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LANDUSE PATTERNS, CROPPING PATTERNS AND

CROP COMBINATIONS IN PUNJAB-HARYANA

PLAIN (1991-94 TO 2011-14)

A SPATIO-TEMPORAL ANALYSIS

A

SYNOPSIS

SUBMITTED FOR REGISTRATION OF

THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHYIN GEOGRAPHY

IN

THE FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Supervisor: Researcher:

Dr. Shivjeet Kaur Jeevan Jyoti

Assistant Prof.

Co-Supervisor:

Dr. K.S. Sohal

Professor

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

PUNJABI UNIVERSITY, PATIALA


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Introduction

Growth in agricultural output over the past three decades has been strong and,

importantly, crop production has been able to broadly keep pace with the demands

from a growing population. The introduction of high- yielding seeds (such as

improved strains of wheat) from the mid 1960s and the increased use of chemical

fertilizers epitomized what become known as the „green revolution‟. Wheat

production increased by nearly 150 percent between the mid 1960s and mid 1970s

and the country become self-sufficient in food grain production by the end of the

1970s. The increase in agricultural production boosted rural incomes while also

causing food prices to fall. This had the effect of reducing rural poverty (World Bank,

2004).

Despite the productivity improvements in the Indian agricultural sector over

recent decades, yields remain low by international standards and growth in yields has

only been marginally higher than the world average. In particular, yields for cereals

and vegetables remain substantially lower than the world average. Crop yields have

increased much more for rice and wheat than for other cereals, such as barley. Wheat

yields have tripled over the past 50 years and rice yields have doubled, while yields

for pulses improved little over this period. While able to meet most of its food

requirements from domestic production, India still needs to import some food. Trade

in agricultural products accounts for a modest share of total merchandise trade,

currently about 8 per cent of exports and 2 per cent of imports. Agricultural trade has,

however, grown rapidly over the past decade, with the value of exports and imports

both recording average annual growth rates of about 15 per cent. Rice, animal feed

and seafood are India‟s principal food exports, while fruits and vegetables are its

largest food imports. The diversification of agricultural production over the past


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couple of decades is also reflected in the changing composition of India‟s food

exports, with the sharing of traditional exports like tea and coffee declining and the

share of meat exports increasing. Food grain imports are relatively low, consistent

with India being broadly self-sufficient in grain production. Much of India‟s trade is

with economies within a relatively short shipping distance, although imports of wheat

and sugar come from distant sources such as Russia and Brazil.

(Cagliarini and Rush, 2011).

Statement of the Problem :

In the 20th International Geographical Congress, London 1960, it was

suggested that any technique which is adopted for rural land-use planning should aim

at recording the existing use of land in the first instance, followed by mapping of land

capability or land potential at the next stage, but this geographic enquiry of course, the

first step in planning, would remain incomplete and risky if the changes in agricultural

landuse are not analytically evaluated. A quantitative analysis of the changes would

certainly enable planning economical- in terms of capital, labour and time - as it

would help us in fixing the priority areas and periods in the effectuation of the plan

for positive and early results. Likewise, the knowledge of the changes in variables and

their action and reaction, individually and collectively, would be a great aid in the

process of synthesis of developmental forces on the one hand and the elimination or

control of negative forces/variables etc. on the other hand. (Shafi, 1960)

Likemost of the „Monsoon Lands‟, pressure of human population for food on

agricultural land dominates the agricultural landscape, both during Kharif and Rabi

cropping seasons in Punjab and Haryana Plains. In the light of rapid growth of

population in the study region as well as in India, the pressure of population for food

will remain dominant in future also. (Sohal, 1979). Cropping pattern of an area is the


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result of physical and human environment. (Sohal, 1993). While Shafi (1996)

observed that cropping pattern is governed by ecological, technological, institutional

and economic factors. Whereas Kharkwal and Teli (1987) stated that the composition

of crops in an area is the offspring of geo-climatic conditions, regional traditions,

mechanization of agriculture, infrastructural facilities, farmers‟ choice of crop etc.

