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MANAGEMENT GUIDE PARENT STOCK

General Management Guide for Layer Parent Stock 2009-10 Page | 2

Introduction For many years, our group has demonstrated that, with brown and white egg strains, it is possible to obtain technical and economic performances which have never ceased to improve thanks to the balanced selection methods used. But no matter what the intensity and efficiency of selection, we know that the genetic potential which exists cannot be realised without the experience and know-how of the stockmen managing the flocks. The present manual therefore seeks to be a reminder of the specific rules concerning reproduction and hatching egg production to give optimum results for the stockman. The performance tables and target curves are provided as useful reference points when following the performance of a flock, but should not in any way be interpreted as a guarantee of success. We hope that this management guide will make a positive contribution to the continuous improvement in performance of your layer breeders. Institut de Sélection Animale B.V. Villa ‘de Körver’ Spoorstraat 69 P.O. Box 114 5830 AC Boxmeer / The Netherlands T +31 485 319111 F +31 485 319112 [email protected] www.isapoultry.com


Content HYGIENE AND SANITATION

- Basic hygiene rules 5 - Housing types 5 - Personnel and visitors 5 - Disinfection room 6 - Cleaning up and disinfection 6

MANAGEMENT BROODING PERIOD GENERAL MANAGEMENT 7

- Equipment and environment 7 - Temperature and humidity 8 - Lighting program 8 - Feeding program 9

GROWING PERIOD GENERAL MANAGEMENT 9

- Housing and equipment 9 - Feeding program 10 - Feeding techniques 10 - Monitoring development 11

MALE MANAGEMENT 11

- Beak trimming 12 - Percentage of cocks 12 - Sexual behavior 12 - Comb dubbing 12

LIGHTING PROGRAM 12

- Lighting program in dark houses 13 - Lighting program in semi-dark (brown-out) or open-sided houses 13 - Lighting program for hot climates 15 - Lighting intensity 15 - Midnight lighting 16

PRODUCTION PERIOD GENERAL MANAGEMENT 16 - Transfer 16 - Housing and equipment 17 - Mating ratios 19

CONTROL OF BEHAVIOUR 19

- Beak trimming 19 - Pecking and prolapse 20 - Smothering 22 - Broodiness 23 - Floor Eggs 24


NUTRITION

REARING PERIOD 26 - Feeding during the rearing period 26 - Feed specifications during rearing period 27 PRODUCTION PERIOD 29 - Feeding program during the production period 29 - Which energy level during the production period? 31 - Amino acids requirements for layer Parent Stock 33 - Amino acids recommendations for layer Parent Stock 35 - Calcium nutrition and particles size 36 - Mineral and oil level recommendations 38

FEED PRESENTATION for layer parent stocks 40

SUGGESTED PREMIX COMPOSITION for layer parent stocks 42

HATCHING EGG CARE

- Hatching eggs suitability 43 - Collecting eggs 44 - Eggs sanitation 44 - Storage of eggs 45


Hygiene and sanitation Basic hygiene rules National and local governing regulations and environmental restrictions must be followed. Farm should be located as far as possible from other poultry operations and each phase of production should be treated as a separate unit, according to the principle of “all in – all out”: this means it should be only one age group in the farm and only one origin. Housing types Whatever the building style, they should be constructed so that they may be easily and thoroughly cleaned and disinfected between flocks. The walls and roofs should contain insulation with a moisture barrier and rodent proof materials and ceiling height should be adequate for proper ventilation. Equipment used in the house should be designed for easy access and removal for clean-out, maintenance and bio security consideration. In open sided houses it is important to use insulated materials including a shield (protection) for water tanks and pipes. In these houses it is necessary to place a wire netting and fencing over openings and ventilation inlets to control predators, rodents and wild birds and other disease vectors. With electrically powered equipment, it is essential to use a reliable source of electric power. In environmental controlled houses, it is necessary to have standby generators and power failure alarms. The store rooms where material to be used in the breeder farm is stocked must be bird and rodent proof. Personnel and visitors Visitors should not be permitted in the farm, and the entries should be restricted to the minimum with strict procedures. People or material from other poultry farms must be strictly banned. Only new egg trays, egg boxes and litter should be used. Workers on the farm must not keep poultry or pet birds at home or come into contact with other poultry. Dogs and cats should be kept out of the farm. Anyone entering the house (workers, veterinarians, consultants…) must change footwear and use protective clothing within the farm area and disinfect boots before entry. Truck drivers should never be allowed to enter the houses.


Disinfection room A disinfection room should be constructed at the entrance of the poultry house:

- Choose materials smooth and easy to clean and disinfect for inside surfaces (walls, ceiling, floor) Floor should slope to a drain.

- It should be designed following the “dirty and clean area” concept : a physical barrier should provide a clear separation between both areas:

o Dirty area : should contain a coat rack for clothes used outside the poultry house, and a wash basin with bactericidal soap for washing hands

o Clean area: should contain a wardrobe with clean clothes (overalls and caps) for use only in the poultry house and a foot bath containing disinfectant. Clean boots for exclusive use in the poultry house should be available.

Clean up and disinfection As soon as the flock has been slaughtered, the house and the equipment should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected:

- Use an insecticide just after the birds have been removed - Remove all the non-stationary equipment and residual feed from troughs, conveyors and

bins - Exterminate all rodents and wild birds - Remove all the manure, litter, feathers, dust, and any other organic materials - Wash equipment, fans, ducts, water tanks, feed bins, walls and floor - Disinfection is efficient only after cleaning thoroughly :disinfect the interior of the building

on surfaces and all equipment - Monitor the effectiveness of clean up by visual examination and bacteriological analysis - The resting period starts when the above operations have been achieved and lasts for at

least 10 days - If it is permitted and the building can be tightly enclosed, fumigate the building before the

arrival of chicks - After the building is fumigated, close up for 24 hours and then air out for another 24 hours


Management Brooding period general management The rearing period is of major importance for the life of the breeders: the productivity of a flock depends to a large extent on the successful attainment of bodyweight targets since early age. The objectives during brooding period are:

- rapid growth to reach body weight target at 5 weeks of age - good uniformity from the beginning - excellent live ability

From day old to 5 weeks of age it is a key period: body frame is built, vital organs develop as well as the immune system. Any delay in growth will be reflected in a reduction in bodyweight at 16 weeks and then in later performance. Also breeder chick’s ability to resist disease and respond to vaccines may be affected. Equipment and environment

Floor Cages Age (wks) 0 – 2 2 – 5 0 – 3 3 – 5 Ventilation Minimum per hour / kg 0,7 m3 0,7 m3 0,7 m3 0,7 m3 Stocking densities Birds / m2 20 12 80 45 cm2 / bird 125 220 Water supply Chicks / chick drinker 75 80 (1) Birds / drinker 75 75 Birds / nipple 10 10 10 (2) 10 (2) Feed supply Birds / starting pan 50 (3) cm of trough feeders 4 5 2 4 Birds / round feeder 35 35

(1) Place one additional drinker per cage for the first week (2) Make sure that all the birds have at least an access to 2 nipples (3) Spread sheets of paper over the cage bottom to last for 7 days, remove one sheet every day Key points:

- Flush the water lines prior to arrival, and make sure that no disinfectant is left in the water lines when the chicks arrive.

- Make sure that the nipples and round drinkers are on the correct height, nipples on eye level of the chicks, and round drinkers on the floor.

- Put paper under the nipples to attract the chicks and put also extra feed over the chick paper or paper trays.

- Check the nipples / round drinkers whether the water supply is sufficient. When nipples are used the chicks must see the water drop on the nipple.

- Upon arrival wait 3 to 4 hours before distributing food to make sure chicks first drink enough water to restore their body fluid

- During the first 2 days use tepid water at 25º to 30 ºC - The removal of the supplementary starter drinkers should be done gradually, making sure

that the chicks have acquired the habit of using the other drinkers. - It is useful to monitor water consumption. To maintain litter quality, it is necessary to avoid

water spillage, by carefully regulating the drinkers or the nipples. - The drinkers should be cleaned daily for the first 2 weeks. From the third week they

should be cleaned each week.


Temperature and humidity In order to ensure that the equipment is warm at chick arrival, it is advised to preheat the building 36 hours in advance so as to bring litter temperature to 28 to 31°C. The concrete floor under the litter must be heated as well until approximately 25 - 27°C.

Age Brooding temperature Room

temperature Relative humidity

(days) At the edge of the brooders

At 2-3 m from the brooders

optimum-maximum in %

0 – 3 35 °C 29 – 28 °C 33 – 31 °C 55 – 60 4 – 7 34 °C 28 – 27 °C 32 – 31 °C 55 – 60 8 – 14 32 °C 27 – 26 °C 30 – 28 °C 55 – 60 15 – 21 29 °C 26 – 25 °C 28 – 26 °C 55 – 60 22 – 24 25 – 23 °C 25 – 23 °C 55 – 65 25 – 28 23 – 21 °C 23 – 21 °C 55 – 65 29 – 35 21 – 19 °C 21 – 19 °C 60 – 70 After 35 19 – 17 °C 19 – 17 °C 60 – 70

This table should be used as a guide but temperatures can be adjusted according to behaviour and distribution of chicks:

- If the chicks crowd together under the brooder temperature is too low. - If the chicks are close to the surround the temperature is too high

Key points: - Use chick surrounds for the first week to confine chicks to floor brooder areas and

prevent air drafts - Temperature and relative humidity should be uniform throughout the building - Changes in temperature should be carried out gradually - A minimum amount of ventilation is necessary since the first weeks to provide enough

oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide, water vapour, ammonia as well as carbon monoxide from combustion.

- Chicks should be unloaded immediately after arriving. Avoid dehydration due to storage at too high temperatures.

Lighting program Rearing in dark or semi dark house Rearing in hot climate (open houses) Light duration Light intensity Light duration Light intensity 1 – 3 days 22 hours 20 – 40 lux 24 - 23 hours 40 lux 4 – 7 days 20 hours 15 – 30 lux 22 hours 40 lux 8 – 14 days 19 hours 10 – 20 lux 20 hours 40 lux 15 – 21 days 18 hours 5 – 10 lux 19 hours 40 lux 22 – 28 days 18 hours 5 – 10 lux 18 hours 40 lux 29 – 35 days 17 hours 5 – 10 lux 18 hours 40 lux

During the first few days, it is important to maintain the chicks under a maximum light regime (22 to 23 hours) with a quite high intensity (30-40 lux) to encourage intake of water and feed. Afterwards, the light intensity should be gradually reduced to reach a level of about 10 lux at 15 days of age in dark houses. Light intensity will depend also on bird behaviour.


