MALTA NATIONAL REPORT - University of Malta€¦ · Malta National Report to the World Summit on...

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MALTANATIONAL

REPORT

Submitted by theGovernment of Maltato the World Summit

on SustainableDevelopment

Malta National Report to the World Summit on Sustainable Development2

Published in August 2002Designed and produced by Formatek Ltd - MaltaCover design based on a painting by Marie Lucia

Printed in Malta on Chlorine-Free Paper

© Government of Malta, 2002

Photographs included in this publication cannot bereproduced in any form without prior permissionof their proprietors (see page 100)

ISBN 99909-47-17-4

The lead and chapter authors of this Report would like to express theirgratitude to the many individuals and organisations that participated in theconsultative process – the list is too long to mention each one individually.The final Report benefited greatly from their suggestions and the informationthey supplied. Any opinions, findings, conclusions and recommendationscontained in this Report are those of the authors, and do not necessarilyreflect the views of the persons and organisations consulted.

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PREFACE 5

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 71.1 PURPOSE OF THE REPORT 81.2 THE AUTHORS 81.3 THE PUBLIC CONSULTATION PROCESS 81.4 LAYOUT OF THE REPORT 9

CHAPTER 2 - THE MALTESE ISLANDS 112.1 HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 122.2 GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 122.3 DEMOGRAPHY 132.4 THE ECONOMY 142.5 SOCIAL ASPECTS 182.6 EDUCATION 192.7 HUMAN HEALTH 212.8 THE ENVIRONMENT 222.9 MECHANISMS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 242.10 CONCLUSION 27

CHAPTER 3 - MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES,REMEDIAL ACTION TAKEN,AND THE WAY FORWARD 29

3.1 INTRODUCTION 303.2 ENERGY AND TRANSPORT 303.3 FRESHWATER 333.4 MARINE AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT 363.5 SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT 403.6 CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 443.7 LAND USE 483.8 CONCLUSION 52

TABLE OF CONTENTS


CHAPTER 4 - PROMOTING PUBLIC AWARENESSAND STRENGTHENING THEROLES OF MAJOR GROUPS 55

4.1 INTRODUCTION 564.2 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 564.3 INFORMATION FOR DECISION-MAKING 584.4 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 604.5 THE ROLE OF NGOs 614.6 LOCAL AUTHORITIES INITIATIVES IN SUPPORT

OF AGENDA 21 624.7 STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF WORKERS

AND THEIR UNIONS 664.8 STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY 684.9 STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF FARMERS 704.10 THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL COMMUNITY 714.11 WOMEN AND EQUITABLE DEVELOPMENT 734.12 CHILDREN AND YOUTH IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 764.13 CONCLUSION 77

CHAPTER 5 - MALTA’S CONTRIBUTION TO THEINTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY 79

5.1 INITIATIVES WITHIN THE UNITED NATIONS 805.2 MALTA’S MULTILATERAL LEGAL OBLIGATIONS 835.3 MALTA AND THE EU POSITION ON SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT 885.4 ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED AND MEASURES TO BE TAKEN 89

CHAPTER 6 - CONCLUSION 916.1 OVERVIEW 926.2 THE COMMITMENTS 926.3 THE MAIN ACHIEVEMENTS 926.4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 926.5 THE WAY FORWARD 93

REFERENCES 94INDEX 97

5Malta National Report to the World Summit on Sustainable Development

PREFACEby Edward Fenech-Adami, Prime Minister of Malta

This Report, which has been drawn up for the 2002 World Summit on

Sustainable Development, gives an overview of the actions taken by Malta in

implementing the provisions of Agenda 21. It was drawn up by a team of

consultants, engaged for this purpose by the Government of Malta, with

Professor Lino Briguglio as lead author. I take the opportunity to thank the

team of authors for their endeavour.

Agenda 21 has had a positive effect on Malta, and has stimulated the Govern-

ment to update and introduce legislation, to adopt policies and to take action

conducive to sustainable development, seeking public participation towards

this end.

As is well known, sustainable development stresses the need for a holistic

approach for a better quality of life with a long-term time frame, rather than

one aimed at short-term gains. Sustainable development strategies are

multifaceted, taking into consideration economic, social, cultural, environmen-

tal and other factors that affect human welfare, and require participation by

persons and groups involved in or affected by decision-making processes (the

stake-holders).

The publication goes into some detail as to what Malta has done to promote

sustainable development. Although the achievements have been significant,

much remains to be done in this regard, as shall be shown in this Report.

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1

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this Report,prepared for the 2002 WorldSummit on SustainableDevelopment, is to reviewMalta’s progress in implementingsustainable development sincethe 1992 United NationsConference on Environmentand Development.

LANDSAT-5 image of the MalteseIslands, produced by the RemoteSensing Programme of the Euro-MedCentre for Insular Coastal Dynamics(ICoD), Malta.


1.1 PURPOSE OF THEREPORT

The purpose of this Report, prepared for the 2002World Summit on Sustainable Development, is toreview Malta’s progress in implementing sustainabledevelopment since the 1992 United Nations Con-ference on Environment and Development.

The Report does not attempt to present detailedanalytical assessments on the environmental issuesrelated to sustainability. For a more detailed reviewof the various environmental themes discussed inthis report, the reader is referred to the State of theEnvironment Report (Axiak et al., 2002).

1.2 THE AUTHORS

This Report was drawn up by a team of consultants,engaged, in November 2001, by the then Ministryfor the Environment, with the remit to produce anaccount of the action taken by the Government topromote and implement sustainable development inline with Agenda 21, to identify shortcomings in thisregard, and to propose a way forward, taking theseshortcomings into account.

The first draft of this Report was completed inMarch 2002, with Lino Briguglio as lead author,drawing on inputs from the following chapterauthors: Gordon Cordina with regard to Chapter 2,Marie Briguglio and Rachel Portelli with regard toChapter 3, Paul Pace with regard to Chapter 4 andSimone Borg with regard to Chapter 5.

The authors, in turn, based their text on informationprovided by the following contributors: Anthony M.Abela, Godfrey Baldacchino, Michelle Borg, GeorgeCarbone, Maurice Caruana, Vince Caruana, JenniferCasingena-Harper, Godwin Cassar, AlexandraCremona, Louise Farrugia, Saviour Formosa, VinceGauci, Renée Laiviera, Lucianne Licari, John Mangion,Kevin Mercieca, Stephanie Mizzi, Anton Pizzuto,George Said, Patrick Schembri and Alfred Vella. Theselection of these persons as contributing authorswas based on the basis of their expertise on thevarious issues covered by Agenda 21.

The initial process of information compilation for thisReport was coordinated by a committee chaired byPaul Mifsud, then Permanent Secretary at the Ministryfor the Environment, with the lead and chapterauthors as members.

1.3 THE PUBLICCONSULTATIONPROCESS

A public consultation process on the draft Reportwas initiated in April 2002. The process wasorganised by a core group appointed by the NationalCommission for Sustainable Development, in liaisonwith the lead and chapter authors.

The draft Repor t was submitted for publiccomments and feedback on the website of theMinistry for Home Affairs and the Environment(www.mha.gov.mt). In addition a public consultationmeeting was held on 20 May 2002, during which theReport was further discussed and scrutinised. Thegeneral public, civil society groups, government de-partments and parastatal organisations were invitedto submit comments on the Report between 10 Mayand 10 June 2002. The final Report benefited greatlyfrom the feedback generated during this consulta-tive process.

The Report also profited from the reviews by VictorAxiak, Marguerite Camilleri and Catherine Vella, whowere asked to advise on various aspects of theReport, including its coverage, style, and balance ofopinion.

The final draft of the Report was approved by theMaltese Cabinet of Ministers on 8 July, 2002, and thisprinted version was delivered to the United Nationsin August 2002, for presentation at the World Summiton Sustainable Development.

GeorgePullicino,

ParliamentarySecretary

responsiblefor Planning

and theEnvironment,

(third fromright)

addressing thePublic

ConsultationConference

held on20 May 2002to discuss an

earlier draft ofthis Report.

9Introduction

A section ofthe audienceattending thePublicConsultationConferenceheld on20 May 2002to discuss anearlier draft ofthis Report.

1.4 LAYOUT OF THE REPORT

The Report is organised in six chapters. Chapter 2,which follows this introduction, gives backgroundinformation on the Maltese Islands, referring to theirgeography and climate, demography, economy, healthand social aspects, environment, and the institutionalframework, together with a brief review of themechanisms conducive to sustainable development.Chapter 3 deals with major environmental issues,remedial action taken, and the way forward, as wellas what remains to be done. The Chapter covers anumber of major concerns relating to energy andtransport, freshwater, the marine environment, solidand liquid waste management, conservation of bio-logical diversity and land use. Chapter 4 reviewsprogress related to public awareness through edu-cation and training, and information for decision-making. The Chapter also discusses the roles of majorsocial groups in sustainable development, includingNGOs, local authorities, trade unions, business andindustry, the scientific community, women, childrenand youth. Chapter 5 discusses Malta’s contributionto the international community, including initiativeswithin the United Nations and Malta’s legal obliga-tions under multilateral arrangements. The Chapter

also refers to Malta’s attempt to harmonise its envi-ronmental legislation and sustainable developmentpractice with that of the European Union. Chapter 6concludes the Report, highlighting major challengesin Malta’s path as it strives to move in sustainabledirections.