Singh (2012) defined cropping pattern is the combined result of physical and man-

made factors which include nature of land, climatic conditions, nature of soil,

availability of water resources, green revolution technology, human resources and pro

agricultural policy of the government. All these factors have greately affected the

choice of the farmers for selecting the crops to be grown.

Since 1954, the study of crop combination analysis has increased greatly. Its

importance is also increasing everyday. Before 1954, i.e. the work of Weaver in

agriculture, the study of crop combinations were merely limited to the description of

the important /dominant crops rather than the study of complex agricultural systems,

previously it was the practice of only to study the individual crops in a given area

without taking into account its relationships with other crops grown in that area.

Naturally these studies suffer from over-generalizations. Weaver (1954) stated that

crops are grown in combinations then why these should be explained individually.

Moreover crop combinations are also taken as important variable for making

agricultural regionalizations. The studies of crop combinations are very useful

because of many reasons like providing enough understanding about the position of

all the individual crops grown in area. Secondly crop combinations throw light on the

nature of cropping pattern whether it is cereals dominated or non cereals crops

dominant, either cropping pattern is specialized or diversified. The study of crop

combination regions are important for the regionalization of still more complex


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structures of valid crop regions. Weaver (1954) has also advocated that individual

systematic elements of geography are commonly studied by and for themselves alone.

Kaur (2007) stated that rarely does a crop assume a position approximately in

absolute isolation. Characteristically plants are grown in combined association, and a

successful attempt to understand the geographical pattern of landuse must eventually

move up to this level of description and analysis. A general understanding of the

particular combination of crops and relative importance of each in an area may be

helpful in interpreting some aspects of social as well as agricultural geography of the

region and also helpful for making agricultural regionalization. All these, make this

type of study imperative in the field of Agricultural Geography.

Study Area

The Geographical extent of Punjab-Haryana plain ranges between 73º55‟ East

longitude to 77º46‟ east longitude and latitudinal extent lies between 27º37‟ north

latitude to 32º33‟ north latitude. It comprises 2.88 percent of the total reporting area

of the country. It forms international boundary with Pakistan in the north-west and

shares states‟ boundaries with Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand,

Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Union Territory of Delhi and Chandigarh. Though the

study area is homogenous from relief point of view yet there are certain exceptions

like outcrops of Aravallis, Sand dunes, Kandi areas and Shivalik hills. These plains

are blessed with four perennial rivers namely Yamuna, Satluj, Beas and Ravi; and one

seasonal river namely Ghaggar. There are also several seasonal streams which are

locally called „choes‟. Average annual rainfall is about 60 cms. Temperature during

summer normally touches 44ºc and during winters the minimum temperature even fall

upto freezing point. A variety of soils are found namely silty clay, loamy, sandy, fine

sandy, etc. Its total population is 5,30,96,419 persons in 2011. There are 42 districts


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and 151 tehsils.

Review of Literature

Amatya (1973) in his study of “Agricultural Crop Combinations in Nepal” have used

two methods i.e. minimum deviation technique of Weber and maximum positive

deviation of Raffiula for calculating the crop combinations. From his study, he has

observed that the crop combinations are the result of partly physical environment and

partly of cultural environment.

Andrews (2013) in her study “Dynamics of Cropping Pattern Shift in Kerala: Sources

and Determinants” has analysed that the crop shift mainly takes place after the land

reform measures in Kerala which shows the underlying forces behind the crop shift

are government measures starting with land and labour policies and other institutional

measures which have clearly depicted the absence of an organisation for farmers to

continue farming and to represent their issues. But owing to this absence of an

organisation, farmers resorted to an income maximization approach as a part of the

peasant‟s rationality which led to shift in cropping pattern. As a result of such crop

shift, the crop production has decreased drastically because the Kerala state give

incentive to rubber plantation as compared to paddy cultivation.

