,CW:8.314).ThelettersshowthathispurposeinAmericaisshifting.InJune1894hewrotetoIndiathatprimarilymycominghasbeentoraisefundsforanenterpriseofmyown:toeducateandraisethemasses


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ofIndia(letterfromChicago,June20,1894,CW:8.306).ButinFebruary1895heisbeginningtofeelthattheoldsageswererightinforbiddingsanysinstocollectfunds(lettertoMrs.OleBull,February14,1895,CW:6.299).InApril1895hewasteachingaJnanayogaclassof130studentsandtwootherweeklyyogaclassesof50each;soonhewouldbegoingtotheThousandIslands(ontheSt.LawrenceRiver)tofindpeaceandseclusionwithafewofhisstudentsandtomanufactureafew'Yogis'(letterfromNewYorktoMrs.OleBull,April25,1895,CW:6.306).Suchtalksonyogamust(p.24) havebeenundertakeninresponsetoagrowingAmericandemandforspiritualpracticesandtechniquesthatwouldyieldresults(DeMichelis,2004:118).

Inhislettersofthisperiod,Vivekanandaseemsuncertainabouthiscourseofaction,sometimesworriedaboutthenascentmovementhehasleftbehindinIndia,andgivingdetailedinstructionstohisfellowsanysinsthereabouttheirwork,theirfinances,andtheirhealth.Abouthisownworkhecanbeambitious,flippant,anddespondentbyturns.Totellyouthetruth,themoreIamgettingpopularityandfacilityinspeaking,themoreIamgettingfedup(lettertotheHalesisters,March12,1894,CW:8.301).ReadinghisspeechestotheParliamentofReligionsandthereportsoftheirreception,onewouldhardlyexpecthimsixmonthslatertoshowsuchlackofself-confidenceorsuchasenseofstillbeingalearner.JustasitcostCongresslakhsofrupeestokeepGandhiinpoverty,asSarojiniNaiduobserved,soittookmuchmotheringbywealthyAmericanladiestosupportVivekanandasmanlyself-reliance.

In1895,writingfromAmericatohisbrotherdisciplesinIndiaaboutthefutureexpansionoftheirashram,Vivekanandaproposesabighallfordailyreadingsandclasses,onedayforYoga,adayforBhakti,anotherforJnna,andsoforth(CW:6.324),evokingthetriadofyogasthat,withtheadditionofrjayoga,recursthroughouthiswork.ThissuggeststhathisplansforIndia,aswellashisteachingintheWest,hadbeendevelopinginthecourseofhisAmericantourandinthelightofhisexperiencethere.However,inhistalksandwritingsinIndiaafterhisreturn,thereislittleonyoga.EvenintheLecturesfromColombotoAlmoraof1897,inwhich,returningintriumphfromtheWest,hesetsouthisvisionsfortheregenerationofIndia,yogaandyogisreceiveonlysporadicmention.8ThoughAurobindoandGandhi,inmakingkarmayogapartoftheirschemesfornationalregeneration,werefollowingVivekananda(King,1980:5153),hemaderemarkablylittleuseofkarmayogainthatcontext.TwoofhistalksontheBhagavadGt(BhG)oneinBengaliin1897(CW:4.102110)andanotherinEnglishinCalcuttain1898(CW:5.246249)mentionyogafrequently,asmightbeexpectedfromtheirsubject.Butitappearsonthewholethatscheduledteachingonyogawasforexportratherthanhomeconsumption.

YogaintheWestbeforeVivekanandaThewordyogawasalreadycurrentinEnglishbyVivekanandastime,notonlyinspecialistliterature.In1843thePennyCyclopdiaincludedanarticleonyoga(Vol.27,p.657),whichbeginsbyderivingthewordfromtheSanscritradicalyuj,tojoin,andexplainingitasunionwiththeuniversalspirit(Paramtma)asimilarvednticunderstandingofthewordtoKeshubsandVivekanandas.9Thiswastheusual


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explanation;itwasnotuntil1925thatEdgertonstranslationdiscipline,justifiedbythecontextsinwhichthewordisusedaswellasbyetymology,becamegenerallyavailable.10Thewordyogi,invariousspellings,manyreflectingthepronunciationjogi,hadbeencurrentmuchlonger,often(p.25) withdisreputableconnotations.11However,untilVivekananda,yogahadbeenknownintheWestasanactivityoftheother,notassomethingtowhichWesternersmightaspire.EvenwhenHenryDavidThoreausaysthatrudeandcarelessasIam,Iwouldfainpracticetheyogafaithfullyandclaimstobeayogitosomeextent,andatrareintervals,12hisclaimisextravagant;heismakingatriptothefabledOrientinhisheadratherthanreportinganyactualpractice.

Monier-WilliamssIndianWisdom(1875)describesyogaonthebasisofPatajalisYogastras(YS),thoughheviewsitnegativelyasamerecontrivanceforgettingridofallthought(p.103)andaddsaccountsofthephysicalmortifications...popularlyconnectedwiththeYogasystem(p.103)andimpelledbyfaithinafalsesystem(p.104).HealsodescribesyogaasitappearsintheBhG,treatingitasaneclecticcombinationofskhya,yoga,vednta,andbhakti(p.137).HetranslatesyogaintheBhGasyoking(p.142,fn.3),butfollowstheusualinterpretationasreferringtounionwithGod.Thesepassages,inabookintendedtogiveeducatedEnglishmen...aninsightintothemind,habitsofthought,andcustomsoftheHinds(p.iii),providedanauthoritative,thoughunsympathetic,statementofsomeaspectsofthemeaningofyoga.Theyofferednoencouragementtotakeitup.