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2

THE MALTESEISLANDS

The Maltese Islands have a totalarea of 316 square kilometresand are located in the centre ofthe Mediterranean Sea,approximately 100 km south ofSicily. The archipelago consists ofthree main islands, namely,mainland Malta, the largest, withan area of about 245 squarekilometres and a population ofabout 350,000, Gozo, the secondlargest, with an area of 67 squarekilometres and a population ofabout 30,000, and Comino, whichis inhabited by a very smallfarming community.

Valletta, theCapital Cityof Malta


2.1 HISTORY ANDGOVERNMENT

Malta is a liberal parliamentary democracy, withregular elections based on universal suffrage. Itsconstitution safeguards the fundamental human rightsof citizens, and guarantees a separation between theexecutive, judicial and legislative powers.

The Maltese Islands have a rich and varied history,and traces of civilisation on the Islands date back toabout 5200 BC. Archaeological remains indicate thatthere was a Phoenician/Carthaginian presence duringthe 6th century BC. In 218 BC Malta fell under Romanrule. The Islands were subsequently ruled by Arabs,Normans, and a number of feudal lords. The Orderof St. John of Jerusalem (the Knights Hospitallers)took over the Islands between 1530 and 1798. TheKnights of Malta, as they came to be known, left arich cultural heritage on the Islands. Following a two-year rule by the French (1798-1800), under Napo-leon Bonaparte, the Islands passed under British rule.Malta gained independence from Britain in 1964. TheMalta Independence Constitution of 1964 establishedMalta as a Constitutional Monarchy, but in 1974 theConstitution was modified to the effect that Maltabecame a Republic with the President of Malta asHead of State. Executive power lies with the PrimeMinister and the Cabinet of Ministers. Malta formspart of the Commonwealth of Nations.

Malta is currently undergoing a process of negotiationswith the European Union in preparation for accessionto the EU. Malta has had a long-standing relation withthe EU since signing an Association Agreement withthe European Economic Community on 5 December1970.␣ Progressively, Malta sought closer relations withthe Union culminating in the application for accessionin July 1990. This led to the screening of Malteselegislation and policies against all EU rules (the acquiscommunautaire) and to the commencement ofnegotiations for accession. Like most CandidateCountries, Malta adopted the date of January 1, 2003as the target date by which it would have put in placeall the necessary preparations for membership.

2.2 GEOGRAPHY ANDCLIMATE

Location and Area

The Maltese Islands have a total area of 316 squarekilometres and are located in the centre of theMediterranean Sea, approximately 100 km south ofSicily. The archipelago consists of three main islands,namely, mainland Malta, the largest, with an area ofabout 245 square kilometres and a population of about350,000, Gozo, the second largest, with an area of 67square kilometres and a population of about 30,000,and Comino, which is inhabited by a very small farmingcommunity.

Climate

The climate of the Maltese archipelago is typicallyMediterranean, with dry, hot summers and mild rainywinters. During the summer season, the Islands aredominated by high-pressure conditions.

Temperature and Precipitation

For the past century, the mean monthly temperatureregistered for the summer season was 35OC whilethe lowest recorded was 11OC in the winter monthsof January and February. The hottest month in theMaltese Islands is July, with the average highesttemperature of 36OC. Temperatures during the pastcentury never reached freezing point, and snow is prac-tically unknown in the Maltese Islands. The averagetemperature for the past century has tended toincrease.

The highest precipitation rates occur in November,December, January and February. However, rainfall in

The location ofthe Maltese

Islands in thecentre of the

MediterraneanSea.

MainlandMalta

Gozo

Comino

Valletta

13

the Maltese Islands is unpredictable. Some wintermonths may produce abundant rain in one year andlittle or no rain in another.

During the past century, the wettest month wasDecember, with an average rainfall of 93.7mm andthe driest was July with only 0.27mm of rainfall.The average annual rainfall was 507mm. The rainfallpattern in the Maltese Islands fluctuates considerably,but the trend indicates that precipitation over thepast century has tended to decrease. Malta is cur-rently experiencing the third successive year of below-average precipitation.

Winds, Sunshine and Humidity

The Maltese Islands are heavily influenced by thestrength and frequency of winds. The most commonof these are the north-westerly and north-easterlywinds. Other winds are not so powerful, and exhibitseasonal variations. The north-easterly wind has amajor impact on the Islands as it blows straight intothe mouth of the Grand Harbour and Marsamxett,where it can restrict shipping operations. The south-westerly wind, on the other hand, blows from theSahara Desert, bringing with it hot air currents andsometimes ‘red rain’.

During the past century, the mean sunshine hoursaveraged eight per day. The month of July has thehighest number of sunshine hours, with an averageof about 11.5 hours per day. The month with theleast sunshine hours is December, with about 5.1hours per day, partly due to a high rate of cloudcover at this time of the year.

Humidity tends to be high in Malta, averaging between65 per cent and 80 per cent, accentuating the effectsof temperature variations.

The Maltese Islands

Table 2.1 - Changes in the Maltese population during the period 1992 and 2000

Population increase at about 0.65 per cent per annum, from 362,977 in 1992 to 382,525 in 2000

A higher proportion of persons aged over 60 years, from 15 per cent in 1992 to 17 per cent in 2000

A decrease in the birth rates, from 15.2 per 1,000 in 1992 to 11.2 per 1,000 in 2000

A slight decrease in death rates, from 8.0 per 1,000 in 1992 to 7.8 per 1,000 in 2000

A decline in fertility rates, from 2.11 in 1992 to 1.92 in 2000, below replacement levels

Higher life expectancy at birth, for males from 73 to 75 years, and for females from 78 to 80 years

Tendency for increasing net inward migration of persons, averaging about 500 annually

Source: National Statistics Office and Planning Authority (2001b)

Population density inMalta Local Councils.Source: Census of Malta

1995 Web-MappingProject: www.mepa.

org.mt/census/.

2.3 DEMOGRAPHY

Malta ranks as one of the most densely populatedcountries in the world, with over 1,200 personsper km2. The main concentration is found in theHarbour area.

Birth and Mortality Rates

During the second half of the 20th century, the MalteseIslands experienced decreasing birth and mortalityrates. In 1950, the birth rate was 29 per thousandwhich declined to about 13 per thousand in 2000.During the same period, the mortality rate decreasedfrom 10 per thousand to about 8 per thousand.Assuming zero net emigration, the Maltese populationis expected to increase to about 400 thousand bythe year 2020, but will decrease to 378 thousand bythe year 2040.

Table 2.1 shows the main demographic changes thathave occurred between 1992 and 2000.


Ageing Population

An important change that is occurring in the Maltesepopulation relates to the increase in the proportionof persons aged 60 and over. While 15 per cent ofMalta’s population was aged over 60 years in 1992,this proportion increased to 17 per cent in 2000and is expected to rise to 25 per cent in 2020.

Migration

During the 1945-1965 period, there was heavyemigration from Malta due mostly to theunsatisfactory economic conditions on the Islands.Migration has decreased drastically in recent decades,and in most years, inward migration has exceededoutward migration. Migration patterns may changenoticeably in the future, particularly as a result of EUmembership.

Household Size

The average size of households in Malta has tendedto decrease, particularly during recent years, as a resultof changes in lifestyle, an increase in the number ofyoung persons living on their own, and a greaternumber of marriage separations. In 1992, the averagehousehold size was 3.2 persons. This decreased toapproximately 3.0 in 2000 (Planning Authority,2001b).

Population and Carrying Capacity

The carrying capacity of a country or a regiondepends, amongst other things, on the size of theterritory, its resources and the manner in which theseresources are used. There is therefore a limit as tohow many people can sustainably reside on a small

island like Malta, and this consideration has a widerange of economic, social, cultural and environmentalimplications. This concept was the subject of anin-depth study under taken by the Ministry ofTourism. The findings of the study were published ina report (Ministry of Tourism, 2001) which formsthe basis of Government policy for the tourism sector.The strategy for tourism is now based on the conceptof sustainability and controlled development.This policy is being pursued especially becausetourism may lead to overcrowding of beaches,traffic congestion and noise pollution, increaseddemand for land on which to build hotels and touristfacilities, as well as increased production of solid andliquid waste.

In the case of Malta the number of incomingtourists per year is about 2.5 times the population.If converted to annual resident equivalent, touristsresiding in Malta in recent years amounted toabout 7 per cent of the Maltese population in anyone year.

2.4 THE ECONOMY

The Maltese economy is one of the smallest in theworld. In 2001, the Maltese GDP at factor costamounted to approximately Lm1.4 bil l ion(approximately US$3.1 billion). In terms of incomeper capita, however, Malta is not on the low side byinternational comparisons. Although usually classifiedas a developing country, Malta’s average GNP percapita in 2000 amounted to approximately US$ 9000,which is one of the highest among developingcountries.

