management chapter-2

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10/10/15Dr.Parvathy Varma.S ASSUMPTION

UNIVERSITY


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SensationThe process by which our sense organs receive information from the environment

PerceptionThe sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli involving our sense organs and brain

10/10/15Dr.Parvathy Varma.S ASSUMPTION UNIVERSITY

attaching meaning to incoming sensory information

What isthis?

Stimulus Anything which you see,

hear, feel etc Energy that produces a response in a

sense organ Varies in both type and intensity

Psychophysics The study of the relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological experience of them( studying the science of what you sense and you understand)


Absolute thresholdThe smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for it to be detected

Eg: The smallest intensity of sound required for you to hear a sound


NoiseBackground stimulation that interferes with the perception of other stimuli ( anything around you which disturbs your perception)


The smallest level of stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurredEg. The smallest level of weight required for

you to sense a difference in weightEg. The smallest amount of light required to

sense that there is a difference in the brightness of light

Weber’s lawBasic law of psychophysics that states “a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the intensity of an initial stimulus

“just-noticeable difference”


An adjustment in sensory An adjustment in sensory capacity following capacity following prolonged exposure to prolonged exposure to stimulistimuli

One example of adaptation is the decrease in sensitivity that occurs after repeated exposure to a strong stimulus


Sensory Adaptation

“You enter a bar, and the odor of cigarettes assaults you. A few minutes later, though, you barely notice the smell.”

“. If, for example, you were to hear a loud tone over and over again, eventually it would begin to sound softer.”

Similarly, although jumping into a cold lake may be temporarily unpleasant, eventually we get used to the temperature.”



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FigureThe object being perceived

GroundThe background or spaces within the object



Proximity

SimilaritySimplicity

Closure

Closure. Groupings are usually made in terms of enclosed or complete figures rather than open ones. We tend to ignore the breaks and concentrate on the overall form.

Proximity. Elements that are closer together are grouped together.

Similarity. Elements that are similar in appearance are grouped together.

Simplicity. In a general sense, the overriding gestalt principle is simplicity: When we observe a pattern, we perceive it in the most basic, straightforward manner that we can. For example, most of us see a square with lines on two sides, rather than as the block letter “W” on top of the letter “M.” If we have a choice of interpretations, we generally opt for the simpler one.


Feature Analysis

An approach that considers how we An approach that considers how we perceive a shape, pattern, object, or scene perceive a shape, pattern, object, or scene by reacting first to the individual by reacting first to the individual elements that make it upelements that make it up


• Feature analysis begins with the evidence that individual neurons in the brain are sensitive to specific spatial configurations, such as angles, curves, shapes, and edges, as discussed earlier in the chapter. The presence of these neurons suggests that any stimulus can be broken down into a series of component features.


• According to feature analysis, when we encounter a stimulus—such as a letter—our brain’s perceptual processing system initially responds to its component parts. Each of these parts is compared with information about components that is stored in memory. When the specific components we perceive match up with a particular set of components that we have encountered previously, we are able to identify the stimulus (Spillmann & Werner, 1990; Ullman, 1996).


• A more recent approach to perception, feature analysis, considers how we perceive a shape, pattern, object, or scene by reacting first to the individual elements that make it up. These individual components are then used to understand the overall nature of what we are perceiving.


Top-down processingPerception that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations

Bottom-up processingPerception that consists of recognizing and processing information about the individual components of the stimuli


What do u see here?


What do u see here?

Top-down processing is shown by the phenomena of set or expectancy


For example, if you are reading a book, you experience (sense) the letters one at a time, and then organize the letters into words, the words into phrases or clauses, then sentences. This means that one level of perception can only be accessed after one of the previous levels has been "unlocked". A sort of hierarchy.


If perception were based primarily on breaking down a stimulus into its most basic elements, understanding the sentence, as well as other ambiguous stimuli, would not be possible. The fact that you were probably able to recognize such an imprecise stimulus illustrates that perception proceeds along two different avenues, called top-down processing and bottom-up processing.


In top-down processing, perception is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations

Even though top-down processing allows us to fill in the gaps in ambiguous and out-of-context stimuli, we would be unable to perceive the meaning of such stimuli without bottom-up processing

Bottom-up processing consists of recognizing and processing information about the individual components of the stimuli.

It should be apparent that top-down and bottom-up processing occur simultaneously, and interact with each other, in our perception of the world around us. It is bottom-up processing that permits us to process the fundamental characteristics of stimuli, whereas top-down processing allows us to bring our experience to bear on perception. And as we learn more about the complex processes involved in perception, we are developing a better understanding of how our brain continually interprets information from our senses and permits us to make responses appropriate to the environment (Egeth & Yantis, 1997; Rees, Frith, & Lavie, 1997).


Perceptual constancyPhenomena in which physical objects are perceived as unvarying and consistent, despite changes


One of the most dramatic examples of perceptual constancy involves the rising moon. When the moon first appears at night, close to the horizon, it seems to be huge—considerably larger than when it is high in the sky later in the evening. You may have thought that the apparent size of the moon was caused by the moon’s being physically closer to the earth when it first appears. In fact, though, this is not the case at all.

Instead, the moon appears to be larger when it is close to the horizon primarily because of a misapplication of perceptual constancy. When the moon is near the horizon, the perceptual cues of intervening terrain and objects such as trees on the horizon produce a misleading sense of distance.

Despite the varying images on our retina as a plane approaches, flies overhead, and disappears, we do not perceive the plane as changing shape (Coren & Aks, 1990; Suzuki, 1991).



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1. Describe perception in terms of the information-processing model.