TheTheosophicalSociety,foundedbyHelenaPetrovnaBlavatsky,didmuchtopopularizeIndianideasandSanskritwords,includingthewordyoga.However,itpresentedyogaasanoccultscience.A.P.Sinnett,anEnglishjournalistinIndia,takinghisideasfromBlavatsky,describedyogaascultivatedbyabrotherhoodofadeptstobefoundallovertheEastbutmainlyinTibet(Sinnett,1881:24).TheinaccessibilityofTibetandtherelativeinaccessibilityoftheEastitself,nottomentionitslackofgeographicallocation,guaranteedtheoccultstatusofthisscience.SinnettinsistsonthedifferencebetweenyogaandtheloathsomeasceticismoftheordinaryIndianfakeer,theyogiofthewoodsandwilds(p.26).HealsodistinguishesbetweenHattiyog(hahayoga),whichismerephysicalexercises,andRagiyog(rjayoga),whichisapproachedbythedisciplineofthemind,andwhichleadstothehigheraltitudesofoccultism(p.27).However,theTheosophicalSocietydidnotencouragetheviewthatanyone,apartfromBlavatskyherselfandtheremotebrotherhoodofMahatmasinTibetwithwhomsheclaimedtocommunicate,couldbecomeanadept,soformostTheosophistsyogaremainedanactivityoftheother(DeMichelis,2004:118).Vivekanandarepudiatedsuchesoterism(e.g.,CW:1.134),insistingontheinherentpotentialofeveryperson;thisfittheideasofself-improvementthatwerecurrentintheAmericancirclesheaddressed.

ThePlaceofYogainVivekanandasMessageIntheRamakrishnamovement,yogaisthepracticalteachingunderpinnedbyvednta;itisthemeanstotheultimategoal(Jackson,1994:71).EitherofthesetermscoulddenoteVivekanandasteaching:thebookpublishedin(p.26) LondonasYogaPhilosophy(Vivekananda,1896)wasrepublishedintheStatesasVedantaPhilosophy.13Sincehe


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regardedallformsofspiritualstrivingasyoga,hisyogateachingisnotclearlydividedfromtherestofhisteaching.Morerecentyogaclasseshavebeenfilmedorethnographicallyreported,butVivekananda'sarehardertodescribe.TheyarepartiallyrecordedinhisCompleteWorks,intheformoftalkstakendownbyhisfollowers;afterVivekanandasreturntotheStatesfromEnglandinDecember1895,thiswasdonebythestenographerJosiahGoodwin(LifeofSwamiVivekanandabyHisEasternandWesternDisciples,1965[hereafterLife]:383).

Vivekanandasfirstattempttomanufactureyogis(CW:6.306,quotedpreviously)wasatThousandIslandPark,thecountryretreatofhisNewYorkfollowerMissDutcher,fromJune19toAugust6,1895.Sometalksgiventhereweretakendownbyoneoftheparticipants,MissS.E.Waldo,andpublishedasInspiredTalks(CW:7.3104).However,becausethecourselastedseveralweeksandMissWaldofounditwasnotpossibletotakenotes(Life:357;butseep.361),thisrecordisincomplete.TherecordedtalksincludepassageslooselybasedontheYSandtheBhGthetwotextsonwhichVivekanandareliedmostforauthorityinhisyogateachingandtheyalsorefertoothertexts.14However,theyrangeovermanytopics,whicharedevelopedelsewhereinhisworks.HetaughtthatallpathsleadtotheWhole(CW:7.6);allprophetsteachthesame(CW:7.17);Spiritisomnipresent(CW:7.7);truthisbeyondbooks(CW:7.9,53);truthiswithineachofus,needingonlytobeuncovered(CW:7.20,34,54,71);andoureffortscannotbenefittheworld(CW:7.102)buttheybenefitourselves(CW:7.9).HeexpoundedakarascommentaryontheVedntaStra(CW:7.32)andspokeextensivelyofRamakrishna(CW:7.2325)andoftheGoddess(CW:7.26)andhereandthereoftheBuddhaandJesus.

Evidentlythemanufactureofyogisisnotaroutineprocess;indeed,anysortofroutinewouldbecontrarytoVivekanandassoteriologyaswellashistemperament,sincethewaystoperfectionarecountlessandshouldbechosentosuittheneedsofdifferentpeople.Hisclasseswouldhardlyberecognizedasyogaclassestoday:asfaraswecansee,hisstudentssatonchairsintheirordinaryclothes.15EveninRja-Yoga,posturereceivesonlypassingmention(CW:1.137).Ifhehadgiventhemexercisesinpostureandbreathing,hisstudentswouldsurelyhavementionedsuchnovelties,butwhattheyreportistheblessedexperience(Life:365),fraught...withunusualopportunityforspiritualgrowth(p.357),ofbeinginhispresenceandhearinghimtalk,notforgettinghiscookery(pp.361,365).

Vivekanandasyogaclasses,besidesmeetinganAmericandemand,servedanagendaofhisown,whichhehadannouncedinChicago:toshowthatconflictbetweenreligionscouldberesolvedonlybyHinduism,ormorepreciselybyadvaitavedntaandnotbyChristianity,assomeparticipantsintheParliament,includingsomeofitsorganizers,supposed.Inhisfirstspeech,afterextollingHinduismforitstolerance,headded,Webelievenotonlyin(p.27) universaltoleration,butweacceptallreligionsastrue(CW:1.3).Thisacceptance,whichgoesbeyondtolerance,heexpressesinafreetranslationofBhG4.11:WhosoevercomestoMe,throughwhatsoeverform,Ireachhim;allmenarestrugglingthroughpathswhichintheendleadtome.16Heclaimsthatthisdoctrineis


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vindicatedbytheParliamentitself.Hecontraststhisacceptancewithsectarianism,bigotry...fanaticism(CW:1.4).