In terms of purchasing power standard, the

Maltese GNP per capita is about 55 per cent of theaverage for the European Union.

The Maltese economy is undergoing a rapidtransformation in the regulatory and operationalstructures, in line with the EU acquis communautaire.This should lead to the enhancement of competitionand the harmonisation of Malta’s laws with those ofthe EU. This issue is discussed further below.

The Maltese currency is the Maltese lira, which isvalued on the basis of a “multiple peg” based on atrade-weighted basket of currencies, with the Eurobeing assigned a weight of 56 per cent. The poundsterling and the US dollar account for equal portionsof the remaining 44 per cent weight. In 2000, theexchange rate of the Maltese Lira averagedapproximately US$2.3.

The MaltaFreeport –symbol of

Malta’s drive tostep up

internationalcompetitiveness.

15

Major Characteristics of the Economy

OpennessAn important characteristic of the Maltese economyis its degree of openness, since, like many other smalleconomies, it depends heavily on foreign trade. Theeconomy relies substantially on imports for its energy,industrial supplies and consumer goods, and theimport content of total final sales was about 50 percent between 1992 and 2001. At the same time,since the domestic market is extremely small, theeconomy relies to a very large extent on exports ofgoods and services, which amounted to about45 per cent of final sales during the same period.Expor ts of merchandise are dominated byelectronic and electrical equipment, with wearingapparel, chemicals, printing and medical equipmentbeing other impor tant categories. Expor ts ofservices relate mainly to tourism, transportation andfinancial services. Exports of goods and services aremostly directed towards the European Union.Maltese imports also originate largely from theEuropean Union. Trade with non-EU Mediterraneanstates is relatively small. Imports and exports ofelectronic equipment to Asia and the US are gainingin importance.

Poor natural resources endowmentThe Maltese Islands are poorly endowed with physicalresources, and most raw materials and industrial sup-plies have to be imported, with the exception of lime-stone, which is quarried and used extensively in thebuilding industry. Oil exploration has been undertakenon several occasions, but so far, it has not been foundin large enough quantities to make its extractioncommercially viable. Malta’s climate and its culturaland historical heritage are important resources whichserve as tourist attractions.

Sectoral Distribution of GDP

In 2000, about 23 per cent of the Maltese GDP atfactor cost was contributed by the manufacturingsector, about 39 per cent by the market servicessector, about 11 per cent by domestic propertyincome and about 22 per cent by the public sector.The remaining 5 per cent was contributed byconstruction, agriculture and fisheries.

Agriculture and fisheriesThe agricultural sector in Malta consists mostly ofsmall holdings on terraced strips of land, and the soilstend to be shallow. In addition, there are constraintsassociated with lack of adequate water supply. The

sector has tended to decline over the years as aproportion of GDP and also in terms of employmentand cultivated area. Furthermore, the labour force inthis sector is ageing. The method of production isbased on small-scale machinery or manual tools, sincethe small holdings do not permit the use of largemachines. The most important vegetables sold inorganised markets in recent years were potatoes,tomatoes, onions, melons, marrows, cauliflowers andcabbages, while the most important fruits werestrawberries, peaches and grapes. The most importantagricultural export is potatoes. Malta is self-sufficientin fresh vegetables, eggs, processed tomatoes, poultry,rabbit meat, pork and fresh milk, while a relativelylarge proportion of beef and fruit is imported. Inrecent years, horticultural production has tended toincrease.

Fishing in Malta is seasonal, as the main commercialspecies are migratory. Although Malta is surroundedby sea, fishing does not generate much income andemployment, a situation exacerbated by the dwindlingcatches in the central Mediterranean and by fishingquotas. As a result, the share of GDP contributed bythis sector has remained small. The fishing vessels tendto be small and multipurpose. In recent years therewas a rapid development in aquaculture fishproduction, most of which is exported.

The industrial sectorThe manufacturing sector in Malta is relatively large,contributing about 23 per cent to GDP in recentyears. In terms of manufacturing value added, the mostimportant industries are electronics, followed by foodand beverages and wearing apparel. Other importantindustries are chemicals, paper and printing. Atpresent, certain industries, particularly wearing ap-parel and furniture, are finding it difficult to maintaintheir share due to international competition, followingthe policy of the present government to dismantleall import protection. The Business Promotion Act,

Sectoraldistribution ofMalta’s GDPSource:Governmentof Malta, 2001b.

The Maltese Islands

Agriculture and Fisheries Manufacturing

Market Services Public Sector

Domestic Property Income ConstructionConstruction and Quarrying


which is implemented by the Malta DevelopmentCorporation, is intended to promote export activityand to attract foreign direct investment inmanufacturing.

The shipbuilding and ship-repairing industries in Maltaprovide employment for approximately 3,000persons. However, they have been consistentlyrunning at a loss in recent years, continuing with atrend of negative performance over the past dec-ades, thus requiring heavy subsidies from theGovernment. Attempts are being made to upgradethese enterprises in order to improve theirinternational competitiveness.

Construction and quarrying are relatively smallsectors of the economy, but they have considerableinter-industry linkages and therefore generate incomeand employment in other sectors of the economy.These activities have major environmental impacts,as explained in Chapter 4.

The services sectorThe market services sector, composed of four sub-sectors, namely distributive trades, transport andcommunications, banking and finance and privateservices, contributed about 39 per cent to GDP inrecent years. As stated above, Malta is currentlyundergoing a modernisation and liberalisation processin most services. As a result, the sector is becomingincreasingly efficient and export-oriented.

Tourism is an important contributor to the growthof the market services sector in Malta. The averagenumber of tourists visiting Malta exceeded 1 million

persons per year during the 1990s and stood at justunder 1.2 million in 2001, with an average length ofstay of about 9.5 days per tourist.

Inward tourism follows a seasonal pattern, with Juneto October being the peak season. Most tourists areEuropean. Tourist expenditures in 2000 amountedto around US$550 million, which is about 25 percent of proceeds from exports of goods and services.Direct employment in accommodation and cateringsectors alone, in 2000, was about 9,600 persons, or8 per cent of total employment, but many moreworkers are engaged in occupations associatedindirectly with tourism. The industry is estimated tohave contributed directly about 20 per cent to GDPin recent years. In addition, it has a relatively highmultiplier effect. However, tourism-related activitiesmay also have undesirable environmental impacts.

The public sectorThe Maltese economy is characterised by a relativelylarge public sector. As stated previously, its GDP shareis about 22 per cent. This excludes governmentshareholding in limited liability companies. Were theseto be included, the share of the government wouldrise to about 35 per cent of GDP. In recent years,Government involvement in directly productive ac-tivities and market services has however been pro-gressively reduced through a process of privatisation.

Total government expenditure is relatively high inMalta, amounting to about 42 per cent of GDP in2000. A large proportion of government expendituregoes to social security and welfare schemes. Thereare also high capital outlays for the development ofthe infrastructure.

Government revenue consists mainly of personal andcorporate income tax and VAT receipts. Governmentalso derives revenues from profits of public enter-prises such as the Central Bank. During the pastdecade, however, Government revenue was notsufficient to meet expenditure, and relatively largebudget deficits were recorded during the second halfof the 1990s. Recently, government has implementeda plan to reduce the fiscal deficit to 3 per cent ofGDP by 2004.

The labour marketThe Maltese labour market during the 1990s wascharacterised by low unemployment rates, averagingjust under 5 per cent of the labour force. At the endof 2001, the unemployment rate stood at 5.1 percent. The labour market is also characterised by low

Tourism is animportant

contributor tothe growth of

the marketservices sector

in Malta.

17

female participation rates, standing at 32 per cent offemales aged 15-64. The male participation rate ismuch higher, and stands at around 80 per cent of thesame age bracket.

Another characteristic of the Maltese labour marketrelates to the large proportion of gainfully-occupiedpersons in the public sector. At the end of 2000, thisstood at 38 per cent (including employment in lim-ited liability companies with government majorityshareholding). This situation is giving rise to artificiallabour shortage in some areas of the private sector.However, there are indications that public sector em-ployment may decrease as a result of the privatisa-tion process referred to above.

Malta’s Accession to the EU

There is an ongoing debate in Malta as to whetheror not it is in the country’s interest to become amember of the European Union (EU). The economicadvantages associated with EU membership includebetter access for Malta’s exports into the Europeanmarket and the adoption of an economic strategywhich promotes competition and, therefore, moreefficient allocation of resources, benefiting consumersand producers alike. In addition, by becoming an EUmember, Malta would upgrade its laws in line withlegislation prevailing in the Union. On becoming amember of the EU, Malta would also access regionalfunds in terms of the so-called Objective 1Programmes available to countries with a per capitaGDP (in terms of PPS) lower than 75 per cent of theEU average. A major advantage associated withaccession, is that Malta will be able to participateactively in the decisions of the Union.