Bains (1971) in his study “Agronomic Investigation in Utilization of Waste Lands in

Saline and Alkaline Soils” has suggested that the salinity, alkalinity and water logging

problems can overcome by applying suitable agro-techniques.

Basu (1984) while studying the “Impacts of DVC Irrigation on Changing the Landuse

and Cropping Pattern of the Lower Damodar Valley” has explained that with the

introduction of irrigation, the adoption process of modern agricultural inputs like use

of HYVs seeds and agro-chemicals become feasible, and their development has


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resulted into the changes in the landuse and cropping patterns.

Das and Mili (2012) in their paper “ Pattern of Crop Diversification and Disparities

in Agriculture : A Case Study of Dibrugarh District, Assam (India)” have observed

that the progress of human civilization mainly depends on agriculture and further

stated that in order to achieve agricultural sustainability, there must be crop

diversification. They have also concluded that overall assessment shows that the crop

diversification index in 2009-10 in comparison to 1999-2000 exhibits a decreasing

trend which is not healthier for crop diversification. The environmental constraints

and natural resources localised in few areas and technological inputs, infra-structural

facilities, are very low and not equally distributed in all areas. Thus it is deduced that

Dibrugarh go for diversified cropping patterns to avoid adverse environmental

consequences apart from reaping other benefits such as providing a boost to

agricultural production and agricultural sustainability; and moreover use of modern

techniques must be increased in order to remove the disparity in agriculture.

Fielding (1985) while studying "The Role Of Government in New Zealand Wheat

Growing " has observed that owing to comprehensive government control, the wheat

growing in New Zealand is thought to be largely a response to countries and centres.

He further concluded that returns from competing systems of land utilization are

influential.

Hazara (2000) from his work has observed that in rain-fed lands farmers grow a

variety of crops for reducing the risk factor of crop failures owing to drought

conditions. He also found that in areas with water-logging, rice cultivation has

replaced cotton, oilseeds etc.

Jalal (1970) in his paper “The land utilization in Bamangoan” in Uttar Pradesh has

analysed that physical environment and human endeavour have combinedly


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determined the landuse patterns and cropping patterns in his study area. He further

found that the crop combinations have also changed with variations in physical

environment and human endeavour.

Jana (1987) in his study “Cropping pattern in West Bengal” concluded that the

number of crops in crop combinations reveal the nature of croppings pattern whether

it is diversified or specialised.

Johl and Ray (2002) have observed that Punjab agriculture and especially the

cropping patterns of Punjab has become specialised and commercialised with the

ushering of green revolution technology. They have further observed that the present

model of Punjab agriculture is deteriorating the ecological balance of the state.

Kaur, et. al. (2010) in their paper "Technical Efficiency of Wheat Production in

Punjab : A Regional Analysis" have analysed that area under wheat is largely

governed by the plant protection measures, irrigation, high yielding variety of seeds

etc. They further found that the application of agro-chemicals and irrigation is found

more in central parts of Punjab where wheat is very predominant as compared to the

areas along the shivaliks and in south-western parts of Punjab. Though wheat is

enjoying first ranking in the overall cropping patterns in whole of Punjab yet its

production can be increased by about 15 percent through better technology in south-

western parts and along the shivaliks.

Krishnan and Mukhtiar (1972) f rom their study “Soil Climatic Zones in Relation to

Cropping Patterns” have found that the cropping patterns and the Soil- Climatic zones

are positively co-related, because the geo-climatic conditions directly affect the

cropping patterns of a place.

Lathar (1996) has analysed the prospects of increasing the income of marginal

farmers through crop diversification in Sonipat district of Haryana. He has found that


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the marginal farmers were quite closed to the optimal plan which was derived by

considering the commonly prevalent crop production activities at the existing level of

technologies. The study suggested that for achieving the gains of farm diversification

there is an urgent need for further strengthening the required infra-structure pertaining

to input supply system, marketing system, research and extension programmes etc. to

increase the adoption of advanced production technologies.