InalaterspeechtotheParliament,hepursuesthesamethemeinmoredetail.Hinduismembracesahierarchyofreligions,fromthehighspiritualflightsoftheVedantaphilosophy...tothelowideasofidolatry(CW:1.6).Thecommonbasisonwhichalltheseseeminglyhopelesscontradictionsrest(ibid.)isabeliefinaninfiniteandimmortalsoulandaformlessandalmightyGod,tobeworshippedthroughloveandrealized(akeywordofmodernHinduism,foundalsoinKeshub;DeMichelis,2004:139)throughthepureheart(pp.1.1013).ThisisthecommonreligionofallthesectsofIndia(p.1.3).Beforehisconcludinguniversalprayerandpaeantothemotherlandofliberty(p.1.20),hecongratulatesAmericaonproclaim[ing]toallquartersoftheglobethattheLordisineveryreligion(p.1.19).SincethisisthemessagehefindsinHinduism,heisineffectrecruitingtheParliamentofReligionsitselftohiscause.

RunningthroughthisspeecharesomeofVivekanandasrecurrentideas,whichhelptoexplainhisinterestinyoga.Heclaimsthathisapproach,andHinduismitself,isscientific:itrecognizesthelawsofourmentalconstitution(CW:1.16)andtheplanofnature(p.1.17);theVedasarenotbooksbutthelawsthatgovernthespiritualworld(p.1.7);scienceisnothingbutthefindingofunity;physicsseeksoneenergyofwhichalltheothersarebutmanifestations(p.1.14);manifestation,andnotcreation,isthewordofsciencetoday,anallusiontotheconservationofenergyandconservationofmassthatwereaxiomaticinthephysicsoftheperiod.Moreover,thisiswhattheHinduhasbeencherishinginhisbosomforages(p.1.15).Sinceeverythingismanifested,notcreated,perfectionmustbethemanifestationofsomethingthatalreadyexistedasapotentiality.Wearethereforenotsinnersbutheirsofimmortalbliss(CW:1.11);perfectionwillbereachedwhenthebondageofmatterwillburst(p.1.12).Thisideawasincorporatedin1904asoneofthetendoctrinesoftheVedantaSocietyofSanFrancisco(Jackson,1994:68).ItalsoinformsVivekanandasversionofevolution:everybeingcontainsinlatentform,orinvolvedashetermedit,17thebeingintowhichitwillevolve.ThisversionofevolutionunderliestheHinduacceptanceofallreligiouspaths,whetherhighorlowontheevolutionaryscale.Vednta,whichisthetrueHinduism,embracesdvaitarepresentedbyChristianityandIslamviidvaita,andadvaita,whicharethethreestagesofspiritualgrowthinman(lettertoAlasinga,May6,1895,CW:5.81).18Themanufactureofyogisisawaytospeeduptheprocessofevolution,toshortenthetimeforreachingperfection(p.1.157);VivekanandastaskinAmericaistocreateaneworderofhumanity(p.5.82).

(p.28) InassessingVivekanandasroleasaguruofyoga,weshouldnoticethathisattitudetosuchgurusisambivalent.Whileheconsidersyogauseful,itisonlyasameans;thetrueendisadvaitavednta.HeemphasizesPatajalisviewthatyogicpowers(siddhi)areanobstacletosamdhi(YS3.38;Vivekananda,1886:197,correspondingtoCW:1.281),andhecomplainsthattheonlyyogataughtinBengalisthequeerbreathingexercisesoftheHatha-Yogawhichisnothingbutakindofgymnastics(lettertoAkhandananda,CW:6.233).InFebruaryMarch1890,hespentsometimeinGhazipur,


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about40mileseastofVaranasi,visitingawell-knownascetic,PavhariBaba(p.6.219).Later,heincludedstoriesabouthimintalksintheWestandwroteabrief,largelyhomiletic,sketchofhislife(pp.4.283295),describinghimasoneofthegreatestMasters[Ihave]lovedandserved(p.4.295).Accordingtoatalkin1902,hisintentioninvisitinghimwastolearnhahayoga(thoughatthetimehehadcalledhimawonderfulRaja-Yogi;p.6.233),forthepurposeofmakingthisweakbodystrong,somethinghehadnotlearnedfromRamakrishna(p.7.242).ButRamakrishna(whohaddiedthreeandhalfyearspreviously)repeatedlyappearedtohim,silentlygrieving;thesevisionsdissuadedVivekanandafromtakinginitiationunderanotherGuru(p.7.243).Inaletterwrittennearerthetime,hemerelysaid:IshallnotgotoPavhariBabaoranyothersainttheydivertonefromhishighestpurpose(VivekanandatoSaradanandaandKripananda,July6,1890,CW:6.243).Inrecountinghisvisions,VivekanandaseemstorepentofapproachingPavhariBabaasanactofdisloyaltytoRamakrishna.