Malta is already benefiting from pre-accession EUfunds associated with the implementation of thenecessary changes required for accession. As aCandidate Country, Malta is also benefiting from EUProgrammes relating to science, research andeducation.

Arguments against Malta’s accession relate to thedismantling of import controls, especially in agriculture,that would be required with membership, since thisdevelopment could give rise to a loss of output andemployment in firms enjoying protection. It is alsoargued that Malta would stand to lose by joining theEU because it will have to adopt a body of legislationat a very heavy cost. Another argument againstaccession to the EU relates to possible loss ofsovereignty.

A referendum on the issue of EU membership isscheduled to be held before the ratification of thetreaty of accession, and, no doubt, these argumentswill feature prominently in the discussion on the prosand cons of membership.

Economic Constraints arising fromSmall Size and Insularity

Malta is one of the Small Island Developing States(SIDS). The constraints and vulnerabilities faced bySIDS are well documented and stem from severalinherent characteristics of such States.

In the case of Malta, the main economic constraintsarise from:• Small territory size, which limits its ability to reap

the benefits of economies of scale and restrictsits production possibilities.

• High degree of its economic openness, renderingit very susceptible to economic conditions in therest of the world.

• Dependence on a very narrow range of exports,leading to risks associated with insufficientdiversification.

• Dependence on imports, in particular energy andindustrial supplies, exacerbated by limited importssubstitution possibilities.

• Insularity, leading to high transport costs in itstransactions with the rest of the world.

In spite of its economic vulnerabilities, Malta registersa relatively high GNP per capita when compared toother developing countries. This fact prompted thedevelopment of the so-called “Vulnerability Index”,

The Maltese Islands

EuropeanUnion MemberStates and theCandidateCountries,including Malta.Informationabout Maltaand the EU isfeatured in theMalta-EUInformationCentre websitewww.mic.org.mt.


which attempts to highlight the reality that theeconomic success of many Small Island States oftenhides their underlying economic and environmentalfragility. The studies carried out so far on the economicvulnerability of different countries all conclude withthe result that as a group, SIDS are more vulnerablethan other groups of developing countries (seeBriguglio, 1995; United Nations, 1997). Malta is usuallyassigned a high vulnerability score, due mainly to thefact that its economy is highly exposed to factorsoutside its control.

Consumption Patterns

The composition of household consumption is animportant indicator of the state of development ofan economy. Since households tend to satisfy firstand foremost their basic needs, a lower share of ex-penditure dedicated to necessities could indicatehigher living standards. Over the 1990-2000 period,the propor tion of consumption dedicated tonecessities fell significantly. Expenditure on food andbeverages, for instance, declined from over one thirdof total consumption in the early 1990s to just onefourth by 2000. On the other hand, a significantincrease took place in the proportion of expenditureon recreation, entertainment, education, and otherservices. These trends are typical of an economyexperiencing growth in income over time.

Is Malta over-consuming?For a number of years, consumption expansion wasone of the factors contributing to economic growthin Malta, especially when the economy was charac-terised by significant amounts of idle resources. Asthe economy approached full employment, however,high rates of consumption resulted in a rapid increasein imports with consequent problems on the external

balance of payments. Moreover, excessiveconsumption may have crowded out savings andresources devoted to investment, thereby possiblycurtailing the economy’s prospects for long rungrowth. In recent years there have been calls forrestraint in consumption, but this may be politicallydifficult to implement, due to the habit-forming natureof consumption.

Specific policies being implemented that may curtailthe growth of consumption include a more restrictivefiscal policy. There are, however, indications thatthese policies are not having any significant effecton consumption and its growth, as households arebecoming increasingly consumer-oriented.

2.5 SOCIAL ASPECTS

Maltese society is changing at a rapid rate in terms ofstructure, attitudes and values. Land development,mass tourism, overseas travel, information technology,new work and leisure patterns and a rapid expan-sion of higher education are permeating the closely-knit traditional Catholic society. In many respects, theMaltese Islands have become one modern Europeancity. In comparison with other neighbouring Euro-pean countries, however, Malta remains a relativelyhomogenous society with no marked racial, ethnicor religious divisions.

Table 2.2 presents some indicators relating to thematerial welfare of the Maltese people pointing toan advancement in this regard. In terms of the HumanDevelopment Index, which takes into account income,education and health, Malta was ranked 30th in theworld and included with the 48 countries classifiedas high human development countries (UNDP, 2001).

Table 2.2 - Material Welfare Indicators

1990 1995 2000 Change 1990-2000(Nominal) (Real)

GDP at factor cost (Lm million) 649.6 988.9 1339.6 106% 57%

GNP per capita (Lm) 2,200 3,110 4,000 82% 38%

Expenditure on overseas travel (Lm million) 43.5 75.4 88.0 102% 47%

Private consumption expenditure (Lm million) 531.4 700.4 999.0 88% 36%

Social security payments (Lm million) 117.7 175.9 251.9 114% 55%

Social security contributions (Lm million) 72.0 115.5 162.0 125% 63%

Telephones/1000 persons 360.4 459.9 540.7 - 50%

Motor vehicle licences/1000 persons 391.4 507.0 645.3 - 65%

University students (full time only) 2,158 5,166 5,554 - 157%

Main Source: Government of Malta (2001b)

19

Poverty and Social Exclusion

Relative to other neighbouring countries, poverty inMalta is not widespread, even if there are a fewdisadvantaged groups (Abela, 1998a). State socialpolicy fights poverty and social exclusion through acontributory and non-contributory social securitysystem. It aims to develop an inclusive society by takinga subsidiary responsibility alongside families and non-governmental organisations, thereby providing equalopportunities for all with specific emphasis on themost vulnerable.

The Welfare System in Malta

In Malta, the welfare system is founded on the prin-ciples of solidarity and subsidiarity. Health care andeducation at all levels are universally provided freeof charge by the State. Pensions and social benefitsare fully operated by Government, and are grantedthrough a contributory social security system and anon-contributory social assistance. Social housing, chil-dren’s allowances and other social benefits are means-tested. A mix of governmental and non-governmentalorganisations addresses other material and non-material needs. In accordance with shifting socialvalues, the welfare state is giving way to a welfaresociety with a focus on the family.

There appear to be conflicting pressures on the socialprotection system in Malta. On the one hand,macroeconomic considerations call for economiesin social expenditure, aimed at curbing the fiscal defi-cit and removing disincentives for economic growth.From a social perspective, however, the rise in theproportion of older persons is likely to step up thedemands for social expenditure. Other socialdevelopments are likely to require re-orientation ofthe Maltese social protection system.

A long run reform of the social security system isbeing contemplated by a National Commission, setup for the purposes of studying the current situationand proposing reforms, in which the various socialpar tners are represented. The system of socialprotection in Malta is considered to be well-developed and offers a wide range of services. Itscost, estimated at around one eighth of GDP andone third of Government recurrent expenditure, isthus being questioned in relation to the genuine needsof the population and the effectiveness with whichthese are being met. The extent to which theper vasiveness of social protection, includingunemployment benefits, may be acting as a disincen-

tive to economic effort, is another important issuein this respect.

Social Values

The Maltese retain a strong attachment first andforemost to the family. Divorce is not allowed in Malta.The norm of the two-parent family, however, co-existswith a diversity of family situations and lifestyles. Overthe period 1995 to 2000, publicly-registered maritalseparations have almost doubled, from 245 in 1995to 425 in year 2000. (Source: Government of Malta,2001c).

Although traditional gender attitudes are in decline,the move towards gender equality is still accompaniedby an asymmetry between women and men in soci-ety. Women are still under-represented in the labourforce and in leadership positions.

2.6 EDUCATION

In Malta, education is compulsory for those agedbetween 5 and 16. It is provided free of charge atprimary and secondary level and there is a system ofmaintenance grants paid to students at the post-sec-ondary and tertiary levels.

The majority of schools are state-owned and caterfor about 70 per cent of the student population, whilethe rest are run by private organisations. Over the

The rise in theproportion ofolder personsin Malta islikely to stepup demand forsocialexpenditure.

The Maltese Islands


past decade, there was a tendency for non-stateschools to increase their share of the student popu-lation, at the expense of state schools (27 per centof primary and secondary students in 1992, against30 per cent in 2000).

Adult l iteracy in Malta is estimated to beapproximately 86 per cent.

Primary, Secondary andPost-Secondary Education

In 2000, there were about 10,000 children inkindergarten classes, and about 34,000 childrenattending primary schools. During the 1990s, thestudent population at these levels tended to decline.About 27,000 children attended secondary schoolsin 2000, while about 5,100 attended post-secondaryschools. During the 1990s, secondary school enrol-ment was stable, whereas that at post-secondary leveltended to increase.

Vocational education establishments catered forabout 4,300 students at secondary and post-secondar y levels in 2000. Students followingvocational education courses tended to decrease

during the past decade. However, with the reorgani-sation of vocational education within the MaltaCollege of Arts, Science and Technology, a turnaroundin the number of students opting for vocationaleducation is expected.