Feeding program During this period from day old to 5 weeks old, the bird is not able to adapt its feed consumption to energy level. To encourage good growth, we recommend using a diet presented in crumb form, with an adequate concentration of protein and energy from 0 to 28 days in temperate climates and from 0 to 35 days in hot climates (in both conditions till the bodyweight target is reached). Key points:

- Check the quality of the crumbs, not too hard, not too big - Avoid build up of fine particles in the feeders from first weeks, making sure they are

emptied at least once each week - An even distribution of the feeders over the brooding area will make easier for the chicks

to locate the feed - Control growth by taking the body weight of a sample of birds:

o Before 28 days, weigh a group of a minimum of 100 birds each week o From 4 weeks of age, start weekly individual weighing (at least 100 chicks) to

determine flock uniformity o If the flock is divided into separate pens, it is necessary to take a sample of 50

birds from each pen and then to calculate the overall mean Growing period general management After a good starting, during the growing period, the flock should be managed in order to get a suitable development to allow the breeders to reach their highest potential to produce eggs and commercial chicks. The objectives during growing period are:

- to achieve the recommended weight at 5 % production - to establish a good feeding behaviour pattern - to develop the digestive tract (crop and gizzard) - to obtain a good uniformity of 80 % minimum

These objectives could be achieved thanks to: - a correct stocking density and housing conditions - a lighting program adapted to rearing conditions - a good standard of beak tipping - a good management of the feeding program and feeding techniques

Housing and equipment Floor Cages Age (wks) 6 – 17 6 – 17 Ventilation Minimum per hour / kg 4 m3 4 m3 Stocking densities (1) Birds / m2 10 28 Birds / m2 (hot climate) 8 cm2 / bird 350 Water supply Birds / drinker 100 Birds/drinker (hot climate) 75 Birds / nipple 9 9 (2) Feed supply cm of trough feeders 8 6 Birds / round feeder 20

(1) If males are reared separated, increase floor/cage space by 25 % (2) Make sure that all the birds have at least an access to 2 nipples


Feeding program The range of diet advised for the rearing period could be adapted to the real evolution of the frame and bodyweight development of the pullets. Starter diet recommended from day old till 4 weeks old could be extended till 5 or 6 weeks to secure the frame development. Frame development is done for the large part during the first 8 weeks of the rearing period. Grower diet recommended from 4 weeks till 10 weeks old could be extended till 11 or 12 weeks old in order to secure growth. As the rearing period objective is also to develop the digestive tract, this grower diet usually high in energy content could not be given after 12 weeks old, the risk being to reduce the development of the digestive tract and the feed intake at start of lay by using too high energy content feed. The distribution of a developer diet till 16 weeks will help the development of the crop capacity thanks to a lower energy level than grower feed and slightly lower than the pre-lay or layer feed. In order to secure the development of the medullar bone which acts as a reservoir of calcium to be liberated for egg shell formation, we advised to use a pre lay feed for the two weeks before 2 % production. The details specifications for each of those diets are developed in a separate chapter. Feeding techniques The feeding techniques used between 5 and 16 weeks are designed to:

- avoid the build up of fine particle residues - encourage crop development by having rapid feed consumption

Birds are by nature grain eaters. They always start by eating the larger particles and leave the finer ones. Accumulation of fine particles in the feeding system leads to under-consumption. Therefore, it is essential that the feeders are emptied every day. This rule applies equally to pullets and layers. The crop is a storage organ: it allows the bird to eat enough feed in the evening to satisfy its energy needs throughout the night. The increase in consumption at start of lay is dependent on the development of the crop and on the feeding behaviour acquired during rearing. Rapid feed consumption during rearing leads to the development of the crop. The speed with which feed is eaten depends on when it is fed and on the form in which it is offered. Since birds naturally eat more in the morning and in the evening, feeders ought to be empty in the middle of the day To encourage rapid consumption, we recommend that the complete daily ration should be given about 2 to 3 hours before the lights go out. The actual time of feed distributions should be chosen so that about 50 % is eaten in the evening and 50 % in the following morning. At "lights on", because the digestive system is empty, the birds will eat up the finer particles better. This feeding routine can be started between 4 and 8 weeks according to the feeding equipment. The length of time, during which the feeders are empty, should be gradually increased, so that by around 10-12 weeks of age the feeders are empty for a minimum of 2 to 3 hours per day. It is, however, possible according to the feeding equipment to give either a single feed distribution in either the morning or evening, or two 2 distributions, provided that the feeding periods are kept short.


Supplying insoluble grit is also recommended for gizzard development:

- From 3 to 10 weeks of age: 3 g per bird per week (particle size 2 to 3 mm) - After 10 weeks: 4 to 5 g per bird per week (particle size 3 to 5 mm).

It is also possible from 10 weeks onwards to use 50 % of the calcium in the diet supplied in coarse particle form (particle size between 2 and 4 mm) Monitoring development A weekly control of the growth is a must to check the real evolution of the flock: early detection of abnormal weight gain is of extreme importance to determine what corrective actions must be taken. Late attempts to correct low body weight are not efficient at improving body composition and frame size. In addition to this, monitoring of body weight is essential to calculate the appropriate quantity of feed to be issued, as requirements vary according to the energy level of the diet, the house temperature and the health status of the flock. Method of weighing control:

- The time of weighing should be fixed, preferably in the afternoon. - We advise carrying out individual weighing and using histogram type weighing sheets

which shows at a glance the weight distribution within the population. - A sample with a minimum of 100 birds should be taken to obtain a good estimate of mean

bodyweight and uniformity. However, if the flock is divided into separate pens, it is necessary to take a sample of 50 birds from each pen and then to calculate the overall mean.

- When rearing in cages, one should weigh all the birds from 5 or 6 cages chosen at random in different parts of the poultry house to make up a sample.

The quality of a flock is judged, as much as anything else, by its uniformity. A batch is uniform when at least 80 % of the weights lie within ± 10 % of the mean. If uniformity is outside the target range, it is necessary to identify the causes and to check:

- feeder space and position - speed of the feed chain - quality of beak trimming - vaccination status - diseases and parasitism

Male management We recommend that cocks and pullets are reared together as this gives satisfactory results in terms of liveability and production and prevents stress due to social interaction that usually occurs when males are placed into the females flock at a later age. However, males may be kept separated during the first weeks, and then spread evenly among the females before 4 weeks of age. If males are reared separated until the end of the rearing period, they should be gradually introduced into the females flock to minimize possible problems derived of aggressiveness (see “Sexual behaviour”) We advise that males should be weighed regularly.


Beak trimming A slight trimming of the beak can avoid pecking and injury to females. Trimming quality will be checked at transfer. Percentage of cocks It is recommended to start at 1 day old between 10% and maximum 12% of cocks, with no special selection until production. When moved to laying house, cocks must be reduced to a maximum of 10%, excluding immature and deformed cocks and selecting those within the expected average weight range and with good balance: the biggest and smallest will then be eliminated. Discard males not showing healthy feet as well as those over beak-trimmed. The sexing errors (brothers of the parent stock females and the sisters of the parent stock males) must be eliminated. Sexual behaviour Often, toward the end of rearing over-mature males may encircle the females, which will prevent normal feeding and lead to unevenness. If this behaviour is observed, we recommend putting at least 30% of the males in a separate pen. If the females are still being encircled, take out more males. The males will be progressively returned, a few each day, well distributed over the building, during the hours of darkness. During rearing it is recommended to have a separate pen for placing cocks if they show an aggressive behaviour. Comb dubbing Unless customers instruct us to the contrary, all day-old males are delivered with the comb dubbed, in order to avoid its being damaged by pecking.

In white breeds the males will be always de-combed to be sure sexing errors can be found and eliminated. In countries with hot temperatures, for the brown egg type parent stock, the comb should be left intact as it helps birds to lose heat. In this case, the pullets must be properly beak-trimmed to avoid all possible cause of injury of the comb which is a very sensitive organ. Lighting program Chickens are sensitive to changes in the period of illumination, and these will influence the age of sexual maturity. In addition feed consumption is greatly influenced by the duration of day length. Lighting programs have, therefore, different objectives:

- In rearing: o To promote early development and encourage feed intake and growth o To control the birds' sexual maturity.

- During production:

o to encourage growth at start of lay o to counteract the harmful effects of decreases in natural day length o to control the liveability through the light intensity management


In addition to this, in layer breeders it is important to obtain:

- a rapid increase in egg size in order to get as soon as possible a high % of hatching eggs of more than 52 g of weight which will produce chicks of good quality and liveability

- a good quality eggshell for as long as possible, so as to obtain a maximum rate of hatching eggs.

To attain these goals we advise to avoid very early onset of lay. We therefore recommend a lighting program following a slow decrease in day length and avoiding any light stimulation before 5% lay. Lighting program in dark houses We consider as a dark house to be a building in which the light penetrating from outside of all sorts produces an intensity of less than 0.5 lux, The advantage of these buildings is that it allows total control of light intensity and day-length. The following program should be used as a guide and have to be adapted to real situation of the farm and according to performances previously obtained.

Age Light duration (hours) Intensity

(lux)

1 – 3 days 22 hr 20 -40 4 - 7 days 20 hr 20 -30 8 – 14 days 19 hr 20 15 - 28 days 18 hr 10 29 - 35 days 17 hr 5-10 36 - 42 days 16 hr 5-10 43 - 49 days 15 hr 5-10 50 –56 days 14 hr 30 5-10 57 - 63 days 14 hr 5-10 64 - 70 days 13 hr 30 5-10 71 - 77 days 13 hr 5-10 78 - 84 days 12 hr 30 5-10 85 to 5 % % of lay 12 hr 5-10 From 5 to 20 % lay 13 hr* 5-10 From 20 to 35 % lay 14 hr* 5-10 From 35 to 50 % lay 15 hr* (1) 5-10 From 50 to 65 % lay 16 hr* 5-10 After 65 % lay 16 hr* (2) 5-10

(*) as of 5% lay, 1 hr 30 min of night lighting may be added if necessary, (1) For white-egg layer breeders: a day-length longer than 15 hr is not necessary, (2) For brown-egg layer breeders: a minimum day-length of 16 hr is recommended to reduce floor eggs Lighting program in semi-dark (brown-out) or open-sided houses Complete control of sexual maturity is difficult to achieve in this type of buildings since the seasonal fluctuations of day length still interfere with sexual development. Sexual maturity usually observed in the flocks coming from this rearing house at the same season has to be taken into account.


Houses where the amount of light entering the building from outside exceed 0.5 lux should be considered as semi-dark, and the lighting program to be used should be designed for natural light exposure and follow the schedule for open-sided houses. The lighting schedule used should take into account the natural day length at the time the flock is 140 days of age in order to get effective photo stimulation and to avoid too early maturity. Total light duration must never be shorter than the longest natural day in the period between 8 weeks of age and light stimulation to avoid any increase of the light duration before 20 weeks old.

NB: as of 5% lay, 1 hr or 1 hr 30 min of night lighting may be worth adding. Regarding light stimulation it is very important to keep in mind the following points:

- Effective stimulation is always difficult when the natural day-length is near its longest - Light stimulation is more effective when light is added in the morning rather than in the

evening.

Transferring the birds from a semi-dark rearing house to a windowed house can bring about an advanced sexual maturity. Under these conditions, there is an increased risk of having light birds at the point of light stimulation. To have an effective lighting program and to reduce this risk, in these situations we recommend working with a light intensity of 40 lux as a minimum in rearing. Transferring the birds from an open or semi-dark house to a dark laying house slows down the sexual development of the chicken and causes a delay in the onset of lay. Under these conditions, it is necessary to keep a light duration and intensity equivalent to the day-length at the time of transfer and gradually adjust the light intensity after transfer.