TheFourYogasOnethemeoftheInspiredTalksatThousandIslandParkisthesetoffouryogas,whichrunsthroughallVivekanandasyogateaching.Amongthecountlesswaystoperfection,thesefourhaveaspecialplace:everywayisakindofYoga,but...Bhakti,Karma,RajaandJnana-Yogagetoverthegroundmoreeffectively(CW:7.71).Vivekanandasometimesusesothertermsforthesefour.Love[bhakti]ishigherthanwork[karma],than[rja]Yoga,thanknowledge[jna](p.7.9).Thisshouldnotbereadasafixedhierarchicalorder.Theteachingmustbemodifiedaccordingtotheneedsofthetaught,whichdependontendenciesmoldedinpastlives.Ineachteachingsituationoneofthefouryogasintellectual[jna],mystical[rjayoga],devotional[bhakti],[and]practical[karma]shouldbemadethebasis,buttheothersshouldalsobetaught(p.7.98).AsanepigraphtohisbookYogaPhilosophy:LecturesonRjaYoga,heannouncesthatthegoalofmanifestingthedivinitywithincanbereachedeitherbywork[karma],orworship[bhakti],orpsychiccontrol[rjayoga],orphilosophy[jna],byone,ormore,orallofthese(Vivekananda,1896:v,reprintedinCW:1.124).

(p.29) Thefouryogas,likeotherfeaturesofVivekanandasideas,haveaprecedentinKeshub,whoin1876classifiedhismissionariesastheYogi,ortheadeptinraptcommunion,theBhakta,ortheadeptinrapturousloveofGod,theJnani,ortheearnestseekeroftrueknowledgeandtheShebak[Skt.sevakaserver,i.e.,thekarmayogi].Anotherreportliststhefourdepartmentsasyoga,gyn[jna],bhakti,andseba[sev]orkarma(DeMichelis,2004:87).19YogainKeshubsterminologycorrespondstoRajaYogainVivekanandas;Vivekanandahimselfsometimesusesyogainthissense,asintheaforementionedquotationfromCW:7.9,andinthetitleYogaPhilosophy.(Thisisconfusing,asyogainVivekananda,asalsointheBhG,oftenstandsforkarmayoga.)

Amongthefour,RajaYogastandsoutasgrammaticallydifferent,sinceunliketheothersitcannotbeshortenedtoRaja.InVivekanandasusage,andinmodernyogagenerally,itreferstotheYSanditsdoctrines,whichheinterpretsintermsofadvaitavednta.Thisidentification,thoughithasrootsinlatemedievalyogaliterature(Birch,


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2011:543),wasgivencurrencybyDvivedi's(1885)RjaYogaorthePracticalMetaphysicsoftheVedntaandwasfurtherpopularizedbyTheosophy(DeMichelis,2004:178).Theoppositionbetweenrjayogaandhahayoga,thoughcommonfromtheeleventhcentury,acquirednewmeaningwhennineteenth-centuryIndologistsassociatedthelatterwithself-torture(Birch,2011:527529);ittoowaspopularizedbyTheosophy(Schreiner,2011:765).Hahayoga,representedasphysicalandinferior,becameadustbininwhichtodumptheopprobriumheapedonyogaintheWest;purgedofthisopprobrium,rjayogaemergedasspiritualandsuperior.

SometimesVivekanandamentionsonlythreeyogas,omittingrjayoga.InoneofthetalkscollectedasKarma-Yoga(CW:1.27118),hementionsworktogetherwiththeBuddhaasanexemplaryjn20andChristasanexemplarybhaktabutnofourth(p.1.55).InthesamecollectionhesaysthattheYogasofwork,ofwisdomandofdevotionareallcapableofservingasdirectandindependentmeansfortheattainmentofMoksha(p.1.93),againomittingrjayoga;buthealsoreferstofourpathsofwork,love,psychologyandknowledge(p.1.108),21wherepsychologystandsforrjayoga.VivekanandatreatsPatajalisYS,hisauthorityforrjayoga,asapsychologicalwork;aspartofhisattempttorecruitWesternscienceinsupportofhismessage,heaskedthepsychologistandphilosopherWilliamJamestowriteaprefacetoYogaPhilosophy,butwithoutsuccess(DeMichelis,2004:171).

VivekanandadescribestheBhGasharmonizingYoga(meaningkarmayoga),jna,andbhakti(CW:4.106).ThistriadhasbeenusedsooftenasahermeneuticdevicebyinterpretersoftheBhGthatsomemodernwritersattributeittotheBhGitself(e.g.,DeMichelis,2004;Smith,2003:40),thoughnosuchtriadoccursinit.22

InVivekanandascollectedworks,thefouryogasprovidethetitlesoffoursections:Karma-Yoga(CW:1.27118);Bhakti-Yoga(CW:3:3169);JnnaYoga,basedontalksinLondon,May1896(Life:413)(CW:8.335);andRja-Yoga(p.30) (CW:1.120313).TheywerementionedinalettertoAlasingainMarch1896:Karma-yogawasalreadyout,23andRja-Yogawasinpress.HeseemedtoexpectBhakti-YogatobepublishedinIndiaandJna-YogainEngland(CW:7.490;cf.CW:8.373).24

Rja-YogawaspublishedunderthetitleYogaPhilosophy:LecturesonRjaYogainLondonwhileVivekanandawasinNewYork,andalthoughitwastakendownfromtalksheseemstohavepreparedthetexthimself.25Whileworkingonit,inDecember1895(CW:8.361;Killingley,1990:168),hewrotetohisEnglishsupporterSturdytobuyhimsomeSanskrittextsrelevanttoyoga;26thisisfurtherevidencethatyogateachinghadnotbeenpartofhisplaningoingtotheStates.Rja-YogahasthecleareststructureofVivekanandasworks.Anexpositionofagayoga,theyogaofeightlimbsformulatedinYS2.283.8,isfollowedbyaratherfreetranslation(Vivekananda,CW:1.122)oftheYSandanevenfreercommentary.Internalevidenceshowsthatitwasconceivedasaseriesoftalks.Thus,toexemplifyconcentration,theauthorsays,Youarelisteningtome(Vivekananda,1896:8,reprintedinCW:1.130);toshowhowpracticecanmakeactionsautomatic,hesays,Forinstance,mostofyouladiesplaythepiano(Vivekananda,1896:151,reprintedinCW:1.240).