Pre-University education is provided in a number ofsixth-form institutions, including the Junior College,which was established in 1995 under the umbrellaof the University of Malta. These institutions offertwo-year courses specifically designed to prepare stu-dents to qualify themselves for entry into the Uni-versity of Malta.

Post-compulsory non-university education hasrecently been reformed with the setting-up of theMalta College of Arts, Science and Technology, whichcontains a number of institutes, dealing with Art andDesign, Engineering, Information Technology, BusinessStudies and Maritime Studies.

The Institute of Tourism Studies is a separate entityunder the auspices of the Malta Tourism Authority.

The University

The University of Malta was founded as a Jesuitcollege in 1592, and was established as a Stateinstitution in 1769. Courses in most disciplines areoffered on its modern campus at Tal-Qroqq. Originally,the University was housed in a historic building inValletta. The University is the highest teaching institu-tion in Malta, and is open to all those who have therequisite qualifications. There are some 8,000 studentsfollowing full or part-time degree and diplomacourses. Most courses are run on the modular orcredit system. In 2000, some two thousand studentsgraduated in various disciplines.

The University has 10 faculties, namely the Faculty ofArchitecture and Civil Engineering, the Faculty of Arts,the Faculty of Dental Surgery, the Faculty ofEconomics, Management and Accountancy, the Facultyof Education, the Faculty of Engineering, the Facultyof Laws, the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, theFaculty of Science, and the Faculty of Theology. TheUniversity also has a number of inter-disciplinaryInstitutes and Centres. Associated with the Universityis the Mediterranean Academy of Diplomatic Studiesand the Foundation for International Studies, whilethe campus is also home to the International MaritimeLaw Institute of the International Mar itimeOrganisation, and the International Ocean Institute(Malta Operational Centre).

In Malta,education iscompulsory

between theages of 5

and 16, and isprovided freeof charge by

the State.

21

The University of the Third Age, catering for thoseaged 60 years and over, was inaugurated in 1993 andcurrently has a membership of around 1,000.

2.7 HUMAN HEALTH

Meeting Primary Health Care Needs

The health of the Maltese population comparesfavourably with that of other European states, Maltaplacing fifth in W.H.O.’s Overall Health SystemPerformance (World Health Report, 2000).

In Malta the Government provides a comprehensivefree health service to all Maltese residents, fundedfrom general taxation. Like other Health Care Systemsthe long-term sustainability of such a comprehensiveservice is being evaluated. It may be possible that thesystem for financing the Health Service will need tobe reviewed. Since 1996, the private sector hasprovided some 15 per cent of acute hospital beds.All residents have access to preventive, investigative,curative and rehabilitative services in GovernmentHealth Centres and Hospitals. Persons with a lowincome are means-tested by the Department ofSocial Security, and if they qualify for assistance theybecome entitled to all formulary pharmaceuticalsnecessary for the treatment of their medical ailments.Moreover, persons who suffer from a list of chronicdiseases, as specified in the Social Security Act, arealso entitled to receive free treatment for theparticular condition irrespective of their financialmeans.

The main hospital, St. Luke’s, offers all the main terti-ary care specialities including cardiology, neurosurgery,and some transplant services. Government iscurrently constructing a new hospital with 850 bedsthat will cater for all acute health care needs.

Health legislation in Malta dates back many decadesand the need for its updating has been felt for manyyears. Malta's application for accession into theEuropean Union has served as a catalyst for theredrafting of all health-related legislation. It isanticipated that all such legislation will be amendedand new legislation will come into force by the fourthquarter of 2002.

Control of Communicable Diseases

The Department of Public Health set up in 1993 isresponsible for maintaining strict surveillance on

priority communicable diseases, food safety, non-communicable disease risk factors and environmentalhazards, and for removing or reducing these threats.The Disease Sur veillance Branch within thisdepartment measures infectious diseases, prioritynon-communicable diseases and their risk factors, andalso under takes outbreak control. It conductsepidemiological research, gives advice on travel healthand is also responsible for medical screening. Maltahas been free from controllable infectious diseases,such as polio, for a number of decades.

Trends for most infectious diseases, including AIDS,are relatively stable. There has been a slow andminimal increase in the amount of HIV cases.Fortunately, unlike other European Countries, the in-travenous drug users group has not yet been infil-trated with the infection.

Over the past ten years, there has been heavyinvestment in human resources, with an emphasison training, to ensure capacity-building.

Protecting Vulnerable Groups

The Health Promotion Department was set up in1993 with the aim to educate the public on how tomeet basic health needs. Over the years, thisDepartment, and that of Primary Health Care, haveincreased their services, with particular emphasis onvulnerable groups, notably infants and children, youth,women, the elderly as well as persons with disabilities.

Smoking-cessation and weight reduction clinics areavailable to all age groups. A detoxification centrehas continued to upgrade its facilities and the services

The Maltese Islands

The newhospital with850 beds,currentlybeingconstructedby theGovernmentof Malta.


it offers to drug addicts, including the distribution offree treatment and syringes. There is readydissemination of informative and educational materialon a wide range of health issues to the public, directlyfrom the premises of the Department, as well asfrom other health offices, or by mail.

The financial commitment of the MalteseGovernment to the health of vulnerable groups hasmarkedly increased over the past years. Thiscommitment has been directed towards the building-up of human resources to ensure the efficientprovision of new services. Moreover, active NGOsand Self-help Groups are becoming importantstakeholders in the Health Care Scheme. Communitynursing services and palliative care are provided byNGOs which have been contracted by Governmentto provide such a service. Gender issues areincreasingly being considered by the Health Division.In 2002, a National Action Plan on GenderMainstreaming within the health sector wasformulated in line with national government policy.The Plan aims to ensure accessible quality health careand related services that meet the needs of bothwomen and men, allowing for equal opportunitiesand for full participation of women as decision-makers.

Control of Non-CommunicableDisease

As in most industrialised countries, vascular diseasesare the commonest cause of death in Malta,accounting for about 50 per cent of all deaths.

Cancers account for 23 per cent of all deaths andare the second most common cause of death. Theoverall incidence for men is somewhat lower thanthat of other European States, though the incidencefor women is similar. Survival rates compare well withthose prevailing in Europe. While lung cancer is thecommonest cancer in men, breast cancer is the mostprevailing cancer type in women. A National HealthInterview Survey currently underway will provide thedata on the health behaviour of the Maltesepopulation and will provide the necessary basis onwhich to formulate future preventive and interventivestrategies.

Reducing Health Risks fromEnvironmental Pollution and Hazards

In 1997, the National Environmental Health Action Plan(NEHAP) for Malta was drafted and endorsed byCabinet. This is a multi-sectoral document outliningpractical actions for sustainable development. Itformed the first assessment of environmental healthissues in Malta, including drinking and bathing water,air quality, food safety, waste and soil pollution,radiation, noise, natural disasters and accidents. It alsoset out objectives and targets to be reached by alleconomic sectors by the year 2000. The documentwill be updated in 2002.

The NEHAP highlighted the need for a number ofpolicies and programmes that were markedly lackingin Malta. These included a national air-monitoringprogramme, a national recreational water programme,a national drinking water monitoring programme, amajor study on the health impacts of tourists on theenvironment, and the development of a nationalclinical waste management plan.

2.8 THE ENVIRONMENT

Environmental Vulnerability

Malta is very environmentally vulnerable mainly dueto:• High population density and limited assimilative

and carrying capacity, leading to problems con-nected with waste management, water storage,and other factors associated with small territorialsize.

• Relatively large coastal zone in relation to theland mass, giving rise to, amongst other things,a relatively high susceptibility to erosionprocesses.

The privatesector in Maltaprovides about

15 per centof acute

hospital beds.

23

• Innate fragile ecosystem, arising from a low levelof resistance to outside influences, such as alienspecies, endangering endemic species of flora andfauna.

• Relatively high impact of economic developmenton the environment, due mostly to the small sizeof the Islands.

Major Environmental Concerns

The major environmental concerns in Malta relateto air quality, freshwater, marine environment,solid and liquid waste, biological diversity and landuse. This section gives a brief overview of theseissues – a more detailed treatment will be given inChapter 3.

Air qualityThe main contributors to air pollution in Malta areenergy generation and transport. In recent years,quantities of greenhouse gas emissions have increaseddue to increased demand for electrical energy andgrowth of private car ownership. This has resulted inrisks of atmospheric pollution by lead, particulates,sulphur and nitrogen oxides and volatile organiccompounds including benzene.

A shift to better quality and lower sulphur fuels wasmade in 2001. Early results from the national air-monitoring programme indicate that particulate airpollution is a widespread problem with quarrying andbuilding activities being the main contributors. Maltaalso contributes to dispersion in the environment ofozone-depleting substances (ODS’s), as a user ofthese materials.

FreshwaterNatural water resources in Malta are very limitedand considered to be strategically important. Thetwo major sources of freshwater are aquifers anddesalinated water.