Age Natural length of light at 20 weeks Intensity

12 hr 13 hr 14 hr 15 hr * (lux)

1 – 3 days 22 hr 22 hr 22 hr 22 hr 20 - 40 4 - 7 days 20 hr 20 hr 20 hr 20 hr 20 - 30

8 – 14 days 19 hr 19 hr 19 hr 19 hr 20 15 – 28 days 18 hr 18 hr 18 hr 18 hr 10 29 – 35 days 17 hr 17 hr 17 hr 17 hr 10 36 – 42 days 16 hr 30 16 hr 30 16 hr 30 16 hr 30 10 43 – 49 days 16 hr 16 hr 30 16 hr 30 16 hr 30 10 50 –56 days 15 hr 30 16 hr 16 hr 16 hr 10 57 – 63 days 15 hr 15 hr 30 16 hr 16 hr 10 64 – 70 days 14 hr 30 15 hr 15 hr 30 15 hr 30 10 71 – 77 days 14 hr 14 hr 30 15 hr 15 hr 30 10 78 – 84 days 13 hr 14 hr 14 hr 30 15 hr 10 85 – 91 days 12 hr 30 13 hr 30 14 hr 14 hr 30 10

92 to 5% of lay 12 hr 30 13 hr 13 hr 30 14 hr 10 5 to 20% lay 13 hr 30* 14 hr* 14 hr 30* 15 hr* 10

20 to 35 % lay 14 hr 30* 15 hr* 15 hr 30* 15 hr 30* 10 35 to 50 % lay 15 hr 30* 15 hr 30* 16 hr* 16 hr* 10 50 to 65 % lay 16 h* 16 hr* 16 hr 30* 16 hr 30* 10 After 65 % lay 16 hr * 16 hr 30*


Lighting program for hot climates (between 20º North and 20º South latitudes) In hot countries, the heat will reduce appetite. Therefore, we advise using a longer step- down program in rearing which will help:

- to increase the feed intake and consequently birds’ growth. - to overcome the negative effects of the heat by allowing the birds to eat during the cooler

hours, giving light in the early morning.

Age Daily light duration Intensity ( lux )

light buildings dark buildings**

1 – 3 days 24 hr 30-40 20-40

4 - 7 days 22 hr 30-40 20-30

8 - 14 days 20 hr 30-40 20

15 - 21 days 19 hr 30-40 10

22 - 35 days 18 hr 30-40 5-10

36 - 49 days 17 hr 30-40 5-10

50 - 63 days 16 hr 30-40 5-10

64 - 77 days 15 h r 30-40 5-10

78 - 91 days 14 hr 30-40 5-10

92 days at 5% of lay Natural light or 12hr 30 min 30-40 5-10

5% of lay 14 hr + 1hr30* 30-40 5-10

30% of lay 15 hr + 1hr 30* 30-40 5-10

60% of lay 16 hr +1hr 30* 30-40 5-10

After 60% of lay 16hr + 1hr 30* 30-40 5-10

Lighting intensity Light intensity is important during the first days of the rearing period in order to encourage the activity of the chicks to discover their environment and find very quickly the water and the feed. Then, light intensity can be gradually reduced to a level than in practice will depend on:

- the light required to inspect the birds - the degree of darkness of the building (light leaking in) - the intensity to be used during the laying period

There is a strong relationship between light intensity, physical activity, pecking behaviour and feather loss. High intensity tends to increase the nervousness of the birds and it can result in increased mortality by vent pecking. This risk is higher when breeders are kept at high stocking density. Using dim light during the production period will help to obtain better liveability. The light intensity required in production is relatively low, and it is not necessary to increase it for an effective light stimulation. However, light should be added in the morning rather than in the evening for a proper stimulation: under low light intensity conditions, light increases in the evening are not very efficient when added. Adding light in the morning, during the cooler period of the day, has also a positive effect on encouraging feed intake at onset of lay.


In semi-dark houses, the artificial light intensity should be at least 10 times higher than the light intensity coming from outside to cancel out its effect. Midnight lighting Midnight lighting (1hr 30 min in the middle of the dark period and running the feeders during this time) is often used to encourage feed intake and growth at the beginning of production. If necessary, it can be installed since transfer and then be gradually withdrawn when breeders reach their adult body weight. Midnight lighting is also useful during hot season to reduce the negative impact of high temperatures by allowing the birds to eat during the cooler hours of the night. In addition to this, midnight lighting helps to maintain a better egg shell quality by allowing the birds to ingest calcium at the end of shell formation. This has a beneficial impact on shell quality and hence on hatchability. The regular lighting program (time of “lights on” and “lights off”) should not be changed when the midnight light is added. Midnight lighting may be used throughout the flock’s life if necessary. Production period general management Transfer Transfer is a major source of stress, accompanied by changes in environment (temperature, humidity, etc.) and in equipment. It should be carried out as speedily as possible. The following points should reduce the severity of this stress. Age at transfer Because of the stress to which pullets are subjected during transfer and immediately afterwards, it is extremely important that transfer be completed before the appearance of the first eggs. Most development of the reproductive organs (ovaries and oviduct) occurs during the 10 days prior to the first egg being laid. We recommend to schedule the transfer at 16 weeks of age and to make sure all hens are housed in the production facilities by 119 days of age. Vaccinations should be given at least a week before transfer so as to obtain a good vaccine reaction. A late transfer or a too long transfer often leads to delayed start of lay and higher mortality and increases the risk of floor eggs. Lighting The duration of lighting during lay should take account of the program used during rearing. Giving 22 hours of light the first day and increasing light intensity for the first 4 days can help the birds to be adapted to the new environment when drinking and feeding equipment used in rearing and production period is different or when birds are transferred into cages. However, in case of floor production and in dark houses, this might not be necessary. Encouraging water consumption Birds can become dehydrated during transfer. The water loss is between 0.3% and 0.5% per hour according to atmospheric conditions (4 g/hr at 20°C, more than 8 g above 30°C).


The water drinking devices must have been triggered and purged before pullets’ arrival to ensure they are working properly. The newly arrived pullets should drink before feeding. The absence of feed at transfer helps them find the drinkers more easily. Wait for 3 to 4 hours before distributing feed and check that all the pullets drink properly. A daily check on water consumption is of paramount importance. If nipple drinkers are used in the laying house but the pullets have not been reared with nipples, increase the pressure and allow some loss of water during the first few days. Housing and equipment Floor Cages Ventilation Minimum per hour / kg 4 m3 4 m3 Stocking densities Birds / m2 (1) 6 – 8 12 Birds / m2 (hot climate) 6 cm2 / Bird 830 Water supply Birds / drinker 100 Birds/drinker (hot climate) 70 Birds / nipple 9 9 (2) Feed supply cm of trough feeders 10 12 Birds / Round feeder 20 Nest space Hens / nest (individual) 5 Hens / m2 nest (collective) 120

(1) density can go up to 8 birds / m2 if the house is equipped with slats (2) make sure that all the birds have at least an access to 2 nipples Darkening The risk of pecking is always higher in open-sided buildings when natural light intensity is high, so we advice that production houses are fully darkened. Naturally lit houses should be built with an east-west orientation to avoid the entry of sunlight at dawn and evening. In open-sided houses, to reduce light intensity and minimize pecking behaviour, shading can be achieved by painting the windows, by avoiding reflective ceilings, by using netting wind-barriers to prevent penetration of sunlight at sunrise and sunset, and by using sliding shutters which allow control of the brightness of the building according to the season. Partitioning It is advisable to partition the house so as to get pens of some thousands hens. Partitioning should be opaque up to 60 cm to avoid smothering along the panels. Lighting Lighting should, preferably, be provided by incandescent bulbs, which allow a good spread of light intensity. The bulbs should be covered with lampshades. If lighting is provided by fluorescent tubes, there should be evenly distributed and of a warm colour (yellow or orange light spectrum). In all cases, it is recommended to install dimmers that allow adjusting the light intensity. If the building is dark and the pullets have been reared in dark houses, a light intensity of about 5 lux is adequate. The nests should not be too bright. For buildings with part floor / part slats, the


litter area should be correctly lit to prevent floor eggs. To prevent the nests being too bright, it is possible to improve the distribution of light by using blue or red coloured sticky tape on the lateral part of the fluorescent tubes. Floor eggs before lights on can be reduced by using night lights switched on one hour before lights on. This requires light fittings able to provide 0.5 lux light intensity to the birds.

Slats The height between the litter area and the slats should not exceed 60 cm: a greater height will result in floor-laying on the litter. Access to the slats will be made easier by providing ladders. The perches should be placed on the slats. At transfer, scatter a small amount of straw on the slats to encourage the birds to climb up. When the hens have access to a litter area, it can be worth fencing them on the slats for between 3 and 5 days. Feeding/Drinking Layer breeders must have fresh, clean, potable water readily available all time. The drinkers should be placed evenly over the whole house area, and the bottom of the round drinkers should be hanging to the height of the birds’ back. It may be convenient to have a water meter and a medication dosing pump installed in the water supply system. The height above the ground of drinkers and chain feeders should be arranged so that they do not restrict the movement of the birds and do not encourage floor-laying. Flat-chain floor feeder is the system best suited to layers breeders, because they can be emptied easily and the build-up of fine feed particles is avoided. They should be able to deliver feed very quickly (18 m/min). Tube and pan feeders are more difficult to empty and feed depth must be regulated correctly. It is not advisable to use any system in which the feeders cannot be emptied, or which does not give an even distribution of feed throughout the whole building. Perches Perches are useful in reducing the amount of aggression, especially at high stocking densities. In partly slatted floor system, the perches should be positioned on the slats so as to maintain good litter conditions. Distance between perches should be 40 cm and the angle between the perches and the slats should be 45°. Perch space should be 5 – 10 cm for each bird. Nests Nests should be evenly distributed in the laying house, by preference in the shade and easily accessible (one or two levels). At start of lay, automatic nests could be straw covered to avoid floor eggs. Installing a night light in the nests will help to reduce floor eggs by allowing the birds which lay too early, before lights on, to find the nest.


Electric Fence To discourage floor eggs and risks of smothering, an electric fence around the outside of the litter area and along the partitions may be useful. It should be fixed at 5 cm from the wall and 12 cm above the litter. It should be switched on at "lights on" and work during the period when eggs are laid. Broody pen The building should include 2 broody pens for keeping cocks at the beginning of production and later for treating the broody hens. For a 1,000 m² building, dimensions of each pen should be at least 25 m². Mating ratios In the breeder production house, keeping 9 % to maximum 10 % of males is sufficient to get proper performances. In cage system, it is recommended to keep 13 % of cocks in colony cages (natural mating) and 6 % of cocks when artificial insemination is used. On transfer, to minimize the risk of aggressiveness, and especially if males have been reared separated, we recommend that the percentage of cocks does not exceed 6%. The rest of the cocks will be kept on standby in the broody pen. At the beginning of production males can show an aggressive behaviour and encircle the females, which will prevent normal feeding. This will affect body growth and hatchability. If this behaviour is observed, we recommend that at least 30% of these males are held in reserve and introduced progressively. In this case, as of 10% lay, the males will be progressively re-introduced as rate of lay increases, a few each day, distributed evenly over the building, during the hours of darkness. The risk of aggressiveness due to returning males will thus be kept to a minimum. During production, it is important to have a pen for placing aggressive cocks at the beginning of production and to separate broody hens to be treated. Control of behaviour Beak trimming This operation is normally carried out for two main reasons: to prevent feather pecking and cannibalism and to reduce feed wastage. It is a delicate operation, which should only be performed by specially trained personnel. Poor beak trimming often leads to unevenness and, in some birds, causes difficulties with feeding and drinking.) Age of beak trimming The decision about age of beak trimming depends mostly on the housing system: for production in open-sided houses, giving exposure to high natural light intensity, one single beak tipping at 10 days will not prevent pecking entirely. If done too severely at that age, it will lead to a reduction in growth rate and uniformity. Under these conditions, beak trimming should be carried out twice: a light tipping at 10 days and then a second operation between 8 and 10 weeks of age. Spectacles or goggles considerably reduce the risks of pecking. If used, they enable the beak trimming performed at 8 – 10 weeks to be less severe


Before beak trimming, pay attention to the following points:

- Do not beak trim birds if the flock is not in good health or if it is suffering from vaccine reactions

- Add vitamin K to the drinking water 48 hours prior to trimming and after to prevent haemorrhages

- Check the equipment and make sure that the trimming blade has the right temperature to cauterize but not too high to form a blister on the beak later. If temperature is too low, bleeding can occur.