Mann, et. al. (1968) has concluded that the area under rice and wheat has increased

greatly in the areas of green revolution. They have further observed that the crops like

fodder, maize, oilseeds, grams etc. have experienced drastically decrease in area

under their cultivation. Thus it shows that the changes in cropping patterns and crop

combinations in Punjab are due to the introduction of green revolution technology in

Punjab. They further observed that the number of crop combinations have also

declined during the study period.

Mishra (1984) in his study “Impact of Irrigation on Farming in Mirzapur District”

has observed that the extension and changing system of irrigation has multi effects on

agriculture. Irrigation has also helped and enabled the farmers for the adoption of

modern technology which ultimate leads to changes in cropping patterns and crop

combinations.

Munir, et. al. (1989) have examined that the rate of technological factors in the

degree of agricultural productivity in their study region. They have concluded that the

regional disparities in the degree of agricultural productivity has revealed the most

important variable that accounts for the variations in agricultural productivity at micro

level is technology.

Naing, T.A.A et. al. (2002) while studying the “Effects of Increasing Cropping

Intensity on Rice Production in Mynammar” have concluded that in Mynammar,


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application of mineral Nitrogen, the use of fungicides and insecticides play a much

larger role than herbicides. They further observed that increased application of

Nitrogen can lead to increased disease incidence but again these effects are site

specific and lightly reflect more complex interactions with soil properties.

Nisha (2015) has stated that the crop combination of various district of Jammu

province are closely influenced by the terrain, soil and climatic conditions whereas a

variation in intensity of cropping pattern is mainly due to fertility of soil, amount of

rainfall, irrigation facilities and topographic features.

Panigrahy, et. al. (2004) while studying “Analysis of Cropping Pattern Changes in

Bhatinda District, Punjab” have observed that Bhatinda district like any other district

in Punjab is progressing towards a rice cropping patterns along with the prevalent

cotton-wheat cropping system. Due to the emergence of these crop rotations the most

affected crops are pearl millet in Kharif season while gram & rapeseed and mustard in

Rabi season. The study also provides the spatial information about the cropping

patterns and monitoring of its changes. They also suggested that there is need of

further studies to find out the long term effects of present cropping system,

sustainability of the present cropping system, component technologies and prescribing

the alternate cropping system. This will be done by using cropping system simulation

models in conjunction with optimization models in spatial format.

Paroda (1998) has concluded that the introduction of green revolution has increased

the income and employment opportunities in all over the world especially where the

green revolution technology is adopted by the farmers.

Premakumar, et. al. (2015) have demarcated the crop combination regions in

Palakkad district of Kerala by using weaver‟s and Raffiulla‟s method and have found

that in both cases the number of crop combination regions were the same.


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Ramasundaram, et. al. (2012) have stated that the change in cropping patterns and

introduction of crop in relation to agro-climatic conditions provide high standard of

productivity. They further analysed that there is no diversification of cropping

patterns in the districts of Tamil Nadu with exception of eastern and central parts.

They have also used Weaver‟s method and Raffiulla‟s method for demarcating crop

combination regions.

Ramasundram, et. al. (2012) have demarcated crop combination region of India by

using map Info and GIS. They have further studied the regional character of the

individual crops with the help of various methods.

Rana (2013) while studying the "Impact of Irrigation Development on Agriculture in

Punjab" has concluded that irrigation emerged as a basic ingredient for the new

agricultural technology which has ultimately effected the land use patterns and

cropping patterns of Punjab.

Rathod and Mane-Deshmukh (2012) in their paper “Landuse Pattern and Crop

Combination Region in Satara District: A Geographical Study” have stated that before

the development of irrigation and introduction of modern agricultural techniques, the

number of crop combinations were more but in the post-cultural development period

the number of crop combinations reduced due to the socio-economic impact. They

also observed that such type of study represents real situation of cropping patterns in

Satara district and can help the planners and agricultural scientists for agricultural

planning at micro-level/tehsil level.