Water quality in the various aquifers is at risk mainlyfrom intense agricultural practices and over-extrac-tion. Four reverse osmosis plants account for some50 per cent of the drinking water supply. Desalinationis an expensive process that consumes high amountsof electricity.

Marine and coastal environmentThe marine and coastal environments are of crucialimportance in Malta, and are associated with theprovision of potable water, recreation, aquaculture,bunkering and tourism, amongst others.

Malta’s inshore waters are at risk from a range ofmarine contamination hazards, including sewage, oilspills, and land-based discharges from point and diffusesources of a range of pollutants.

One of the problems associated with the coastalenvironment is erosion, and the phenomenon isassociated with beach loss and cliff failure .Institutionally, an important weakness relates to limitedmonitoring of coastal water quality.

On the positive side, an extensive set of legislationwas enacted over the past decade to facilitateprotection of the marine and coastal environment.

Solid and liquid wasteMalta’s small territory, high population density,significant increase in the standard of living and the

One of theproblemsassociatedwith thecoastalenvironmentis erosion.

The Maltese Islands


general lack of awareness on waste managementoptions contribute towards rendering waste man-agement one of the most problematic environmen-tal issues. Almost all waste generated in Malta isdisposed of in open dumps with minimal operationalcontrols and limited facil it ies for mitigatingenvironmental impacts. In 2001, the Governmentfinalised a Solid Waste Management Strategy for theMaltese Islands (Government of Malta, 2001d), whichprovides a strategic framework for wastemanagement.

There are currently concrete plans to establish a newcontrolled landfill, to set up a waste transfer stationin Gozo, to upgrade the incineration plant for abattoirwaste, and to replace incineration plants in hospitalsby a central microwaving plant.

With regard to liquid waste, the sewerage systemcurrently directs most of the effluents untreated intothe marine environment, resulting in microbial andchemical pollution, degradation of marine flora andfauna and eutrophication, as well as in health threatsto bathers and divers. Over the past ten years therehave been major upgrades to the sewerage networkand outfalls. Government is committed to treat allsewage produced in the Maltese Islands by 2007.

Biological diversityThere is a variety of habitat types, fauna and flora inthe Maltese Islands. Some elements have a widerregional importance or are of evolutionary and bio-geographical interest. A number of the Islands’ habi-tats, such as woodlands, saline marshlands, coastalwetlands, sand dunes, permanent springs and caves,

are rare and threatened. Similarly, a number of speciesare threatened with extinction: indeed some havealready become extinct. Human activities are thesingle most important factor affecting habitats andwildlife in Malta. The main impacts are associated withdestruction of habitats and uncontrolled exploita-tion. A number of actions, including the enactmentof laws, the assignment of conservation status toparticular areas, and awareness-raising initiatives havecontributed to slowing down the negative trend, butmonitoring and enforcement of legislation remainissues that need to be addressed.

Land useThe Maltese Islands are witnessing unrelentingpressures relating to land use, associated mostly withconstruction and quarrying, transport, industrialdevelopment, tourism and recreation.

The setting-up of the Planning Authority in 1990 hasassisted in generating dialogue among land use players,while the establishment of local government in 1994has enabled par ticipation at grass roots level.Sustainable use of land has been formally declaredthe principal goal of the planning process throughlegislative reform.

2.9 MECHANISMS FORSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT

This section gives a brief overview of the legislativeand institutional mechanisms which have a bearingon sustainable development and which have beenput in place in Malta since 1992.

Legislative Framework

The Environment Protection Act of 1991 was thefirst attempt to consolidate the piecemeal andfragmented approach which characterised Malteseenvironmental law at the time. It was meant to be anenabling law and laid down the general legal principlesrelating to environmental protection.

Ten years later, however, a new law was enacted toreplace the Act of 1991, as the latter did not takeinto account cer tain emerging aspects ofenvironmental protection which required regulation.Above all, the new law sought to have as its majorobjective sustainable development, rather than simplyenvironmental protection.

Sustainable useof land has

been formallydeclared as the

principal goalof the planning

processthrough

legislativereform.

25

In fact the Environment Protection Act (2001) givesthe legislator wider enabling powers to issueregulations relating to sustainable development andto transpose international obligations arising frommultilateral environmental agreements to whichMalta is a State Party. It enables the issuing ofintegrated permits, and the monitoring of the stateof the environment. It also provides for the setting-up of the National Commission for Sustainable De-velopment.

Other national legislative instruments relating toenvironmental issues include the DevelopmentPlanning Act (Cap.356), the Marine Pollution(Prevention and Control) Act (Cap. 271), theOccupational Health and Safety Authority Act (Cap.424) and the Malta Resources Authority Act (Cap.423). These are supplemented by a vast number oflaws, regulations and government notices, whichregulate specific aspects of environmentalmanagement. Currently, new legislation is beingdrafted in order to satisfy local exigencies and tobring Malta in line with European Union Directiveson the environment.

Institutional Framework

During the 1990s, the most important institutionsconcerned with matters related to sustainabledevelopment were the Environment ProtectionDepartment and the Planning Authority.

In 1992, the Ministry for the Environment was set up,with a por tfolio that covered environmentalprotection as well as public works. The EnvironmentProtection Department acted as the executive armof the Ministry, supporting it by issuing policies andregulations, and seeing to the enforcement of same.

The Planning Authority was originally establishedunder the Development Planning Act of 1992, as abody corporate with a distinct legal personality,entrusted with the promotion of proper landdevelopment and the control of such developmentin accordance with policies, plans and conditionsapproved by Government.

The Authority was responsible for the preparationof the Structure Plan and supplementary documents(Planning Authority, 1990; 1997; 1999), the conductof consultations with the public and private sectors,as well as the publication of an official manualcontaining a list of the approved policies, plans,conditions and procedural laws of Malta.

The Malta Environment andPlanning AuthorityAs from March 2002, the Environment ProtectionDepartment merged with the Planning Authority,forming the Malta Environment and PlanningAuthority (MEPA) within the Ministry for HomeAffairs and the Environment. One reason for themerger was to further clarify the delineation betweenoperational and regulator y roles in theimplementation of environmental legislation. TheMEPA consists of two separate directorates, namely,the Environment Protection Directorate and the Plan-ning Directorate.

Environment Protection Directorate. The EnvironmentProtection Directorate is a regulatory entity primarilyconcerned with the protection of biological diversity,pollution prevention and control, and wastemanagement. The Directorate is responsible for theimplementation of the Environment Protection Actand for the formulation of environmental policies andregulations.

Enforcement of environmental legislation is in thehands of the executive police, although the Directo-rate has its own inspectorate. It is the Directorate’sduty, however, to act as guardian and to ensure thatthe executive police enforce the law and seek judicialredress in case of infringement.

The Planning Directorate. Through the PlanningDirectorate, the Malta Environment and Planning Au-thority is entrusted with the task of revising the

The MaltaEnvironmentand PlanningAuthority isresponsible forregulatingenvironmentalprotection andland use.

The Maltese Islands


Structure Plan. This is a written statement, illustratedby diagrams and accompanied by an explanatorymemorandum, to justify the policies and proposalscontained therein. To fulfil its mandate, the Directo-rate carries out surveys of those matters affectingthe character and quality of the environment.Adequate opportunities are guaranteed by law

for

individuals and organisations to make representationsto the Planning Directorate when the latter isreviewing the Structure Plan.

Furthermore, the Planning Directorate may considerit necessary to prepare more detailed proposals thanthose embodied in the Structure Plan, so as to ensurethe proper and effective management of develop-ment. These plans, called subsidiary plans, can besubject plans, local plans and action plans, as the casemay be.

A subject plan deals with a policy or a matter whichis found in the Structure Plan, but which requiresmore detailed specification for its implementationthan that which is provided in the Structure Plan. Alocal plan is a plan which the Directorate makes forany particular area where the rate of developmentor redevelopment cannot be satisfactorily managed,or special factors taken into account, solely on thebasis of a structure plan. An action plan is made bythe Directorate for an area where a department oran agency of the Government intends to carry out,or cause to be carried out, any works on land ownedby the private sector.

The National Commissionfor Sustainable DevelopmentThe Environment Protection Act (2001) establishedthe National Commission for SustainableDevelopment (NCSD) under the Chairmanship of

The NationalCouncil forSustainable

Developmentin session.

the Prime Minister. According to Section 8(7) of theEnvironment Protection Act, the functions of theNCSD are to advocate sustainable developmentacross all sectors of Malta, to review progress in theachievement of such sustainable development andto build consensus on action needed to achievefur ther progress. The NCSD is to identify anyrelevant processes or policies which may beundermining sustainable development, and topropose alternative processes or policies to theGovernment for adoption.

The NCSD is also to identify trends which maysignificantly give rise to unsustainable developmentand which will not be reversed on the basis of currentor planned action, and to recommend action to re-verse such trends.

The setting-up of the NCSD is expected to encour-age and stimulate good practice in the use and man-agement of natural resources, in particular their mini-mal use and maximal reuse by recycling in an envi-ronmentally sustainable manner. In carrying outthe above-mentioned functions, the Commissionmay appoint advisor y committees to makerecommendations on specific subjects or actions. Therecommendations and decisions of the Commissiondo not have executive force, but are to be consideredas authoritative recommendations of best practicein achieving sustainable development.