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VivekanandasInterpretationoftheYogastrasTheYS,withtheBhG,providedthetextualauthorityanchoringVivekanandaintheHindutradition,whileRamakrishnaprovidedthepersonalauthority.However,ininterpretingtheseauthoritiesheadaptedthemtosomerecurrentthemesofhisownmessageandtothemesofpopularWesternthought.HisinterpretationoftheYS(CW:1.200304)usestheancientcommentaryYoga-bhya(hereafterYBh),attributedtoVysabutsometimesignoresitandsometimestakeslibertieswiththestrasthemselves.TextualauthoritywasneverabsoluteforVivekananda(Rambachan,1994),andhebaseshisteachingonhisownexperientialknowledge;however,astowhatIdonotknowIwillsimplytellyouwhatthebookssay(CW:1.134).Thisleaveshimfreetoreportdoctrinessuchasthemultiplicityofpuruas,withoutexplicitlyreconcilingthemtoadvaitavednta(CW:1.251).

HeclaimsthatPatajalisyogaisscientifictheclaimthathemadeinChicagoforHinduismsinceitexplainstheextraordinaryphenomenathatsurfacescientistsareunabletoexplain,andsodeny(CW:1.121).Hepresentsitintermsfamiliarinthepopularscientificdiscourseofhistime:matterandenergy;solids,liquidsandgases;molecules;vibrations;electricityandmagnetism.Oadhi(herbs)istranslatedchemicalmeans(Vivekananda,1896:206,reprintedinCW:1.289,onYS4.1).Saskras,thetracesleftbypreviouskarmathataffectthepredispositionsanddestinyofeachlivingbeing,areexplainedaswaves(Vivekananda,1896:152156,reprintedinCW:1.241245,onYS(p.31) 2.912);thewaveisarecurrentimageinthisandotherworks.Praisexplainedasnotmerelybreathbutalsothesourceofeverythingwecallenergy,everythingwecallforce...manifestingasgravitation,asmagnetism(Vivekananda,1896:31,reprintedinCW:1.147);itisthesum-totalofthecosmicenergy(Vivekananda,1896:184,reprintedinCW:1.267,onYS2.49).Atthesametime,theHindutraditionisshowntosupplywhatthescientificviewlacks.TheuniverseispresentedasconsistingofmatterandforcebutisilluminatedbythePurua(Vivekananda,1896:217,reprintedinCW:1.299,onYS4.18),whichisunknowntoWesternscience.Theadvaitacosmology,whichrunsthroughVivekanandasinterpretation(despitetheskhyadualismpresupposedbytheYS),findsanaffinitywithpopularWesternNeoplatonism(DeMichelis,2004:154).27

HeclaimsthatcontrolofPranaispartiallyunderstoodbycontemporarysectssuchasSpiritualists,ChristianScientists,Hypnotists,etc.(CW:1.149)butisfullyknownbytheyogi.However,heshowslittleinterestinyogicpowers.Though,asascientist,Patanjaliisboundtopointoutthepossibilitiesofthisscience,henevermissesanopportunitytowarnusagainstthesepowers(Vivekananda,1896:115,reprintedin211,onYS1.17).ThisaffectshistranslationofYS1.140,whichreferstovakra,impositionofoneswill.Vivekanandastranslation,TheYogsmindbecomesunobstructedfromtheatomictotheInfinite,suppressesthisreferencetoyogicpowers.InYS4.4,wheretheYBharguesthatwhenayogimultiplieshisbodyeachbodyhasaseparateconsciousness(citta),Vivekanandausesthestraforadiscussionofkarmaandtheinherentperfectionoftheself(Vivekananda,1896:211,reprintedinCW:1.293);heintroducesself-multiplication,somewhatobscurely,onlyinthenextstra.He


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avoidsthesubjectofclairvoyance(Vivekananda,1896:193,reprintedinCW:1.276,onYS3.1819).

Yoga,Rebirth,Evolution,andtheMeetingofReligionsVivekanandasometimesseemsuncertainastowhetherhishearersareabletograspalltheimplicationsofthedoctrineofrebirth,buthetakescaretoteachit.OneofhislongercommentsisonYS2.9(Vivekananda,1896:150153,reprintedinCW:1.239242;cf.2.220).TheYBhonthisstrausestheuniversalfearofdeathasevidenceforpreviousbirths:sinceitcannotresultfromperception,inference,orreport(pratyaka,anumna,abda),itcanbeexplainedonlybypreviousexperience(anubhava)ofdeath.Vivekanandapresentsasimplifiedformofthisargument(whichhehadalreadyusedinChicago;CW:1.9)andcontrastsitwithanideaheattributestotheWestthatthisclingingtolifeindicatesapossibilityofafuturelifethoughthisisenvisagedonlyforhumankind.Digressingfromthefearofdeath,hepassestootherindicationsofpreviousexperience:newlyhatchedchickenspickingupfoodorfearinghawks;(p.32) newlyhatchedducklingstakingtowater.Instinctisonlyaword,notanexplanation;modernscientistsattributeittothebody,buthepreferstheIndianexplanationofexperienceinpreviousbirths.Likethepianistspractice,whichhasmadeplayingautomatic,experiencehasbecomesaskra,sleepingintheChitta;fearofdeathisanotherexample.Thesearethecittavttis,mind-wavesasVivekanandacharacteristicallycallsthem,whichyogasetsouttocontrol(YS1.2).WhattheWestcallsinstinctandattributestoanimalsratherthantohumankindisaproductofconsciousactivitiesinthepast,usuallyinpreviouslives.Itisinvolvedreason(Vivekananda,1896:151,reprintedinCW:1.240;CW:2.221),usingtheterminvolvedinVivekanandasspecialsenseastheoppositeofevolved;healsocallsitdegeneratedreason(ibid.).