Sekhon, et. al. (2010) have observed that even in Punjab which is an advanced

agricultural region there is also a dire need to improve the technical efficiency of the

farmers. Moreover they have also found that irrigation, agro-chemicals,

mechanization, high yielding variety of seeds etc. contribute positively towards


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increase in area and yield of individual crops. There is general impression in the mind

of the scientist which is contrary that Punjab agriculture is over agro-chemicalised,

labour-intensive and over mechanized.

Shafi and Siddiqui (2008) in their study have concluded that the land utilization

activities depend upon the multiple aspects such as location, physiography, climate,

social and cultural conditions. The major factor determining the optimum land

utilization in an area is its location. As a salient point of analysis, it shows that the

land utilization activities in the block are highly uneven. The land-use intensity is

higher in those villages which are either located near the towns or on the

transportation routes. It is also observed that the study area has attained the stage of

commercialisation of agriculture because it is situated in the vicinity of Delhi.

Shinde, et. al. (2015) while analysing the “Optimal Cropping Pattern for Sustainable

Water Use in Canal Command Area” of Kalawande Minor Irrigation Scheme of

Maharashtra have observed that rabi paddy would not be found feasible in terms of

water availability and benefits obtained. The vegetable and horticultural crop showed

potential in the command area with the available water source to get maximum net

returns because the maximum net returns can be obtained by adopting fruits-

vegetables-pulses cropping pattern.

Sidhu (1983) in his work “Socio-Economic Implications of Rapid Agricultural

Growth in Punjab” have observed that with the emergence of wheat -rice dominant

cropping pattern in Punjab, the demand of casual agriculture labourers has increased

which enthused the labourers from other states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan

etc to migrate to Punjab. This migrating trend of labour force has also affected the

social structure of Punjab.

Singh (2014) has studied the "Spatio-Temporal Changes in Crop Diversification in


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Punjab" and summarised that during the study period crops like rice and vegetables

have registered positive changes whereas cotton, maize, wheat, sugar-cane, fodder,

oilseeds etc. have recorded negative changes. Among the gainer crops during 1988-

2008 rice has registered 9.04 percent volume of change which is highest and fodder is

the leading looser with the negative change of 2.72 percent.

Singh and Singh (1970) in their work entitled " Review of Cropping Pattern and

Land Utilization in Punjab" have revealed that the increase in gross cropped area in

Punjab during the first three plan periods was mainly owing to increase in double

cropped area. Thus they further found that for meeting the targets of production of

various crops and increasing the food grains productivity, the best way is intensive

cultivation by using agro-chemicals, high- yielding variety of seeds and modern

methods of cultivation.

Singh, Sukhdeo (2013) has concluded that the introduction of canal irrigation in

South- West region of Punjab in the later half of 20 th century and especially with the

ushering of green revolution technology, Punjab agriculture has resulted into high

crop intensity which means farmers have adopted wheat-cotton and wheat-rice crop

rotation as compared to other crops like bajra, pulses, oilseeds, govara, etc. He has

further stated that all this has led to water-logging. Thus, with the emergence of water

logging, wheat-cotton crop rotation has been shifted to wheat-paddy crop rotation.

There occur changes not only in cropping pattern but crop productivity has also

affected very severely owing to water-logging.

Sohal (1993) while studying the Crop Combinations in Punjab : Pre and Post Green

Revolution Period has observed that in Punjab crop combinations are the offspring of

the actions, reactions and interactions among physical and human environment.

Uma, et. al. (2013) in their paper “Changing Cropping Pattern : A Boon or Bane to


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Food Security” have found that most of the agricultural labourers are showing less

interest in producing food crops which demands their complete attention and are

changing their cropping patterns to commercial crops so that they can work both in

urban area and on land to a limited extent. All marginal farmers slowly depending on

other sector for higher wages without fully neglecting the agriculture. Instead, they

are changing the cropping patterns and continued their agriculture activity with other

family members and relatives‟. They are changing cropping from food crops to

commercial crops. This has posed threat to the overall production of food crops. If

every farmer thinks that changing the food crops to commercial crop will bring more

income, then there will be no one to produce needed amount of food crops in the

country. Therefore, there is an utter need to encourage the farmers to continue with

the food crop production, so that there will not be any threat to food security in the

future.