Other InstitutionsMalta Resources Authority. The Authority is a publicinstitution with regulatory responsibilities andmonitoring and reviewing functions over water,energy and mineral resources in the MalteseIslands.

Malta Maritime Authority. This Authority is responsiblefor maritime affairs which include certain environ-mental aspects such as pollution control in internalwaters and shipping standards. The maritimesquadron of the Armed Forces of Malta is responsiblefor the maintenance of law and order in the territorialsea and the contiguous zone.

Malta Standards Authority. This Authority is responsiblefor setting standards including environmental ones.The Malta Standards Authority also runs regularcourses on International Standards on EnvironmentalManagement (ISO14000). All European andinternational standards on sustainable developmenthave been transposed as national standards by theAuthority.

27

Public Health Department. The Department, whichfalls under the auspices of the Ministry of Health, isresponsible for air and water quality from a publichealth perspective, as well as for the reporting andmonitoring of air and bathing water quality.

Occupational Health and Safety Authority. ThisAuthority is responsible for occupational health andsafety issues and falls under the auspices of theMinistry for Social Policy.

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Ministry isresponsible for many factors impinging on the envi-ronment, including afforestation, the importation anduse of pesticides and the management of certainnatural resources such as soil and sand. It is alsoresponsible for marine life for harvesting purposes,for fishing methods and for aquaculture.

The Drainage Department. This Depar tment isresponsible for the environmental standards relatingto the public sewerage system.

Department for Civil Protection. This Department isresponsible for co-ordinating matters during nationalemergencies, including environmental ones, such asmajor oil spills.

Malta Tourism Authority. The Authority was set up withthe specific mission of advancing the economic andsocial activity of tourism in the national interest. Thestrategy adopted by the Authority (Malta TourismAuthority, 2002) is to direct tourism developmenttowards a controlled growth scenario. This approachis based on the concept of sustainable development,giving due weight to Malta’s small territory size andsocio-economic realities.

Local Councils. These Councils have functions whichdirectly impact on the environment, in particular, theprovision for the collection and removal of refusefrom public or private places, and the maintenanceof receptacles for the temporary deposit and collec-tion of waste. Also, these Councils may makerecommendations to any competent authority for,or in relation to, any planning or building scheme.

2.10 CONCLUSION

This Chapter has presented a brief review of theMaltese Islands, with a focus on economic, social andenvironmental aspects. It has been shown that thestandard of living of the Maltese people is not on the

The Maltese Islands

low side by international standards, with a relativelyhigh income per capita and good standards ofeducation and health.

The Chapter has also identified the main areas ofconcern with regard to environmental quality andsustainable use of resources. These issues will betreated in more detail in the next Chapter.

Finally, the Chapter has shown that in Malta, mecha-nisms for the promotion of sustainable developmentare institutionally and legally entrenched. There is theneed, however, for further capacity-building to renderthese legal and institutional set-ups more effective,as will be explained in Chapters 3 and 4.

29

3

MAJORENVIRONMENTALISSUES,REMEDIALACTIONTAKEN, ANDTHE WAYFORWARD

Malta is a densely populated smallisland state, with limited carryingcapacity and relentless pressureson the physical environment,mostly arising from economic andsocial development.Environmental concernstherefore pose a formidablechallenge for sustainabledevelopment.

LANDSAT-5 image of Golden Bay andGhajn Tuffieha Bay, produced by theRemote Sensing Programme of theEuro-Med Centre for Insular CoastalDynamics (ICoD), Malta.


3.1 INTRODUCTION

Malta is a densely populated small island state, withlimited carrying capacity and relentless pressures onthe physical environment, mostly arising fromeconomic and social development. Environmentalconcerns therefore pose a formidable challenge forsustainable development in Malta. This Chapter dealswith the most important environmental issues in theMaltese Islands, namely those relating to energy andtransport, freshwater, the marine environment, wastes,biological diversity and land use. The Chapter alsodescribes the remedial action that has been taken,and that which still remains to be taken, with regardto these issues.

3.2 ENERGY ANDTRANSPORT

Electricity generation and transport are both almostcompletely reliant on the combustion of importedfossil fuels. Over 60 per cent of these fuels is trans-formed into electricity and 30 per cent is used intransport (Fsadni et al., 2000). The burning of fossilfuels, in whatever application, results in air and otherpollution. It constitutes one of the majorenvironmental problems and is in conflict with thenecessity of ensuring access to uncontaminated air.

The challenge is to ensure efficient production anduse of energy as well as a cost-effective transportsystem, without jeopardising atmospheric quality.

Current Status

EnergyElectricity is generated from the combustion of fueloil at two power stations, one situated at Marsa withinthe densely populated conurbation known as the‘inner harbour area’ and the other at Delimara, inMarsaxlokk Harbour. Before 1995, electricity was coal-generated. This practice was stopped due mostly tothe negative impact on the environment.

Demand for energy stems from the industrial,domestic and commercial sectors. The latter twosectors have contributed significantly to the increasein demand, with the greater use of air-conditioningbeing an impor tant factor. The generation ofelectricity is characterised by low efficiency due tothe age of the plants, notably at the Marsa PowerStation, and the widely varying demand levels duringthe day and between day and night.

Despite abundant potential for solar energygeneration and strong and frequent winds, there isno significant infrastructure in place that is capableof exploiting, to an appreciative degree, thesealternative energy sources.

Average daily insolation values range between 2.7and 7.8 kWh/m2 (winter and summer respectively),but only a negligible fraction of this energy is utilisedthrough solar water heaters or photovoltaic (PV)panels. One estimate of solar water heating potentialconcluded that annual savings of around 12 per centin heavy fuel oil consumption could be made (Malliaand Fsadni, 1999). The potential for wind energy isfor about 10 to 15 MW, which could rise to two orthree times that value (i.e., about 4 per cent of nationalneed) if offshore generators were to be considered(Darmanin and Mallia 1996; Farrugia and Scerri,1998). The use of conventional means of energygeneration to compensate for wind variations iscurrently being studied at the University of Malta (Ciliaet al., 2002).

TransportSince 1990, there has been a net average increase ofapproximately 7,000 new private cars per annum,resulting in 1.5 cars per household in 2001 – one ofthe highest rates in the world. Increased use of privatevehicles is contributing to air pollution, congestion ofthe road network and traffic accidents. Public trans-port patronage has fallen by 21 per cent over theperiod 1989-98.

Cars per1,000 people –

internationalcomparisons.

Source: PlanningAuthority

Transport TopicPaper 2001.

31

Environmental impactsIncreased demand for electrical energy and thedramatic increase in vehicle use have negativelyimpacted on air quality.

A Greenhouse Gas Inventory has been compiled bythe Environment Protection Directorate , inaccordance with the requirements of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Contributions to greenhouse gases from waste,agriculture, energy and industrial processes wereincluded. The inventory shows that although Malta’sshare of global atmospheric pollution is relatively smalldue to the country’s modest rate of fuel use, thequantities of greenhouse gas emissions have increasedbetween 1990 and 2000.

Road traffic also leads to atmospheric pollution bylead, particulates, and volatile organic compoundssuch as benzene. Currently, atmospheric benzene isroutinely measured by the Environment ProtectionDirectorate and levels in street air are several timesthe European ambient guideline value (Vella andGaerty, 1998; Vella et al., 2002).

Since 1997 the University of Malta has been operatinga background atmospher ic research stationaccredited to the World Meteorological GlobalAtmosphere Watch programme. Background ozoneand carbon monoxide, together with a comprehen-sive set of meteorological parameters are beingmeasured.

Analysis has revealed the serious extent of the pol-lution problem in the Mediterranean basin and hasalso helped quantify the amount of anthropogenicpollutants emitted both locally and regionally (Nolleet al., 2002).

In 2000, a National Air Monitoring Programme waslaunched by the Environment Protection Departmentfor the ‘priority pollutants’, i.e., sulphur dioxide,nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, ozone and fineparticles (PM10) involving both a mobile station andpassive samplers.

Since 1997, background ozone has also beenmeasured by the University of Malta. Early resultsindicate that particulate air pollution (PM10) is aproblem affecting both urban and rural areas.

Malta also contr ibutes to dispersion in thetropospheric environment of ozone, albeit as a user,not as a manufacturer of these materials.

Pollutants generated are considered to haveexer ted deleterious effects on health, causeddamage to the rich architectural heritage, as well asaffected the quality of tourist amenities offered bythe country.

Besides the impact on air quality, the high dependenceon private transpor t also generates significantimpacts on land use. This is discussed further inSection 3.7.

Another environmental impact relating to energystems from the existence of excessive, poorlydesigned or badly-installed lighting in public places.This is generating a negative effect on environmentsvulnerable to light intrusion, as well as negativelyaffecting the visual character of the landscapes andbuilt environment.