Heseemsmorereadytospeakintermsofprogressionthroughhigherandhigherbirthstoultimateperfection,astheTheosophistsdid,thanoflowrebirthsaspunishmentforsins,asfoundintextssuchasManu12.5481.ButherecognizedanaffinitybetweentheHinduideaofrebirth,whichplaceshumankindinahierarchythatincludesanimalsandplantsbelowusandvariousgradesofgodsabove,andthescientificideaofevolution.Evolution,includingLamarckiannotionsabouttheinheritanceofacquiredcharacteristics,wasthemostpowerfulscientificvocabularyoflatenineteenth-centuryandearlytwentieth-centuryAmerica(White,2009:98).Ithadbecomeanalternativewayofinterpretingtheuniverse,andanalternativerevelation,challengingthebiblicalone.VivekanandaandhereagainhewasprecededbyKeshub(Killingley,1995:190)evokeditinmanycontexts,includinghisYScommentary.ThoughDarwinisthenameheinvokes,hisviewofevolution,withitsinheritanceofconsciousactions,isLamarckian(Killingley,1995:192).

OnepassageintheYSthatVivekanandafindsparticularlyrelevanttoevolutionisYS4.23,whichusestheanalogyofafarmerirrigatingafieldbybreakingadamtoletthewaterfollowitsnaturalcourse.AccordingtotheYBh,thisanalogyshowshowayogientersanotherbody(Killingley,1990:157159).Vivekananda,ignoringthisexampleofyogicpowers,usesthepassagetopresenthisversionoftheevolutionarytheoryofthe


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ancientYogis(Vivekananda,1896:210,reprintedinCW1.292):amelioristicversionofevolution,incorporatinghisconceptofinvolution.

Soallprogressandpowerarealreadyineveryman;perfectionismansnature,onlyitisbarredinandpreventedfromtakingitspropercourse.Ifanyonecantakethebaroff,inrushesnature.Thenthemanattainsthepowerswhicharehisalready.Thosewecallwickedwillbecomesaints...Allthesepracticesandstrugglestobecomereligiousareonlynegativework,totakeoffthebars,andopenthedoorstothatperfectionwhichisourbirthright,ournature.(Vivekananda,1896:210,reprintedinCW:1.292)

EvolutionandinvolutionarethefoundationonwhichVivekanandabuildshisdoctrineoftheinherentthoughobstructedperfectionnotmerely(p.33) perfectibilityofeachperson.HavingproclaimedthisdoctrineinChicagoinoppositiontotheChristiandoctrineoforiginalsin,henowappliesittothemanufactureofyogis.Eachofus,andindeedeachlivingbeing,hasablissfulandinfiniteessence,whichcanbereleasedbybreakingthroughtheaccumulationofkarmaandavidy(ignorance),whichappearstolimitus.Yogawhichincludesallformsofspiritualstrivinghastensthisprocessofevolution.VivekanandafindsauthorityforthisinYS4.23,andthisisthepassageoftheYStowhichhereturnsmostfrequently(Killingley,1990:156,160163).

VivekanandasYogicLegacyTheyogaVivekanandataughtwashardlyfully-fledged;beingmoreinterestedindoctrinethanpractice,heleftittolatergurustointroducemoreformal,andmorerecognizablyyogic,practices.However,heensuredthatyogaintheWestwasnolongeronlyfortheother,andhehelpedtoformitsvocabulary.Heusedthewordyogaverywidelytorefertoallformsofspiritualstriving;hecouldcallanygreatreligiousfigure,suchasJesusortheBuddha,ayogi.Buthealsousedthewordyogiinaspecificsense,aswhenhesays:Themodernshavetheirevolution,andsohavetheYogis.ButIthinktheYogisexplanationisthebetterone(CW:5.277).Here,heisthinkingofourYogiPatajali(CW:3.406)andinparticularofhisowninterpretationofYS4.23.Thisinterpretation,whichcombinesevolution,theinnateperfectionofeachperson,aprogressiveviewofrebirth,andamelioristicviewofthefuture,becamethefoundationofhisprojectofmanufacturingyogis.

Vivekanandawasaguruinthemodernsense:ateacherwithalargeifilldefinedfollowing.Hisyogateaching,likehisstyleoflecturing,hisshowmanship,andhispolarizationofEastandWest,owedmorethanhewouldliketoadmittoKeshubChunderSen.However,whileKeshubsmessagewasauniversalreligionthatdrewonalltraditions,VivekanandaswasafulfillmentofalltraditionsthatonlyIndiacouldprovide,sinceonlyIndiaheldtheunifyingtruthofadvaitavedntaandthetechniquesofyoga.HisteachingalsoowedsomethingtoTheosophyandotheroccultmovements.ItsclaimtobescientificwasanappealnotsomuchtoscientistsastothoseinwhominterestinphenomenathatsciencewasunabletoexplainhadbeenarousedbySpiritualism,Theosophy,andthelike.

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Scott,DavidC.1979.KeshubChunderSen:ASelection.Madras:ChristianLiteratureSociety.

Seager,RichardHughes.1995.TheWorldsParliamentofReligions:TheEast/WestEncounter,Chicago,1893.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress.

Sinnett,A.P.1881.TheOccultWorld.London:Trbner.

Smith,David.2003.HinduismandModernity.Oxford:Blackwell.