Weaver (1954) has examined that crop combinations are very helpful to study the

nature of agriculture of an area because crop combinations throw light on the

individual crops and their relative position in the cropping patterns.

Thus, the preceeding review of literature indicates that no work on land use patterns,

cropping patterns and crop combinations in Punjab-Haryana Plain: 1991-94 to 2011-

14 is done by any scholar. Therefore, it is judicious to undertake this topic for Ph.D.

thesis. It will certainly helpful to understand the nature of agriculture and demarcation

of eco-friendly cropping patterns and crop combinations for the study region.

Objectives

Following objectives are selected for the present study :

1.

To reveal the landuse patterns and changes.

2.

To know the spatio-temporal variations in the cropping patterns.


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3. To examine the ranking of individual crops in the cropping patterns.

4. To derive the crop combination regions and changes.

5. To highlight the factors responsible for changes in landuse patterns and

cropping patterns and crop combinations.

6. To suggest economically and ecologically viable crop combinations.

Hypotheses

The present study will test the following hypotheses :

1. Physical and socio-economic factors determine the landuse and cropping

patterns of an area.

2. Diffusion of agricultural innovations often leads to changes in cropping

patterns which further affect the crop combinations.

3. Economic returns effect the choice of farmers for a particular crop.

4.

Higher the level of crop specialization, lower is the number of crop

combinations and vice-versa.

Methodology

The present study will be based on secondary sources of data. District will be

taken as unit of study. Three years average for two time periods will be taken for

explaining the changes in landuse patterns, cropping patterns and crop combinations

i.e. 1991-1994 and 2011-2014. Simple Percentages, Standard Deviations, Weaver‟s

and Dui‟s Methods of Crop Combinations etc. will be used for deriving the results.

Cartographic techniques will be applied for mapping the results.

Sources of Data

The study is based on secondary sources of data which will be obtained from

the following offices :

Economic and Statistical Organisation, Punjab, Chandigarh

Economic and Statistical Organisation, Haryana, Panchkula


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Director Land Record Punjab, Jalandhar

Director Land Record, Haryana

Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana

Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar

Regional Centres of Remote Sensing, Punjab, Ludhiana

Regional Centres of Remote Sensing, Haryana

Libraries of various institutions

Books, Journals, Reports, etc

Tentative Scheme of Study

1. Introduction

2. Profile of Physical and Socio-Economic environment

3.

Landuse Patterns and Changes: 1991-94 and 2011-2014.

4. Spatio-Temporal changes in Cropping Patterns: 1991-94 and 2011-2014.

5.

Ranking of Crops : 1991-94 and 2011-2014

6.

Demarcation of Crop Combination Regions: 1991-94 and 2011-2014.

7. Suggested Crop Combination Regions.

8. Conclusion and Suggestions.

References

Amatya, S.L. (1973), “A Study of Agricultural Crop Combination in Nepal”, Institute

of Humanities and Social Sciences, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur (Nepal),

pp.7-9.

Andrews, S. (2013), “Dynamics of Cropping Pattern Shifts in Kerala: Sources and

Determinants”, Agriculture Situation in India, pp.15-24.


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Bains, S.S. (1971), “Agronomic Investigation in Utilization of Waste Lands in Saline

and Alkaline Soils” Proceedings of Symposium Science and India’s Food

Problems, ICAR, New Delhi, pp.198-203.

Basu (1984), “Impacts of D.V.C. Irrigation in Changing Land-Use Cropping Pattern

of the Lower Damodar Valley”, Geographical Review of India, Vol.46, pp.70-78.