Beak trimming at about 10 days:

- Choose carefully the correct diameter hole on the beak-tipping machine, so as to cut the beak at least 2 mm from the nostrils.

- Hold the chick in one hand, with the thumb behind the head, holding the head firmly in position resting the beak on the forefinger

- Tilt the chick’s beak upwards at an angle of 15 º above horizontal and cauterize the reinforced side edges of the beak, to avoid unequal re-growth of the 2 mandibles.

- Cauterization contact time should be between 2 and 2.5 seconds - Check the temperature of the blade (600 º - 650 º C), for each operator an machine every

hour Beak trimming at 8 - 10 weeks:

- Insert a finger between the 2 mandibles - Cut the beak perpendicularly at a right angle to its long axis, so that after cauterization

about half of the length of the beak between the tip and the nostrils is left - Cauterize each mandible with care, particularly at the sides of the beak, so as to round off

the sides of the beak and avoid lateral re-growth - Check regularly the temperature of the blade (650 º - 750 º C).

Beak trimming at transfer:

This very late operation is not recommended since the pullets are very close to the sexual maturity and will have short time to recover normal feed intake and body weight. However, during transfer it is advisable to re-check the beaks and, if necessary, to touch up the beaks of any birds which require it.

After beak trimming, pay attention to the following points:

- Increase the water level in the drinkers and the pressure in the pipes to make easy for the birds to drink

- Make sure that the depth of the feed is adequate, do not empty the feeders for a week following beak trimming

Pecking and prolapse Prolapse and/or pecking at the cloaca is one important reason for mortality seen early in lay or later in the laying period. Good management will reduce the amount of pecking and prolapse. Pecking the oviduct or vent picking When an egg is laid, there is a momentary extraversion of the oviduct. Under certain conditions, like high light intensity, poor nest quality etc. the protruded oviduct can be pecked by other birds; repeated pecking attacks at the vent area usually leads to bird’s death. Uncomfortable nests or insufficient nests will cause floor eggs or the bird to sit wrongly in the nest (head away from opening) - which will increase the risk of pecking especially if light intensity is high.


High light intensity can also be responsible for increased nervousness and pecking. Once set off, pecking is very hard to stop. Reducing light intensity and fitting spectacles are useful systems to minimize it. To prevent pecking, we advise:

- controlling light intensity : o housing breeders preferably in dark houses o shading open-sided houses (painting windows…) and avoiding direct sunlight in

the morning and evening o using artificial lights with warm colours

- installing perches in the production house - providing comfortable nests and sufficient in number - avoiding any feed deficiency and under consumption

o sufficient feeder space o rapid feed distribution system

- avoiding a too high energy level and using a correct level of coarse fibre - avoiding crumble or pellet feed (responsible for reduced feed consumption time) - avoiding stress, parasites (internal and external) and enteritis - providing good quality litter to keep birds occupied - performing good quality trimming

To the extent allowed by the regulations, fitting spectacles (on females only) considerably reduces pecking. The following rules must be respected:

- choose good quality spectacles and grips which will stay put over the whole lifetime of the flock ,

- always replace spectacles lost during the production period, - if the rearing and production period drinking equipment are similar, spectacles should be

fitted 10 days prior to transfer, - if the rearing and production period drinking equipment is not similar, spectacles should

be fitted at least 10 days after transfer. In this case, we recommend scheduling an early transfer.

- after fitting spectacles, the water level in the round drinkers should be high enough to avoid any drinking problems.

Prolapse The prolapse is the result of wounds and total extraversion of the cloaca and oviduct, leading to rapid death. This occurs with birds that are too lean at point of lay or with fatty pullets. Giving light stimulation to underweight birds will push pullets into lay before their body frame is sufficiently developed and will increase the risk of prolapse. Giving excessively large light increments will also increase the incidence of prolapse and double yolks. Fat pullets are also more prone to prolapse since excess of fat contributes to lower elasticity and tone of the tissues involved in egg laying. To avoid prolapse we advise:

- make sure the flock is uniform at rearing - ensure target bodyweight for age by getting a steady growth since early age - avoid excess weight (i.e., fattening) during rearing - avoid any sudden increase in light period


Smothering Floor-reared pullets sometimes have a tendency to crowd together. This natural behaviour can be triggered by different situations:

- Reaction of panic : when birds are frightened, they try to avoid dangers - Attraction : when they are attracted by something, as they are curious and want to find

feed and discover their environment - Sleeping behaviour: it enables them to reduce the loss of body heat during the night, to

maintain social links between them and to protect against dangers. Smothering during rearing During the period around 6 to 12 weeks of age there is sometimes and increased tendency to crowd together especially in the dark period. There is an increased risk of smothering:

- when the night temperatures are too low - if the birds have not been able to eat enough feed before "lights out" - in case of parasites (coccidiosis) or vaccine reaction - when birds are reared at high stocking density

Frightening events like sudden noise, lighting flashes or animals coming in can also lead to smothering. Good temperature control and feeding towards the end of the day help to reduce the risk of smothering. A feed distribution in the last few minutes before "lights out" contributes to conserve the body heat (heat produced in the digestion process). In dark poultry houses, or during short day periods in naturally lit or half-dark houses, smothering can be avoided by:

- bringing forward the times of "lights on" and "lights out" by half an hour or an hour as soon as the tendency is noticed : lights should be out after sunset

- not delaying “lights out” - using perches to reduce the number of birds on the floor - using a electric fence along the partitions.

If the birds crowd together at “lights out”, break up the groups. Some daytime smothering may also occur, most likely due to sunlight getting in the building, to any stress or to sudden changes in feeding schedule. Smothering during lay Smothering may occur during lay for a number of different reasons:

- in the evening at “lights out”, - along partitions, due to curiosity (presence of egg collection staff), - following a change in feeding times or due to lack of feeding or drinking equipment, - sunlight getting in.


Prevention is based on:

- using opaque (including doorways) partitions up to about 60 cm, to obtain pens of a few thousands birds

- putting an electric fence along the partitions, - using perches - fitting spectacles - making sure the time of lights out is after sunset - controlling the ventilation : obtaining a uniform environment in the house and avoiding

draughts - distributing grit or cereals on the litter after lay.

When the birds tend to crowd together, we advice not to collect eggs between the end of the morning and the first feed distribution If the birds crowd together, gently break up the groups and try to find out why, so as to be able to take preventive action. Broodiness Broodiness can appear in certain flocks in case of stress or when they are underweight. Broodiness can be identified by characteristic behaviour patterns: staying in the nest without laying eggs and defending the nest by fluffing feathers, clucking and showing aggression. A broody patch will develop on the abdomen where feathers are lost. To avoid broodiness we advice:

- preventing floor laying (floor laying leads to broodiness) - closing nests in the evening, about 4 hours before lights out (as soon as all eggs are

produced) - frequent egg collection - avoiding leaving broody hens to brood on the floor, to reduce the spread of the behaviour - avoiding very high population densities which also effect the feeder and drinker space per

bird The length of time of pause in lay depends upon rapid action.

Time broody Pause in lay 1 day 7 days 2 days 9 days 3 days 12 days 4 days 18 days According to B. Sauveur (INRA)

The objective should be treating each broody bird as quickly as possible in order to limit the pause in lay and the spread of the behaviour. To break up broodiness, we advise isolation of broody hens from the moment they appear (in the evening it will be easier and more convenient) and put them in a spacious pen, well ventilated, on a concrete or slatted floor, without a nest and with feed and water available at all times. Stocking density in the broody pen must not be higher than 6 birds / m². At the end of 4 days, those birds which respond (widening of pelvic bones) can be put back with the flock.


Treatment will be more effective by dipping the broody hens in cold water for 20 to 30 seconds and administering aspirin (a 125 mg tablet) before transfer to the broody pen. The best system is to have 2 broody pens: the birds picked up on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday are put in the first pen where they stay until the following Monday; the other pen is used for the other days and follows a similar time lapse. Floor Eggs Locating the spots and times where floor eggs are laid will help to determine the cause and find the remedy. Noting the behaviour of the birds is important. Isolated shady spots encourage floor eggs, and should be eliminated. The reduction in the percentage of floor eggs is related to the quality of management skills at beginning of production. At the moment of lay, the bird will look for a quiet spot where she can lay without risk of aggression when the oviduct is extraverted. If the nests are not comfortable or insufficient in number, the bird will lay in shady corners or under feeders or drinkers. In houses with slats the feeder chain should be placed directly on the slats. A comfortable nest must be a quiet spot which allows the bird to avoid aggression. For this, the head of the bird should be facing out of the nest. Noting the percentage of birds facing out is a good indication of comfort. Main factors influencing floor eggs

1. Number of nests and nest comfort

The usual norm is about 1 individual nest for every 5 hens or 1 m² of collective nest for 120 hens, but assuming that the nests are comfortable and easy for the hens to enter. Hens prefer a relatively deep nest with no air draughts, with 2 perches for the lower level and one for the upper, both set lower than the lip of the nest (if 2 or 3 levels). The depth of the nest is an important aspect of comfort for the birds: if needed, reduce opening size to 18 cm to provide a lip or sill of 8 cm deep. If necessary, the attractiveness of the nests can be increased at the beginning of lay by leaving eggs in the nest and putting straw in the nests. 2. Collecting floor eggs

At the beginning of lay, it is important to collect frequently any eggs laid on the floor (each hour during the lay hours) and to record the number of floor eggs. It is helpful to pick up birds that are laying on the floor and egg and gently place them in the nest. To get a good idea of the rate of floor laying, we advise to collect them every hour since lights on at the beginning of lay. 3. Lighting

Insufficient light length can encourage floor eggs if the birds lay before lights are on. In case of floor eggs, check for them at the moment of lights on; if they are found, increase light duration.