2. Identify and briefly explain seven managerial implications of social perception.

3. Discuss stereotypes and the process of stereotype formation.

4. Summarize the managerial challenges and recommendations of sex-role, age, racial and ethnic, and disability stereotypes.


5. Describe and contrast the Pygmalion effect, the Galatea Effect, and the Golem Effect.

6. Discuss how the self-fulfilling prophecy is created and how it can be used to improve individual and group productivity.

7. Explain, according to Kelley’s model, how external and internal causal attributions are formulated.

8. Contrast the fundamental attribution bias and the self-serving bias.


The process of interpreting one’s environment

Social perception involves observing and interpreting information about others to be able to understand them and prepare our responses to them.



Competing environmental

stimuli People Events Objects

Interpretation and

categorization

Stage 1Selective

Attention/Comprehension

Stage 2Encoding and Simplification

Stage 3Storage and

Retention

Stage 4Retrieval and

Response

MemoryJudgments

and decisions

A

B

C

D

E

F

A

C

F

C

Figure 7-1

Stereotype is anindividual’s set of beliefsabout the characteristics of a group of people

What are some commonly held stereotypes?


1) Begins by categorizing people into groups

2) Infer that all people in a category possess similar traits or characteristics

3) Form expectations of others and interpret their behavior according to stereotypes


1) Stereotypes are maintained by1) Overestimating the frequency of

stereotypic behaviors exhibited by others2) Incorrectly explaining expected and

unexpected behaviors3) Differentiating minority individuals from

oneself


• Their nature is not always negative • Women are

nurturing• Asians are smart


• Based on generalizations (often inaccurate)• Older workers are more accident prone• Disabled workers cost a lot of money to

accommodate• Women are more emotional

• Can lead to poor decisions and discrimination


• Josie is a hard-working administrative assistant. She has a low attention to detail and sometimes handles customer’s calls unprofessionally. However, Josie never misses a day of work and is always on time. As a result, her manager rates her positively on many aspects of her performance. This is an example of which perceptual error?

a. Contrastb. Recencyc. Halod. Leniencye. Central Tendency


Pygmalion Effect Someone’s high expectations for

another person result in high performance

Galatea Effect An individual’s high self-expectations

lead to high performance Golem Effect

Loss in performance due to low leader expectations


The Pygmalion effect comes from the Greek myth where a sculptor, Pygmalion, hated women yet fell in love with an ivory statue he carved of a beautiful woman. He prayed to the goddess Aphrodite to bring her to life and she did. The management field has adapted this idea to suggest that people’s expectations or beliefs determine their behavior and performance, thus serving to make their expectations come true.

Let’s look at a model of how the self-fulfilling prophecy works.



Supervisorexpectancy

6

3Motivation

4

Performance

5 1

Leadership

Subordinateself-

expectancy

2

This example begins with the blue circle. High supervisory expectancy produces better leadership. Leading employees to develop higher self-expectations. Higher expectations motivate workers to exert greater

effort. Thus increasing performance and supervisory

expectancies. The self-fulfilling prophecy works in both positive and

negative directions.

The negative direction is described by the Golem effect when there is a loss in performance due to low leader expectations.


• Based on the self-fulfilling prophecy, which of the following would not be advised?

a. Instill confidence in your staffb. Identify errors in employee’s performance,

no matter how minor, and discuss them frequently

c. Treat all new employees as if they have outstanding potential

d. Set high performance goals10/10/15Dr.Parvathy Varma.S ASSUMPTION UNIVERSITY

Causal Attributions: Suspected or inferred causes of behavior

Andreas has a history of turning in his monthly reports on time and with 100% accuracy. This month Andreas’ reports were accurate but a week late. Why?

a. Andreas doesn’t know how to do monthly reports.b. Andreas is lazy.c. The information he needed was not available to

meet the deadline.


Internal factors – Personal characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., ability, effort)

External factors – Environmental characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., task difficulty, good/bad luck)


Consensus – Involves the comparison of an individual’s behavior with that of his or her peers


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People

A B C D E

People

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A B C D E

Low High

Distinctiveness is determined by comparing a person’s behavior on one task with his or her behavior on other tasks.


Kelley’s Theory of Attribution

Tasks

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A B C D ETasks

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A B C D E

Low High

Consistency is determined by judging if the individual’s performance on a given task is consistent over time.


Kelley’s Theory of Attribution

Time

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Perf

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ance

Time

Indi

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Perf

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Low High

External Attribution High consensus High distinctiveness Low consistency

Internal Attribution Low consensus Low distinctiveness High consistency


Recall Andreas… Andreas has a history of turning in his

monthly reports on time and with 100% accuracy. This month Andreas’ reports were accurate but a week late.

Which of the following dimensions could we use to make attributions about Andreas?

a. Consistencyb. Distinctivenessc. Consensus


Nadia’s performance is declining. Her peers performance hasn’t changed, it is occurring on several tasks, and has occurred for the past six months.

This represents:1. High (A) or Low (B) consensus2. High (A) or Low (B) distinctiveness3. High (A) or Low (B) consistency4. The attribution her supervisor is likely to make

is…a. Internalb. External


Fundamental Attribution Bias ignoring environmental factors that affect behavior

Your performance is caused by you

Self-Serving Bias taking more personal responsibility for success than failure

My success is because of my effort/ability

My poor performance is caused by something else (difficulty; bad luck)


• For each of these tips, identify which perceptual error is being prevented

--------------------------------- Do not overlook the external

causes of others’ behaviors Identify and confront your

stereotypes Evaluate people based on

objective factors Avoid making rash judgments


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