Cagliarini, A, and Rush. A, (2011),”Economic Development and Agriculture in

India”, Bulletin, pp.15-16.

Chand, R. and Parappuratheo, S. (2012), “Temporal and Spatial Variations in

Agricultural Growth and its Determinants”, Economic and Political Weekly,

No.26-27, pp. 55-60.

Das and Mili (2012), “Pattern of Crop Diversification and Disparities in Agriculture :

A Case Study of Dibrugarh District, Assam (India)”, Journal of Humanities and

Social Science, Vol.6, Issue 2, pp.37- 40.

Fielding, Gordon J. (1965), “The Role of Government in New Zealand Wheat

Growing Areas”, A.A.A Geographers, Vol. 55, pp. 87-97.

Hazara, C.R. (2000), “Agricultural Commissioner” Department of Agriculture and

Co-operation, Ministry of Agriculture, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi, Vol.3, pp.7-9.

Jalal, D.S. (1970), “Land-Utilization in Bamangoan” National Geographical Journal

of India, Vol.16, pp.130-140.

Jana, M.M. (1987), “Cropping Pattern in West Bengal” Geographical Review of

India, Vol.49, pp. 19-49.

Johl, S.S. and Ray, K.K. (2002), “Future of Agriculture in Punjab”, published by

Centre for Research in Rural and Industrial Development, Chandigarh, pp. 110-

112.

Kaur, Shivjeet (2003), “Regional Disparities in Levels of Agricultural Modernization


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in Punjab 1971-1999”, An unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Punjabi University Patiala,

pp. 205-216.

Kaur, et. al. (2010), “Technical Efficiency of Wheat Production in Punjab : A

Regional Analysis” Agricultural Economics Research Review,Vol.23, pp.173-275.

Kharkwal, S.C. and Teli, B.L. (1987), “Land Use and Cropping Pattern in Gharhwal

Himalaya, Western Himalaya, Environment, Problems and Development”,

Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, Vol.2, p. 825.

Krishnan, A. and Mukhtiar, S. (1972), “Soil-Climatic Zones in Relation to

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Lathar, P. (1996), “Income of Marginal and Small Farmers through Diversification

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Mann, K.S., et. al. (1968), “Estimate of Potential Effects of New Technology on

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No.5, pp.278-291.

Munir, et. al. (1989), “Agricultural Productivity in Azamgarh District of Uttar

Pradesh”, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 51, pp. 70-77.

Naing, T.A.A. et. al. (2002), “Effects of Increasing Cropping Intensity on Rice

Production in Myanmar” in Proceedings of International Symposium of Sustaining

Food Security and Managing Natural Resources in South-east Asia – Challenges

for the 21 st Century, pp.1-10.

Nisha (2015), “Major Crop Combination Regions in Jammu Province: A Spatio-

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Engineering and Technology, Vol.4, Issue 3, pp.897-105.


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Pandey, MM. (2008), “Country Report: India” presented in the fourth session of the

Technical Committee of APCAEM , p.2

Panigrahy, et. al. (2004), “Analysis of Cropping Pattern Changes in Bhatinda

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Paroda, R.S. (1998), “Towards Sustainable Growth of Agriculture”, Yojna, Vol. 21,

pp.41-42.

Premakumar, K. et. al. (2015), “A Study on Crop Combination Regions in Palakkad

district, Kerala”, International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, Vol.6,

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Ramasundram, M. et. al. (2012), “A Study of Crop Combination Regions in Tamil

Nadu, India Using Map Info And GIS”, International Journal Of Advances In

Remote Sensing and GIS, Vol.1, No.1, pp. 1-8, 76-84.

Rana, Pooja (2013), "Development of Irrigation and its Impact on Agriculture in

Punjab” An unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Punjabi University Patiala, pp. 114-119.

Rathod, S.B. and Mane-Deshmukh, R.S., (2012), “Land Use Pattern and Crop

Combination Regions in Satara District: A Geographical Study”, Indian Journal

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