From 5% production, gradually increase day-length in order to achieve 16 hrs by 60% lay in brown egg breeders. Floor-laying before lights on can also be prevented using night lights which come on 1 hour before “lights on” or installing lights in the nests. Fluorescent lights are not recommended, since the light spread is not even throughout the house. It is better to have many incandescent bulbs of low power which can be dimmed. Avoid isolated shady spots: in partly slatted floor houses, the floor area must be well lit especially at the slat limit. 4. Other factors

Unsuitable feeding times can lead to floor-laying. Feed distribution during the time of oviposition can lead to floor eggs near the feeding equipment and increase the number of dirty eggs. Feeder height should be set as low or as high as possible according to the type of installation, to promote bird movement. Feeding chains can be put directly on the slats. An electric fence along the partitions will reduce floor eggs in that area.


Nutrition Rearing period Feeding during the rearing period Energy Level During the first few weeks of life, meat type chickens just like young pullets are incapable of regulating their energy intake according to the energy concentration of the diet. It takes weeks to develop the digestive tract. During the first 8-10 weeks, any increase in the energy level is accompanied by an increase in growth. When given the feed in a crumb form, young pullets are able to increase their feed intake. The table below shows the influence of energy level and presentation method on the bodyweight of pullets at 5 weeks of age.

Presentation. Dietary Energy Level

Mash Bodyweight at 5 weeks

Crumbs Bodyweight at 5 Weeks

3100 kcal 375 g 412 g 2790 kcal 345 g 405 g

Newcombe (1985) After 10 weeks of age, pullets correctly regulate their energy intake according to the energy level of the diet in both hot and temperate climates. Under consumption during that period is often the result of a poor grit size. The objective is to develop the pullet's ability to eat feed, so that it can increase its consumption by approximately 40% in the first few weeks of lay. During the period 10 - 17 weeks, it is important to develop the digestive system by using diets with an energy concentration less than or equal to that of the layer's diet. Protein Requirements The amino acid requirements are to a large extent dependent on the feed conversion ratio and, therefore on age; that is why, when young the requirements expressed in mg of amino-acids per g of growth are the same as a broiler. The table below shows the influence of amino acid content on the weight of pullets at 4 weeks Ration 100 % 90 % (in % of the recommendations) Protein (%) 20 18 Digestible Lysine (%) 1.01 0.91 Digestible Methionine+Cystine (%) 0.76 0.69 Weight at 4 weeks (g) 335 302

Bougon 1997 Any delay in growth during the first few weeks will be reflected in a reduced bodyweight at 17 weeks and in later performance. It is, therefore, extremely important to use a starter diet for the first 4 or 5 weeks, which has an amino acid/protein ratio similar to that of the broiler. Any amino acid deficiency will result in a reduction in growth rate and an increase in the FCR

Amino Acid content of diets (in % of the recommendations)

100 % 90 %

Bodyweight at 28 days (g) 335 302 Bodyweight at 118 days (g) 1685 1630 Feed consumption (g) 6951 6904 Feed conversion ratio 4.12 4.24

Bougon 1997


In hot climates, the amino acids and minerals concentrations should be slightly higher than in temperate climates. That results in a reduction in the maintenance requirement, and, therefore in the feed conversion ratio. Feed Presentation Feed consumption is determined to a large extent by the form of presentation and the stage to which the digestive tract has developed. Presenting feed in crumb form makes it easier for the chicken to eat it, reduces the time taken in eating, and encourages growth. The energy cost of eating, thus saved, gives an improvement in feed conversion ratio.

Form of Dietary Presentation Mash Crumbs Difference

Weight at 70 days (g) 984 1016 + 32 g

Weight at 99 days (g) 1344 1405 + 61 g

Weight at 123 days (g) 1589 1664 + 75 g

Source: ISA/CNEVA, 1996 This benefit of feeding crumbs will only be obtained when the birds have access to good quality crumbs in the feeders. A poor quality crumb can lead to a build up in fine particles in the feeders and, therefore have the opposite effect to that sought. From 0 to 4/5 weeks, we recommend using a crumbed diet, after which mash, with a good particle size, should be used. It is, however, possible to use a granular feed later, where the grinding is coarser, or even as crumbs, if need be. However, we recommend using a mash diet from 12 weeks to avoid a risk of under consumption at the beginning of the sexual maturity if the change is made later. The bird's appetite for feed depends to a large extent on its particle size. After 4 weeks, we recommend the following particle sizes:

Particles below 0.5 mm: 15 % maximum Particles above 3.2 mm: 10 % maximum

At least 75 to 80 % of the particles should be between 0.5 and 3.2 mm. If this standard cannot be achieved, it is preferable to use a diet of good quality crumbs. Development of the digestive system The achievement of good growth and a rapid increase in feed consumption at start of lay depends on the chicken having a well-developed digestive system, especially a good strong gizzard. Using feed of good particle size, giving grit during rearing and/or using limestone granules from 10 weeks will all contribute towards good gizzard development. Between 3 and 10 weeks, we recommend that 3 g per pullet per week (particle size 2 to 3 mm) are offered. After 10 weeks this can be increased to 4 to 5 g (particle size 3 to 5 mm). It is also possible from 10 weeks onwards to use a diet 50 % of the calcium is supplied in carbonate form with a particle size of 2 - 4 mm. Feed specification during rearing period Those requirements are based on the “European Amino acids Table” (WPSA, 1992) of raw materials composition and expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned


in the “Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matières premières destinées aux animaux d’élevage” (INRA editions 2002)

Between 18 & 24 °C

Diet Starter Grower Pullet Pre - lay Units 0 - 4 weeks 4 - 10 weeks 10 - 16 weeks 112 days to 1 - 28 days 28 - 70 days 70 - 112 days 2 % lay

Metabolisable energy kcal/kg 2950-2975 2850-2875 2750 2750 MJ/kg 12.3-12.4 11.9-12.0 11.5 11.5 Crude protein % 20.5 19 16 16,8 Methionine % 0.52 0.45 0.33 0,40 Methionine + Cystine % 0.86 0.76 0.60 0.67 Lysine % 1.16 0.98 0.74 0.80 Threonine % 0.78 0.66 0.50 0.56 Tryptophan % 0.217 0.194 0.168 0.181 Digestible amino acids Dig. Methionine % 0.48 0.41 0.30 0.38 Dig. Meth. + Cystine % 0.78 0.66 0.53 0.60 Dig. Lysine % 1.00 0.85 0.64 0.71 Dig. Threonine. % 0.67 0.57 0.43 0.48 Dig. Tryptophan % 0.186 0.166 0.145 0.155 Major minerals Calcium % 1.05 - 1.10 0.90 - 1.10 0.90 - 1.00 (1) 2 - 2.10 (1) Available Phosphorus % 0.48 0.42 0.36 0.42 Chlorine minimum % 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 Sodium minimum % 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.15

Above 24 ° C Diet Starter Grower Pullet Pre - lay Units 0 - 5 weeks 5 - 10 weeks 10 - 16 weeks 112 days to 1 - 35 days 35 - 70 days 70 - 112 days 2 % lay

Metabolisable energy kcal/kg 2950-2975 2850-2875 2750 2750 MJ/kg 12.3-12.4 11.9-12.0 11.5 11.5 Crude protein % 20.5 20.0 16.8 17.5 Methionine % 0.52 0.47 0.35 0.42 Methionine + Cystine % 0.86 0.80 0.63 0.70 Lysine % 1.16 1.03 0.78 0.84 Threonine % 0.78 0.69 0.53 0.59 Tryptophan % 0.217 0.207 0.175 0.190 Digestible amino acids Dig. Methionine % 0.48 0.43 0.32 0.40 Dig. Meth. + Cystine % 0.78 0.69 0.56 0.63 Dig. Lysine % 1.00 0.89 0.67 0.74 Dig. Threonine. % 0.67 0.61 0.45 0.50 Dig. Tryptophan % 0.195 0.175 0.152 0.163 Major minerals Calcium % 1.05 - 1.10 0.95 - 1.10 0.95 - 1.05 (1) 2.1 - 2.2 (1) Available Phosphorus % 0.48 0.44 0.38 0.44 Chlorine minimum % 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.15 Sodium minimum % 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.16 (1) : To avoid falls in food consumption, 50% of the calcium should be supplied in granular form (diameter = 2 to 4 mm)


PRODUCTION PERIOD Feeding program during the production period

Basic rules of our Feeding Program Feeding the birds has to be simple, to reduce the risk of errors at varying levels in the manufacturing and delivery process. There are also additional reasons which are related to the birds directly. For example, birds are very sensitive to the feed presentation and the introduction of new raw materials, for this reason we recommend a limited number of feed changes. Amino acids requirements depend of the productivity of the flocks and from the uniformity of the productivity. Our amino acids recommendations are based on an average productivity of 60 g per day. At 50 weeks, the egg mass produced is around 58 g. A lot of birds are able to produce more than 60g of egg mass over a period of 50 – 65 weeks. This is the reason why is difficult to reduce the amino acids levels after 50 weeks without affecting the productivity. A deficiency in amino acids reduces in a first time egg weight and in a second time the persistency, around 4 or 5 weeks later. Pre- lay Feed or Layer 1 Medullary bone is developed in long bone before the first ovulation. The total calcium contained in this medullary is around 1.5 to 2 grams. A pre-layer feed with a higher calcium level is needed to establish this bone reserve. It has to be used from approximately 16 weeks. Its characteristics are similar to the layer 1, but with a level of calcium of 2 – 2.2%. Don’t forget to use the Layer 1 before 2% lay. If the change is realized later, the earliest birds ingest around 1,8g of calcium and need to produce a shell with 2g of calcium. They will stop or reduce laying for some days and will produce eggs without shell. These birds will exhibit cage layer fatigue later and osteoporosis at end of lay. We think that the risk will be reduced by using a layer 1 instead of a pre-lay feed. However, if the limestone is in 2-4 mm particles form, it is possible to use the layer 1 at 16 weeks. The main reason for the use of pre-lay feed was the risk of under consumption when the limestone used was in powder form. Layer 1 Layer 1 has to be satisfying the amino acids requirements for growth and production at a moment where the feed consumption is lower. At start of lay feed consumption is lower because the birds have not yet reached their adult body weight. Growth is not completely finished by 28 weeks. With regard to protein, a requirement for growth is added to the requirement for production. From a practical point of view, we have estimated that it is necessary to increase the concentration of amino acids by about 6 % during the 18-28 week period in relation to the feed consumption observed after 28 weeks. This feed has to be used until the moment that the feed consumption is normal or an average egg size of 60-61g is obtained or around 26-28 weeks. At the onset of lay, it is desirable to encourage feed consumption and quickly to obtain eggs of suitable size. For this, a feed enriched in fat allows to improve the presentation of diet which gives an


increase in feed consumption. Oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids are responsible for a large increase in egg weight. Layer 2 This feed has to be used from 26-28 weeks until 50 weeks or end of lay. If it is possible, it will be good to increase the limestone level at 50 weeks to reduce the percentage of seconds. Birds have daily requirements for amino-acids and minerals; consequently, the percentage of nutrients has to be defined according to the feed consumption observed. The feed consumption depends mainly of the energy requirement and of the temperature Layer 3 Amino acids requirement: Taking into account persistency in lay, individual variability and egg weight, the requirement for amino acids does not fall throughout the laying period. In an economic context, it may be worth reducing the safety margins slightly. However, the best results, in terms of productivity and feed conversion ratio, are obtained, when one maintains the intake level of amino acids. Any deficiency of amino acids, no matter, which type of amino acid, shows up as a reduction in performance, of which 2/3 is due to a reduction in rate of lay and the remaining 1/3 is a decrease in mean egg weight. It is, therefore, not possible to reduce egg weight towards the end of lay by reducing the amino acid concentration without bringing about a reduction in rate of lay. Persistency in lay has improved considerably (30 to 35 weeks above 90% lay). An analysis of the individual performance over the period 40-66 weeks shows that 66 % of the birds had performance above average. The 40 % best layers had laid 177 eggs in 182 days and /or 63.2 g of egg mass per day. Productivity of a sample of 694 pullets hatched in 2001 during the period 40-66 weeks

Quintile Rate of lay Egg Mass/day

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

98.2 % 96.3 % 94.1 % 90.1 % 76.6 %

65.0 g 61.4 g 59.1 g 56.0 g 47.8 g

Mean 91.0 % 57.8 g % of pullets above the mean 66.3 % 60.4 %

ISA 2002 Egg weight: A reduction of the oil percentage and energy level is a way to get a stabilization of the egg weight. Shell quality: Shell weight increases with age throughout lay. For that reason, we advise increasing the calcium concentration in the diet from 50 weeks of age.