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Versluis,Arthur.1993.AmericanTranscendentalismandAsianReligions.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Vivekananda.19621997.TheCompleteWorksofSwamiVivekananda.9volumes.Calcutta:AdvaitaAshrama.

.1896.YogaPhilosophy.LecturesDeliveredinNewYork,Winterof18956bytheSwmiViveknandaonRjaYoga,orConqueringtheInternalNature:AlsoPatajalisYogaAphorisms,withCommentaries.London:Longman.

White,ChristopherG.2009.UnsettledMinds:PsychologyandtheAmericanSearchforSpiritualAssurance,18301940.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.

Yule,Henry,andBurnell,A.C.1902[1886].Hobson-Jobson:AGlossaryofColloquialAnglo-IndianWordsandPhrases,andofKindredTerms,Etymological,Historical,GeographicalandDiscursive,2nded.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.

Notes

Notes:(1).TheBrahmoSamaj(theisticsociety)wasfoundedin1828byRammohunRoy,reshapedin1843byDebendranathTagore,andfurtherreshapedinthe1860sbyKeshubChunderSen.

(2).Mller(1898:30)givesthebirthdateasFebruary20,1833;otherdatesaregiveninearlysources.TheRamakrishnamovementfavorsFebruary18,1836(Neevel,1976:65).

(3).HehadtalkedbeforeabouthisworkandhisrelationswithRamakrishnain1895(CW:5.185188),1896(CW:4.177187),and1897(CW:3.208213,218).

(4).IfwetakeVivekanandaschronologyseriously(weneednot,asshownalready),thestrugglebeganin1878,beforeVivekanandasfirstmeetingwithRamakrishnain1881,andendedmid-1884,twoyearsbeforeRamakrishnasdeath.

(5).Icameherewithoutcredentials.HowelsetoshowthatIamnotafraudinthefaceofthemissionariesandtheBrahmoSamaj?(lettertoIndiafromChicago,June28,1894,CW:8.311).VivekanandawasnottheonlyHinduspeaker,thoughhewasbyfarthemosteloquentandmemorable.OtherswereManilalDvivedi(aTheosophist)fromBombayandNarasimhacharyafromMadras(Seager,1995:8183,106;Chowdhury-Sengupta1998:24).

(6).However,hisuseinChicago(CW:1.9)ofanargumentforrebirthreminiscentofYBh2.9,discussedfollowing,suggeststhathewasalreadyfamiliarwithYSandYBh.

(7).IfollowDeMicheliss(2004:3133)applicationofErnstTroeltschstypology.Acultandasectbothdifferfromachurchinthatmembershiptendsnottobeinheritedfrom


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thefamily,butacultisdistinguishedfromasectinbeinglooselystructured,withoutdefinedboundaries,andclaimingaspiritualfellowshipindependentofanyhumanorganization.

(8).CW:3.103461.There,hementionstheyogiasanidealperson(CW:3.134,138),callstheBuddhathegreatestKarma-yogi(CW:3.262),andsummarizeshisideathatthesiddhisarealreadypresentineveryoneandthatyogaonlymakesthemmanifest(CW:3.334).Ontheotherhand,heridiculesmeditationandbreathingexercises,perhapsstandingforhahayoga(CW:3.301).Otherwisethereisnothingonyoga.

(9).ThearticledescribesmeditationonthesyllableOm,asceticism,andthepursuitofmagicalpowers.PartofitistakenverbatimfromColebrooke(1858[1837]:158).

(10).EdgertonsstudyoftheBhG,foranonspecialistreadership,wasfirstpublishedin1925andappearedinarevisedformasvol.2ofhis1952publication.Hehadalreadydiscussedthemeaningofyogaindetail,translatingitvariouslyaccordingtocontextasmethod,exertion,disciplinedactivity(Edgerton,1924:3746).HeobservesthathisrejectionofthemeaningunionmatchesCharpentierin1912(inGerman)andTuxenin1911(inDanish)(Edgerton,1924:39fn.44);heimpliesthatitisotherwisenovel.Thus,theexplanationofyogaasdisciplineandnotunionbecamegenerallyavailabletotheEnglish-readingpublicin1925.Lamotte(1929:86)similarlyexplainsyogaasdiscipline;mthodedecontrle.

(11).YuleandBurnell(1902:461)quotefromMarcoPoloonward,variouslyspelled.TheysaythestuffwhichhasoflatebeenpropagatedinIndiabycertainpersons,underthenamesoftheosophyandesotericBuddhism[Sinnett1883],isessentiallythedoctrineoftheJogis(p.461).Thereisnoarticleonyoga;thissuggeststhatin1886whenthebookwasfirstpublishedthiswordwasmuchlesscurrentinEnglishthanyogi/jogioratanyratethatitwasnotpartoftheAnglo-Indianvocabularythatthebookrecords:wordscurrentamongtheBritishinIndia,broughtbythemintoBritishconversationandliteratureorintroducedthroughtrade(p.xvxvi).ItdoesnotcoverthevocabularyofTheosophy,whichtheauthorsdespisedasthepreviousquotationshows;thereisnoentryformahatmaandnomentionofTheosophicalusageinthearticleonchelah.

(12).LettertoHarrisonBlake,Concord,November20,1849(Sanborn,1906:175).ThephrasesarequotedbyDeMichelis(2004:23)fromChristy(1932:185,201);DeMichelisdescribesthemaswhatseemstobethefirstrecordedaffirmation,byaWesterner,thatheconsideredhimselfayogicpractitionerafterafashion.Theletterquotesanunnamedtextontheyogi,freeinthisworldasthebirds...unitedtothenaturewhichispropertohim,hegoes,heactsasanimatingoriginalmatter.Butitimmediatelychangesthesubjectandsaysnomoreonyoga.Thebrevityofthepassagehardlysuggestsaseriouscommitment,andphrasesinit(Iwouldfain;tosomeextent,andatrareintervals)suggestotherwise.Versluis(1993:7999)dismissesclaimsthatThoreauwasinanysenseayogi.