Age of the control

Number of eggs controlled

Eggshell weight (g)

Shell Weight at 30 weeks g 923 6,25



Shell Weight at 60 weeks g 732 6,51 ISA 2006


Which energy level during the production period? Influence of the energy level on productivity We studied the results of many experiments on the effect of the feed energy level on the production made during the last 15 years with white or brown strains. Main conclusions are the following. Between 2400 and 3000 kcal, for an energy level reduction of 100 kcal, the energy consumption drops by an average of 1.2 % when the effect of diluting the feed is studied and by 1.4% when the reduction in fat levels is studied. The energy level of the feed has little effect on the number of eggs produced, and, in all cases, the differences are less than 1%. The egg weight reduces in accordance with the reduction in the feed energy level. The reduction can be estimated at about 0.5% or 0.3g for a variation of 100 kcal. The consumption rate, expressed in kcal per gram of egg produced, always improves with the dilution of the feed. The gain is about 0.8% for 100 kcal. This rate gain is a result of a reduction in body weight, an improvement in feather cover and an improvement in the digestibility of the feed. In many experiments the addition of fats seems to have a specific effect on the energy consumption due to an improvement in palatability and the physical form of the feed. When the feed is diluted, the reduction in consumption is particularly marked at the time of the change. Laying hens take several weeks to increase their level of consumption gradually. Influence of the fiber level on productivity Feed dilution forces hens to increase the volume and quantity of feed ingested and, therefore, to increase the feed consumption time. There is no longer any doubt that feed dilution brings about an improvement in plumage and a reduction in feather picking itself. This explains the mortality reduction observed in certain trials using diluted diets. Comparison between feed in meal or pellet form shows that the consumption times are lower when the feed is in pellet or crumb form. This explains why feed in pellet form causes deterioration in plumage and increases feather picking. Even though most researchers are in agreement over establishing a relationship between consumption time and feather picking, some very recent studies show a specific requirement for insoluble fibre. Indeed, it appears that there is a specific requirement for insoluble fibre. The absence of insoluble fibre in the feed is responsible for the consumption of feathers and their presence in the gizzard, even when hens are housed in individual cages. Some studies make it possible to conclude that insoluble fibre do have an effect on the quality of plumage and on mortality. The specific size of the fibre, mainly lignin, would seem to be important. We have noted that countries using sunflower meal in quite significant quantities have lower mortalities than those of countries that do not use it, whether using cages or floor systems. Very positive effects were observed after the introduction of sunflower meal to feed for free-range hens. Effect of granulometry Feed consumption is highly dependant upon granulometry. Chickens have a marked preference for grains. They are easy to pick up and do not lead to beaks becoming clogged. A hen will always tend to leave fine particles. We (ISA, 1999) carried out the following trial: a commercial feed, of good particle size, was re-milled through a finer screen. The feeds were distributed from 19 weeks of age.


Influence of feed granulometry on performance of laying hens between 23 and 51 weeks

Particle size Standard Fine Difference in %

< 0.5 mm 9 % 31 % > 3.2 mm 10 % 0 % 0.5 to 3.2 mm 81 % 69 %

> 1.6 mm 65 % 21 %

Laying, % 93.9 90.7 - 3.4 Egg weight, g 63.3 62.7 - 0.9 Egg mass, g/j 59.41 56.85 - 4.3 Consumption, g/j 118.1 114.2 - 3.4 Consumption Index 1.989 2.008 + 0.9 Weight at 33 wks (g) 1.930 1.883

ISA, 1999 Feed consumption is reduced by about 4 g when the feed is finely ground. This leads to a reduction of egg mass produced. Distribution of fine feed is equivalent to rationing for hens. In this experiment, the laying rate proves to be affected more than the egg weight. Sometimes in other experiments, the reverse is observed. Conclusion Energy regulation is not specific to a breed, white egg layers or brown egg layers, but depends on the dilution methods used. The feed density (gm per litre) seems to be the limiting factor in ingestion regulation. The presence of insoluble fibre appears to be essential. It increases gizzard size, improves starch digestibility and limits feather picking by reducing the need to ingest feathers. Conversely, the addition of fats brings about an improvement in feed palatability and thus an increase in energy ingestion in proportions which can be very significant. Increase in egg weight is only one result of this. These effects are dependent upon the quantity and type of fats added. From a practical point of view, the effect of low density, high cellulose (insoluble fibre) raw materials may be balanced by the use of fats. The feed presentation also has an effect on energy consumption. Too fine feed presentation causes a reduction in energy consumption. It thus appears that the 3 following factors must be controlled: the physical form of the feed, the cellulose content and the oil content. A balance between these 3 criteria must be sought in order to make possible the expression of genetic potential at a lower cost. Principal applications and recommendations At the onset of lay, it is desirable to encourage feed consumption and quickly to obtain eggs of suitable size. For this, a feed enriched in fat (1.5 to 2.5 %) and incorporating a minimum of insoluble fibre is recommended. After the onset of lay, a slightly lower energy level, richer in cellulose, will allow a good energy efficiency to be obtained (expressed in kcal) and plumage to be maintained. This strategy could be particularly beneficial in the absence of ground litter. From the practical point of view, the effect of raw materials which are rich in cellulose (insoluble fibre) and of low density can be compensated by the use of fat. Feed granulometry also affects energy consumption. Particles which are too fine lead to a reduction in consumption.


Amino acids requirements for layer Parent Stock Genetic progress and nutritional consequences Just as for the other species, genetic progress has a considerable influence on dietary amino acid concentrations. Over the last 30 years, production to a constant age has increased by more than 40 %, while feed consumption has been reduced by about 10 %. An important consequence of this genetic progress has been a change in the daily amino acid requirements. It has also called into question the practice of phase feeding, since productivity remains high over longer and longer periods. The best units nowadays have daily egg outputs of over 60 g/bird right up to 52 weeks of age. The implication of genetic change in deciding amino acid levels is, therefore, considerable. It can be approached in the following way:

Feed conversion ratio over the period 30-50 weeks: 1971: 2.87 g of feed / g of egg 1981: 2.36 g of feed / g of egg 2005: 1.95 (-17%) g of feed / g of egg

Classically, daily nutrient requirements have been expressed in mg / day. While this type of expression may be very easy for the formulator to use, it does not allow for genetic progress, nor for genotypic differences. Those genotypes, which produce large eggs, have larger daily requirements than those, which produce small eggs. Most researchers agree to the expression of nutrient requirements in mg of amino acids per gram of eggs produced. This method enables us to tackle the « requirement » starting from numerous experimental data sources. It is more precise. The synthesis that we have carried out according to this method shows it to be an excellent way of determining requirements. Ideal protein and amino acids requirements The concept of ideal proteins is a means of expressing the requirements for amino acids as a percentage of the requirement for LYS. There is a limited interest in applying this concept to layers. It implies that a balance between the different amino acids is necessary for optimizing requirements. That would suggest that high protein or amino acid levels would have a negative effect on performance. In fact the formulator should make a point of satisfying the requirement for the following amino acids: MET - CYS - LYS - THR - TRP - ISO and VAL. This is only valid for diets and raw materials in common usage. Those requirements, which need to be defined by comparison with reference tables, have been expressed from the “European Amino acids Table” WPSA, 1992, of raw materials composition.

These results have been expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the “Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matières premières destinées aux animaux d’élevage” INRA editions 2002.

Digestible Tryptophan value are not given by the INRA tables, consequently we used values given in the “Rhodimet Nutrition Guide” 2003, from Adisseo).

Giving the expression in the digestible form has enabled to reduce the variability of the results observed.


Recommendations for amino acids expressed in total or digestible and ideal proteins established for a production of 59.5 egg mass per day.

Limiting amino acids

Ideal Protein based on European

Table 2002

Requirements in mg per g Daily Requirementsbased on European table 2002 based on European table 2002

Dig. AA Total AA Dig. AA Total AA

LYS MET

MET + CYS TRY

100 53 82

22,2

13.34 7.1

10.9 3.00

15,0 7.56 12.1 3.50

795 420 650 178

895 450 720 208

ILE 90 12.2 13.35 725 795 VAL 96 13.0 14.35 775 855 THR 70 9.4 11.0 560 655

ISA 2008

Feed formulation Digestible Amino Acids: Bird requirements and formulation of diets should be made in terms of digestible amino acids. By formulating in digestible Amino Acids we are better able to satisfy the requirements of the birds, to reduce the necessary safety margins and assess the raw materials according to their true biological value. Formulation according to total amino acids leads to the same nutritional value being given to all raw materials irrespective of their digestibility. That leads naturally to increasing the safety margins in order to guarantee fully meeting the requirements of the birds. Protein Requirements: When diets are formulated by taking into account the need to satisfy the requirement for each of the 7 essential amino acids, it doesn't seem to be necessary to introduce a minimal constraint for protein. The requirements for the limiting amino acids are generally enough. On the other hand, if all the essential amino acids are not taken into account when formulating, it is necessary to use a constraint for minimum protein, so as to reduce the risk of a deficiency. Limiting factors: The experience acquired during the last decades in the feeding of layers, especially the use of synthetic lysine, has enabled us to assert that ISOLEUCINE and VALINE are becoming the limiting factors in layers feeds when meat products are excluded from the feed or when they are used in formulae based on wheat. TRYPTOPHAN is the limiting factor in formulae, where the base consists of maize, soybean meal and meat products. THREONINE and still less ARGININE do not appear to be limiting in the diets used nowadays. These last two amino acids need to be studied still further. When the requirements for ISO, VAL and TRY are covered, the requirements for the other essential and non-essential amino acids are always satisfied when 300 mg of protein per gram of egg is supplied. When the feed formula takes into account the requirements ISOLEUCINE and VALINE, it is not necessary to impose a constraint for a minimum protein level. Feed consumption and formulation: The amino acid concentration of the diets, therefore, depends on: the potential of egg mass produced, which itself determines the daily requirements the daily feed consumption which determines the amino acid concentration the feed efficiency at peak of production given the amino acid concentration in dividing the requirement expressed


Amino acids recommendations for layer Parent Stock Daily amino acid requirements during production depend on the level of lay and growth. Grandparent and Parent Stock requirements do not differ from commercial layers. The safety margins have been increased (5%) so as to avoid any nutritional deficiency. Formulation of layer's diets can be carried out by introducing ISOLEUCINE and VALINE as nutritional constraints replacing protein as a constraint. If this is not possible, we give hereafter some indications for a minimum of protein for feed not containing Meat and Bone Meal (MBM). From a practical point of view, we estimate that it is necessary to increase the concentration of amino acids by about 6 % during the 18-28 weeks period in relation to the feed consumption observed after 28 weeks. Total or digestible amino acids levels are established for a production of 59.5 g egg mass per day.

Average feed intake observed after 28 wks in g / day

105 110 115 120 125

FROM 2 % LAY TO 28 WEEKS OLD (1)

Protein w/o MBM % (19.0) (18.4) 17,8 (17.2) (16.6) Total amino acids % :

Lysine 0,95 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,80 Methionine 0,48 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,40 Methionine + Cystine 0,76 0,73 0,70 0,67 0,64 Tryoptophan 0,221 0,210 0,201 0,193 0,185 Threonine 0,69 0,66 0,63 0,61 0,58 Isoleucine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,74 0,71 Valine 0,91 0,87 0,83 0,79 0,76 Digestible amino acids % : Lysine 0,84 0,80 0,77 0,74 0,71 Methionine 0,45 0,43 0,41 0,39 0,38 Methionine + Cystine 0,69 0,66 0,63 0,60 0,58 Tryoptophan 0,189 0,180 0,172 0,165 0,158 Threonine 0,59 0,57 0,54 0,52 0,50 Isoleucine 0,77 0,73 0,70 0,67 0,64 Valine 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72 0,69

FROM 28 WEEKS TO THE END OF LAY

Protein w/o MBM % (18.2) (17.6) (17.0) (16.5) (15.9) Total amino acids % :

Lysine 0,90 0,85 0,82 0,78 0,75 Methionine 0,45 0,43 0,41 0,39 0,38 Methionine + Cystine 0,72 0,69 0,66 0,63 0,60 Tryoptophan 0,208 0,199 0,190 0,182 0,175 Threonine 0,66 0,63 0,60 0,57 0,55 Isoleucine 0,80 0,76 0,73 0,70 0,67 Valine 0,86 0,82 0,78 0,75 0,72

Digestible amino acids % : Lysine 0,80 0,76 0,73 0,70 0,67 Methionine 0,42 0,40 0,39 0,37 0,35 Methionine + Cystine 0,65 0,62 0,59 0,57 0,55 Tryoptophan 0,178 0,170 0,163 0,156 0,150 Threonine 0,56 0,53 0,51 0,49 0,47 Isoleucine 0,72 0,69 0,66 0,63 0,61 Valine 0,77 0,74 0,71 0,68 0,65


Those requirements are based on the “European Amino acids Table” (WPSA, 1992) of raw materials composition and expressed as digestible amino acids by using the digestibility coefficients mentioned in the “Tables de composition et de valeur nutritive des matières premières destinées aux animaux d’élevage” (INRA editions 2002). Calcium nutrition and particles size Year after year, improvements in productivity are brought about by reducing the time taken to produce an egg. Nowadays, the time taken to produce the egg is close to 24 hours which enables us to achieve very high rates of production with eggs being laid early in the morning. Calcification of the eggshell takes about 12 hours being completed on average 2h - 2 h 30 min. before oviposition. Eggshell quality depends to a large extent on the quantity of calcium available in the digestive tract during the night and the form in which calcium carbonate is supplied play determining roles in deciding shell quality. Some differences exit between white and brown layers for a program of 16 hours of light:

Beginning of large calcium deposit 15h30 (+/- 2hrs) 12h30 (+/- 2hrs) End of calcium deposit 3h30 (+/- 2hrs) 0h30 (+/- 2hrs)

Calcification of the shell is mainly realised during the night. A high percentage of brown birds stop calcification at lights on or just after while white layers finished their shell after lights on. Calcium absorption During shell formation the bird uses the calcium contained in the digestive tract, it is dissolved by abundant secretion of hydrochloric acid. Regular gizzard contractions allow delivering calcium through intestine. When the quantity of calcium is insufficient, the bone reserves are used (the calcium is deposited and the phosphorus eliminated by the kidneys). It has been demonstrated many times that birds which are forced to use their bone reserves produce eggs of poorer shell quality. Sauveur (1988) said "the eggshells are thicker when the part played by the bones is small". Calcium deposition is slow during the first 5 hours after enter in the shell gland. After that and for approximately 10 hours, the rate of shell deposition is rapid and linear. Calcium absorption varies from approximately 30% to over 70% between periods without calcification and period of shell formation. For this reason, all increase in the quantity of calcium available at the end of the night lead to an improvement in shell quality. Importance of large limestone particle size Large size of calcium and retention: Large sizes of limestone (over 2 mm) are retained in the digestive tract and dissolved slowly during the shell formation providing a more regular release of calcium. The influence of particle size on the « in vitro » and « in vivo » solubility of calcium and its retention in the gizzard, 5 hours after food withdrawal

In Average (hours after lights on) White Layers Brown Layers


Diameter of limestone particles

average size (mm)

Solubility (%) In vitro In vivo Retention in the gizzard (g)

A B A B A B

3.3 – 4.7 29.8 36.3 84.8 82.5 15.4 3.4 2.0 – 2.8 45.8 54.8 79.0 84.0 11.8 4.3 1.0 – 2.0 49.3 57.7 77.8 74.4 5.5 4.7 0.5 – 0.8 63.1 67.6 76.5 69.4 0.7 1.6

A = low solubility sample B = high solubility sample Zhang et al (1997)

Relation between particle size and calcium retention for a consumption of 3.75 g calcium Size Particles

of Rejected in the Stored in the gizzard

Calcium retained

particles faeces After 24 hours g %

0.5 to.8 mm 44 % 0 1.94 52

2 to 5 mm 16 % 10 % 2.40 64

Rao and Roland (1989) Large size of calcium and shell quality: The availability of calcium at the end of the night period is improved in using a coarse calcium source with a low solubility. In using a low solubility coarse limestone, the quantity of calcium available during the beginning of shell formation is reduced and improved at the end of the night. The most important parameter is the solubility, lower is solubility and better will be the shell quality. Chen and Coon (1990) found a very high coefficient of regression between Shell Index and solubility. Coarse limestone with a high solubility is not able to optimize the shell quality. There is no advantage to use oyster shell if the limestone size and solubility are correct.

Av. Screen size (mm)

Shell index mg / cm²

Shell weight g

Specific gravity Shell thickness µm

3.36 75.6 5.27 1.0837 302 2.38 74.3 5.21 1.0839 290 1.68 74.0 5.23 1.0828 296 1.02 73.7 5.16 1.0825 294 0.50 73.0 5.05 1.0821 286 0.15 70.9 4.97 1.0802 280

Chen and Coon (1990) Importance of soluble form of calcium At "lights-on", those birds, which have not completed calcification should have access to powdered calcium, which is very rapidly dissolved and absorbed. It takes no more than 30 minutes between the intake of calcium and the moment where calcium is incorporated into the shell. Koreleski et al, 2003, studied which percentage of coarse particles of limestone has to be used with brown birds. The best result is observed with 60% of large particles.


The effect of the percentage of limestone in particles of 2 to 4mm on the shell characteristics

Percentage of large particles

used

Egg shell breaking strength

N

Shell weight g

Shell Index mg per cm²

Shell thickness µm

0 33.6a 5.70 78.3 365 20 35.4ab 5.80 78.9 365 40 38.0d 5.75 79.7 368 60 38.2d 5.88 80.8 374 80 36.9cd 5.70 79.1 364 100 36.1bc 5.89 81.4 370

Koreleski (2003) Recommendations White layers: They finished their eggshell after lights on, consequently 50% of the calcium has to be in particles of 2 to 4 mm and 50% in a powder form. Brown layers: Around 40% of birds have finished their eggshell at lights on, consequently 65% of the calcium has to be in particles of 2 to 4 mm and 35% in a powder form. Mineral and oil level recommendations

(1): When coarse limestone is supplied as particles of 2 to 4 mm, it is possible to use these values. (2): We advise using these values when the calcium is supplied in powder form. (3): Vegetable oil rich in unsaturated fatty acid improve egg weight, according to the requirement of the market and the appetence a level of 2 to 3% is required. To avoid egg size becoming too large at the end of lay, we advise reducing the quantity of vegetable oil being used.

DAILY REQUIREMENT

From 17 to 28 WEEKS

From 28 to 50 WEEKS

From after 50 WEEKS

Available phosphorus (1) mg 400 380 340 Available phosphorus (2) mg 440 420 380 Total Calcium g 3.9 – 4.1 4.1 – 4.3 4.3 – 4.6 White birds: Coarse Calcium (2 to 4mm) g

2.0 2.1 2.2

Brown birds: Coarse Calcium (2 to 4mm) g

2.6 2.7 2.9

Sodium minimum mg 180 180 180 Chlorine mini-maxi mg 170 - 260 170 - 260 170 - 260 Oil Mini-maxi (3) % 2 - 3 1 - 2 0.5 – 1.5 Fibre A minimum of coarse fibre or lignin is required to prevent

feather pecking and improve the feed digestibility


Average feed intake observed after 28 weeks

in g / day 105 110 115 120 125

FROM 2 % LAY TO 28 WEEKS OLD

Available phosphorus (1) % 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.34 Available phosphorus (2) % 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 Total Calcium % 3.9 - 4.1 3.8 – 4.0 3.6 - 3.8 3.4 – 3.6 3.3 – 3.5 Sodium minimum % 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15 Chlorine mini-maxi % 0.17 - 0.26 0.16 - 0.25 0.16 - 0.24 0.15 - 0.23 0.15 - 0.22 FROM 28 WEEKS TO 50 WEEKS

Available phosphorus (1) % 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 Available phosphorus (2) % 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.35 0.34 Total Calcium % 3.9 - 4.1 3.7 - 3.9 3.6 - 3.8 3.4 - 3.6 3.3 - 3.5 Sodium minimum % 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.14 Chlorine mini-maxi % 0.16 - 0.25 0.16 - 0.24 0.15 - 0.23 0.14 - 0.22 0.14 - 0.21

FROM 50 WEEKS TO THE END OF LAY

Available phosphorus (1) % 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 Available phosphorus (2) % 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.30 Total Calcium % 4.1 – 4.3 3.9 – 4.1 3.8 – 4.0 3.6 – 3.8 3.5 – 3.7 Sodium minimum % 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.14 Chlorine mini-maxi % 0.16 - 0.25 0.16 - 0.24 0.15 - 0.23 0.14 - 0.22 0.14 - 0.21


Feed presentation Importance of the feed particle size Mixing difficulties, inappropriate particle size and separation problems have been resolved by milling the raw materials relatively fine. However, diets, which are too finely ground, often seriously reduce feed intake. Low consumption has been avoided by using diets presented as crumbs or pellets. In effect, the ease of eating and the reduction in feeding time, due to pelleting, leads to an increase in the number of feeds taken by the birds and in their growth. This effect is observed in both laying hens and broiler chickens. Birds are grain eaters and their feed consumption depends on feed presentation. Pelleted or crumbled diets for layers In theory, presenting a diet in crumb or pellet form will give higher feed consumption. That presupposes that the feeding systems in operation and the raw materials used are providing the laying hen with a good quality pellet or crumb. Very often, the difficulties in obtaining a good quality crumb are responsible for under consumption and some technical problems because of:

- the breaking down of the crumb in the feed distribution system, - the build up of fine feed particles in the feeders, - more shell quality problem related to the difficulties to use a granular limestone, - more feather pecking due to a shorter feeding time, - the increased cost of manufacture. To develop a good digestive system it is necessary to have coarsely milled feed. With the intention of keeping good shell quality one can: - use granular limestone if the diameter of the diet is adapted, - add some of the limestone after pelleting, - distribute 3 to 4 g per bird of granular limestone (2 to 4mm) in the poultry house each afternoon. Mash diets of good texture During rearing, with the exception of the first 4 or 5 weeks, when the diet should be crumbs, a good particle size will allow good growth and the development of a robust digestive system. During the laying period, a good textured diet will allow the birds to increase their feed consumption, their production and their growth.