(13).VedantaPhilosophy:LecturesonRajaYogaandOtherSubjects,AlsoPatanjalis


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YogaAphorisms...,Albany,NY:Weed-Parsons,1897.ReprintedinCW:1.120313underthetitleRaja-Yoga.

(14).Textsareidentifiedbyname,withoutchapterandverse,butallusionscanberecognizedtoYS1.2(CW:7.61),1.11,1.27,1.30(CW:7.62),2.34,2.38(CW:7.67),2.46,and3.2(CW:7.68);andtoBhG2.47(CW:7.20),3.27or5.8,9.27,and5.10(CW:7.63).OthertextsreferredtoaretheNradaBhaktiStra,akarascommentaryontheVedntaStras,BhadrayakaUpaniad,andAvadhtagt.

(15).However,anewspaperreport,apparentlyof1896,saysLondonladiessatcross-leggedonthefloorforwantofchairs(Life:379).Jackson(1994:30)saysthecourseatThousandIslandParkincludedbreathingandmeditation,citingLife(p.359).Silentmeditationismentioned(Life:364),aswellasinitiationwithamantra(Life:359,363)butnotbreathing.OnMarch6,1895(CW:5.75),VivekanandaaskedhisMadrasdiscipleAlasingatosendsomeKushsanas(kusana),thatis,matsofkuagrass,theseatprescribedforyogis,soheintendedstudentstositonthem.

(16).CW:1.4.AclosertranslationwouldbeWhoeverturntomeinwhateverway,Ifavourtheminthesameway.Peoplefollowmypatheverywhere.ThephrasethroughwhatsoeverformsuggeststhathemayalsobethinkingofBhG7.21:Whoeverdevotedlytriestoworshipwhateverformwithfaith,Imakethatsamefaithofhisfirm.Raychaudhuri(1998:5)identifiesthequotationthatprecedesthisinVivekanandastalkasfromtheivamahimnaStotraandgivestheSanskrittext.

(17).Forexample,instinctisinvolvedreason(CW:1.240);everyevolutionisprecededbyaninvolution(CW:5.255).ThisuseofinvolutionisVivekanandasinnovation;itwasdevelopedfurtherbyAurobindoGhose(Killingley,1995:193196).

(18).Thoughheimpliesthatthisisarecentdiscovery,itseemstounderliehisviewoftheuniversalityofHinduismpresentedatChicago.

(19).SevisakeytermintheRamakrishnamovementandinneo-Hinduism(Beckerlegge,1998).

(20).Elsewhere,theBuddhaisanexemplarykarmayogi(CW:1.116;CW:3.262).

(21).DeMichelis(2004:180,fn.40),implyingthatVivekanandasKarma-Yogarefersonlytothreeyogas,seemstohaveoverlookedthispassage.

(22).Thethreearenevermentionedtogether.Karma-yogaoccursfivetimes,buttheothertwoonlyonceeach.Besidesthese,buddhi-yogaoccursthreetimes,abhysa-yogatwice,andtma-yoga,tmasayama-yoga,dhyna-yoga,andsanysa-yogaonceeach.Thehermeneuticdevicemayhaveoriginatedwiththesixteenth-centurycommentatorMadhusdanaSarasvat,whodividestheBhGintosixchaptersonkarma,sixonbhaktiandsixonjna.Lamotte(1929)organizeshisinterpretationpartlyaroundthetriad.

(23).Eightlectures/bytheSwamiVivekananda,onKarmaYoga,(thesecretofwork,)


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deliveredinNewYork,winter18956.NewYork:Brentanos,1896(LibraryofCongressCatalog).

(24).BhaktiYogawasfirstpublishedbyVivekanandasEnglishsupporterE.T.SturdyasAddressesontheVedantaPhilosophy,vol.II:BhaktiYoga(London,SimpkinsandMarshall,1896).(Thedesignationvol.IIimpliesthatVivekananda(1896)wasthefirstvolumeinaseries.)ThisembarrassedVivekananda,ashehadalreadypromisedpublicationrightstotheVedantaSocietyofNewYork(lettertoSturdy,March17,1896,CW:8.374).IamgratefultoDr.StephenGreggforinformationonthispublication.JnaYogawaspublishedbytheVedantaSocietyofNewYork,in1902.

(25).TheSanskritwordsareaccuratelyprinted,withdiacritics.MissWaldoindicatesshetookdownthecommentary,atleast,fromdictationratherthanfromclasstalks(Life1965:348).ThisseemstobecontradictedbyVivekanandaslettertoSturdy:Thesetalksarealltakendown,andwhencompletedwillformthefullestannotatedtranslationofPatanjaliinEnglish(CW:8.361).ThetextofRja-YogainCW:1.120313differsinplacesfromVivekananda(1896)andaddsthestrasinSanskrit.

(26).HelistsKrmaPura,whichhehasnotseenbutfindsfrequentlyquotedinVijnabhikusYScommentary;Hahayogapradpik;Skhya-krik.TheKrmaPurapassageonyogaistranslatedinCW:1.189193.HehadearlieraskedAlasingaforVedntaStracommentaries,ofallthesects(letterApril4,1895,CW:5.77).

(27).DeMichelis(2004:153176)examinesthecosmologyofRja-YogaindetailandinterpretsitinrelationtoothersystemspopularintheUnitedStatesatthetime.

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