The table below shows the results of Summers and Leeson (1979) when they were comparing a fine mash with a diet 60 % cracked maize and whole barley grains. Cracked Maize

+ Whole Barley Fine Mash

Consumption (g/day) 114.5 102.0 Rate of lay (%) 86.9 85.1 Egg weight (g) 59.6 56.8

In hot climates, a good textured feed can reduce the under consumption experienced in summer. That's why, we advise having at least 75 to 80 % of the particles between 0.5 and 3.2 mm. This type of diet is in fact easier and cheaper to produce, because the rate of output from the grinder is increased. particle sizes less than 0.5 mm : 15 % maximum particle sizes above 3.2 mm : 10 % maximum These recommendations also apply to the rearing diets after the age of 4 or 5 weeks. The attractiveness of the diet improves markedly if the fine particles are sticking together. That can be achieved by the addition of 1.5 to 2.5 % vegetable oil. The choice of raw materials. One should avoid raw materials, which are too dusty, and not grind ingredients, which don't need grinding. When the diet does not contain meat meal 60 to 70% of the calcium carbonate should be supplied as granules of 2 - 4 mm diameter. When meat meal is included the proportion in granular form should be increased to 80%. The phosphates should be supplied as micro-granules. The technique of grinding. A good textured mash can be obtained by observing the following rules. The speed at the periphery of the hammers should be 50 to 55 m/sec. This speed corresponds to about 1500 rpm for a grinder of 65 cm diameter. We recommend using grill mesh screens in preference to those with round perforations. They have a higher proportion of spaces and allow higher throughputs. The hole diameters should be the following: for wire screens = 8 mm minimum, for screens with round perforations: 8 mm minimum, 10 mm maximum. It also depends on the raw materials being used. Using worn hammers gives an increase in the percentage of fine particles and reduces the output of the grinder. We advise milling only those raw materials, which need it. The texture of the ground materials should be checked at least twice a week.


Suggested premix composition We advice to use vitamins with an excellent stability and the use of an antioxidant. However, the stability during the feed processing is influenced by many factors (conditioning, temperature, pelleting, expansion, extrusion…). Some vitamins are more sensible than others. For these reasons, we have a specific recommendation for heat treated feed, taking in account the most recent knowledge. These recommendations could be used from day old to the end of the laying period.

ADDED VITAMINS PER KG OF FEED

Feed treatment Heat treated feed Standard feed

Vitamin A IU/kg 15 000 13 000 Vitamin D3 IU/kg 3 200 3 000 Vitamin E mg/kg 42 40 Vitamin K3 mg/kg 5 3 Vitamin B1 (thiamine) mg/kg 3.5 3 Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) mg/kg 10 10 Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) mg/kg 4.5 4 Vitamin B12 mg/kg 0.035 0.03 Niacin (PP) 55 50 Calcium Pantothenate mg/kg 17 15 Folic Acid mg/kg 2.8 2.5 Biotin mg/kg 0.25 0.25

Total Choline requirement per kg of diet (raw materials included)

Choline 0 to 5 weeks 1600 1600 Choline after 5 weeks 1400 1400 Choline in lay 160 160

ADDED TRACE ELEMENTS PER KG OF FEED

Manganese (Mn) mg/kg 70 Zinc (Zn) mg/kg 80 Iron (Fe) mg/kg 60 Iodine (I) mg/kg 1 Copper (Cu) mg/kg 8 Cobalt (Co) mg/kg 0.3 Selenium (Se) mg/kg 0.5

Remark: Vitamin C is synthesized by poultry. This vitamin is not considered as essential but in some circumstances, like stress or in hot climate, it can interesting to add it.


Mixing Trace elements and vitamins should be correctly mixed before being added to the raw materials. Premixes have to be mixed at a minimum level of 3 kg per tonne. Improper mixing or handling can be checked by dosing Manganese as a tracer. Toxicity of some minerals Maximum admissible levels for different minerals could be estimated as followed: Potassium 2000 ppm Magnesium 5000 ppm Sodium 5000 ppm Chlorine 5000 ppm Iron 500 ppm Manganese 1000 ppm Zinc 2000 ppm Copper 300-500 ppm Selenium 10 ppm Iodine 300-500 ppm Vanadium 10 ppm due to contamination from rock phosphates

Hatching egg care Hatching eggs suitability The objective should be to get the maximum of hatching eggs, which means they are clean, free of cracks and of a minimum weight. We recommend incubating only eggs of a minimum individual weight of 52 g and from breeder flocks that are at least 24 weeks of age. At the beginning of lay, eggs weighing less than 52 g should not be set, as the quality of the chicks hatched from these eggs will not be suitable. Chick quality will depend not only on egg weight and breeder age, but also of female breeder’s growth at the onset of lay. Layer breeders’ flocks often start laying at a fast rate and, if feed intake does not increase in line with this egg production, nutrient transfer to the egg is compromised and chick viability will be poorer. Too large eggs usually hatch at lower rates, so they should be avoided. Eggs larger than 70 g are not considered hatching eggs. To control egg weight throughout lay, and especially to avoid too large eggs at the end of production, the following points must be considered:

- Pullet weight at 5 % of lay: average egg weight is largely determined by the pullet’s

weight on coming into lay. Too heavy pullets at onset of lay will lay larger eggs throughout flock lifetime.

- Oil content in feed: when the oil in the diet is increased, birds increase their feed intake and this increases egg weight. We advise limiting feed oil content or replacing it by saturated fats.

- Amino acids: reducing the amino acid level in the laying diet reduces egg weight but also brings about a sharp reduction in lay rate. We therefore advise against any change in amino acid levels during lay.

- Energy intake : if necessary, from 40 weeks of age, a slight reduction of about 50 Kcal in energy level could be considered to stabilise egg weight, as long as those changes in feed composition do not lead to under-consumption,

- Temperature: too low house temperature causes over-consumption and consequently increases egg weight, so it should be avoided.


Collecting eggs Nests should be equipped with a closing or ejection system to avoid nest staining at night. Nests must be kept clean. Remove manure and broken eggs frequently. The nesting material must be clean and without mould and be changed regularly. In automatic nests, plastic bottoms must be washed regularly. Nests should be equipped with a closing or ejection system to avoid nest staining at night. Collection of eggs to be used for incubation should be done at least 4 times per day; increase this rate in hot or cold weather. The embryo will start to develop above 22°C and later changes in temperature can cause early mortality which can be mistaken for infertility. Over-development of the embryo before storage of eggs can cause embryo death Egg collecting devices (baskets, plastic trays, belts…) must have holes to allow organic contamination debris to fall away from egg shell surface and not to contaminate other eggs. These devices should be cleaned and disinfected before use. Cardboard trays must not be re-utilized. Prior to handling eggs, hands should be washed and then disinfected with a sanitizing solution. Hands should be frequently re-sanitized during egg collecting time and whenever returning from other tasks. Floor eggs Floor eggs should not be used as hatching eggs. However, due to economical constraints, if they are clean and collected quickly, they can be used for incubation provided they are disinfected quickly after lay. Dirty eggs must be eliminated under all circumstances and they should not be stored near to clean hatching eggs. Clean floor eggs should be set in a dedicated setter once a week. Generally, floor eggs do not hatch well. We do not recommend using such eggs as a hatching egg. The number of floor eggs can be reduced by following some management procedures (see “Floor eggs” in Control of Behaviour chapter). Eggs sanitation Hatching eggs must be disinfected quickly after collection, within 3 hours after being laid. Various methods are available, but fumigation with formalin remains the best technique when regulations permit. When local regulations forbid the use of formalin, other methods remain available: hydrogen peroxide, quaternary ammonium compounds, chlorine, UV rays, ozone, or dipping in a disinfectant solution. Fumigation The efficiency of fumigation depends upon following clear rules:

- Disinfect eggs as soon as possible after lay when they are still hot. - Fumigate at a temperature of 24°C and relative humidity of 80%. - Use 30 ml of 40% formalin solution and 20 g of permanganate for each m3, or 10 g of

formaldehyde powder. - Fumigate for 20 minutes and then ventilate the fumigation chamber; formaldehyde gas

should be eliminated in 10 min.


Disinfection by spraying When eggs are sprayed in the farm, an approved hatching egg sanitizer should be used and each tier or flat must be treated before placing the next level over the last one. For an effective disinfection by spray, eggs should be directly collected in plastic setter trays and a suitable spraying device giving fine droplets in necessary. If it is not properly performed, disinfection by spraying has many disadvantages:

- partial disinfection when eggs are on cardboard cases - internal contamination when there is excessive spraying or the droplet size is too large.

Eggs which are too wet get cool quickly and “absorb” egg shell germs through the pores. Those eggs will be responsible for exploders in setters and bad bacteriological quality of day old chicks (Pseudomonas).

Storage of eggs Allow the eggs to cool down for 1 to 2 hours before placing in the storing room. The temperature in the egg storage room should be kept between 15° and 18°C depending on the length of the storage period. In countries where temperatures exceed 22°C, an air-conditioned storage room is an excellent investment. Transfer the eggs as soon as possible to the storage room kept at 18°C and R.H. of 80 % for short storage periods. For longer storage periods (more than 6 days) the temperature should be about 15°C. At this temperature, there is a risk of condensation on the egg shell when eggs warm up following storage at low temperatures. This condensation must be avoided. Moisture as well as gases passes through the eggshell pores. Some amount of exchange of gas as the embryo develops is normal, but excessive evaporation of water from within the egg during storage will decrease hatchability and chick vitality. It is important to control humidity level during storage and it is recommended that storage rooms have automatic humidifiers. As other option, concrete floors of the egg storage room can be sprayed with water frequently to keep the humidity. The egg storage room has to be insulated. Walls and roofs should be kept free of dust and floors tiled for easy cleaning and frequent fumigation. Hatching eggs should be oriented for storage with the narrow end of the shell down for short- term storage. For longer storage periods (more than 7 days), keeping them oriented with the broader end down in the egg storage room helps to reduce the hatchability loss with age Hatching eggs should never be packed directly on the floor, but on wooden or preferably plastic slats.

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