Major Environmental Issues

Transportis a majorcontributorto airpollution inMalta.


Mobilestation to

monitor airquality.The air

monitoringprogramme

is run by theEnvironment

ProtectionDirectorate.

Remedial Action regardingEnergy and Transport

Malta acceded to the “Vienna Convention on theProtection of the Ozone Layer” (1982) and theMontreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete theOzone Layer” as amended in 1990. Through importcontrols, the consumption of the most harmful ODS’shas recently levelled out at 1995 values, as thesecompounds have been replaced by less-damagingsubstances. Moreover, Malta now conforms to the1997 ‘Developing Countries ODS phase-outschedule’.

The phase-out, in 1995, of coal combustion forelectricity generation decreased emissions of nitrogenoxides and removed environmental impacts from flyand bottom ash. It also removed the limited (inextent) but very severe impact of coal dust from theopen pound at Il-Menqa. Moreover, in 1998, theadoption of combined-cycle gas turbine technologyat the Delimara power station was an important steptowards increased energy efficiency. For the six yearsfrom 1995 to 2001, there has been an increase insulphur dioxide emissions (Buttigieg, 2002). A shift tolower sulphur fuels was made in 2001, which togetherwith the use of fuel additives, and the installation ofelectrostatic precipitators, has improved the situationwith regards to particulate emissions from the powerstations.

In 1997, the Malta Council for Science and Technologywas entrusted with preparing a National Energy Policyfor Malta.

Recently, the Malta Resources Authority took overthe regulatory powers held earlier by Enemalta Cor-poration and the responsibility for Malta’s energypolicy, which is to be finalised in 2002.

With regard to alternative sources of energy, the MaltaResources Authority issued a consultation documentin 2002, with the aim of developing a “Strategy forthe Exploitation of Renewable Energy Sources forElectricity Generation”. Work is currently underwayto improve the distribution network. There have alsobeen a few private sector initiatives in the field ofalternative energy sources, including the installationof solar water heaters. Grid Connected Solar Sys-tems, solar powered vehicles, and the potential forwind energy have been the subject of research atthe University of Malta (see for example Cilia, 1995;Cilia et al., 2002; Spiteri Staines and Cilia, 2000).

The fraction of unleaded petrol sold has increasedsteadily throughout the last decade (Mallia and Fsadni,2002) and in November 2001, a price differential ofLm0.03 (Euro 0.07) was introduced in favour ofunleaded petrol which already meets Europeanstandards. In June 2002, sulphur content in diesel forautomative use was further reduced and now meetsEuropean standard EN590. Moreover, governmenthas recently reduced registration tax on electric carsfrom 50.5 per cent to 16 per cent.

Measures are currently being introduced to phaseout leaded petrol by 31 December 2002. EnemaltaCorporation, the national utility provider, is carryingout a study to determine the best lead substitute forpetrol. Educational campaigns are currently beingprepared with regard to transport and fuel use.Government is also adopting regular review of fueltariffs in order to ensure that they are cost reflective.

National emission ceilings for certain atmosphericpollutants are to be adopted by 2002 and will enterinto force on accession to the EU.

The feasibility of importing natural gas by pipelinefor use in power generation is being considered byEnemalta Corporation. Such a development wouldrepresent an important step in the diversification ofprimary energy supply to the Islands and bring aboutsignificant improvements in efficiency at the powerstation and in air quality.

33

Issues to be Addressed andMeasures to be Taken

The following issues and measures need to beaddressed with regard to energy and transport inthe context of sustainable development:• In order to fulfil its commitments under the “UN

Framework Convention on Climate Change”,Malta must strive to reduce greenhouse gasemissions. Increasing efficiency in production,transmission and distribution of energy, reductionof its consumption and cut-backs in vehicleemissions, would be conducive towards this end.

• There is the need for a focused strategy to raiseawareness in favour of consumption control andto usher in fiscal measures to promote andencourage investment in energy-efficientmodifications, equipment and processes.

• The construction industry should be directed toimprove design for thermal efficiency and to adoptenergy saving measures prior to being granteddevelopment permission. In this regard, there isthe need to step up funding for research toimprove knowledge on local materials andconditions.

• The development of renewable energy sources isstill in its infancy and remains a challenge for thefuture, although important improvements in thisregard are expected in the medium term.

• The upgrading of the condition of roads and roaddesign, coordination of land use with transport,and effective traffic management measures arecalled for. A transport strategy proposed by theMalta Environment and Planning Authority dealswith these issues.

• Storage and distribution of petrol needs to beimproved, in line with EU regulations.

• State agencies should consider providing technicalconsultancy and financial assistance to small andmedium sized enterprises to promote investmentin new “environmentally friendly” equipment.

• Other measures which should be considered inthis connection include mandating the use ofcatalytic converters on newly imported vehicles,designing fiscal policies to encourage use of moreefficient vehicles, and directing investment in thepublic transport system.

3.3 FRESHWATER

Due to the geographic characteristics of the MalteseIslands and the semi-arid Mediterranean climate, theMaltese people have been historically constrained

by the availability of freshwater resources and havestriven to overcome water scarcity in several ways –ranging from the traditional harvesting of rain waterto the high-tech treatment of sea and brackish waterby desalination systems. Rainfall is limited to an annualaverage of around 500 mm that falls in about 90days a year, mostly from September to April, withspring and summer remaining almost completely dry.There are no rivers, but perennial springs are normallypresent throughout most of the year. These functionecologically as small rivers, housing a variety offreshwater flora and fauna. Rock pools and brackishwater are also important ecologically. Natural waterresources are nonetheless restricted and consideredto be strategically important in a national perspective.A detailed assessment of such freshwater resourcesas well as freshwater habitats is available in Axiak, etal., (2002).

Current Status

ProductionThe Water Services Corporation (WSC) is the waterutility responsible for water production anddistribution in the Maltese Islands. Malta has two majorsources of freshwater, namely groundwater, which isthe only naturally occurring source of freshwater, anddesalinated water as a source of potable water. Theoverall drinking-water production in Malta has beensteadily decreasing since 1995 as a result of variousconservation measures that the Water Services Cor-poration has implemented over the past decade.


Desalination isan expensiveprocess thatconsumes highamounts ofelectricity.


Groundwater is mainly abstracted from the sea-levelaquifers that lie beneath most of the territory in Maltaand Gozo. These aquifers occur in fractured limestoneand are highly sensitive to sea-water intrusion. About93 per cent of all groundwater abstracted for drinkingpurposes is pumped from the sea-level aquifers.There are also several small aquifers elevated abovesea level and perched over impermeable clays. Theseare not affected by saline intrusion but are usedsparingly as they are heavily contaminated by nitratesderived from agricultural fertilisers. Springs discharg-ing from these aquifers are today used only forirrigation. Groundwater is abstracted from wells,springs and galleries – an underground network ofmore than 40 kilometres. A total abstraction of 17million m3 for municipal purposes was registered inMalta and Gozo during 2000-2001. There are noofficial records for groundwater abstraction by theprivate sector, however, illegal abstraction is knownto exist.

For the past ten years reverse osmosis has accountedfor some 50 per cent of the drinking water supplyand there are currently four such desalination facilities.A breakdown of water production by source in 2001is shown hereunder:

Some households also utilise rainwater which iscollected in wells, although laws specifying thecatchment of rain water through the provision ofcisterns are not always observed.

Table 3.1 - Water Consumption by Sector

Water Consumption %

Domestic 64

Industrial 7

Farms 6

Tourist 8

Government 8

Commercial 6

Other 1Source: Water Services Corporation, 2001

ConsumptionWith regard to consumption, households placethe highest demand by sector (Table 3.1). Thefigures shown in the Table exclude unregisteredabstraction and desalinated water produced byprivate operators.

Environmental issuesThe main threats relating to the integrity ofgroundwater are:• over-pumping of the mean sea-level aquifers and

a consequent rise in salinity levels. There is stillsubstantial uncontrolled abstraction by privatepar ties, exacerbating the depletion ofgroundwater in quantity and quality;

• point and diffuse pollution from anthropogenicactivities namely agriculture (fer tilisers andpesticides), industry and waste disposal;

• the effects of land development, including roaddevelopment on natural aquifer recharge.

It should also be noted that freshwater resourcessuppor t par ticular habitats and that theircontamination poses an ecological threat.Fur thermore, freshwater habitats have beensteadily decreasing due to competition with otherland uses.

Desalination on the other hand is an expensiveprocess, as it requires high amounts of electricity.Reverse osmosis plants also have some effect on thesea-water ecology due to the brine discharged.

The land use implications also need to be consideredin view of the fact that reverse osmosis plants aretypically located on the coast.

Freshwaterproduction1990-2001.

Source: WaterServices

Corporation,2001.

Breakdown ofpotable waterproduction by

source in2000-2001.

Source: WaterServices

Corporation,2001.

35

Remedial Action regardingFreshwater

Considerable progress has been achieved during thelast five years bringing down water losses to an alltime low. Substantial capital investment has beenundertaken to reduce losses by way of leakage de-tection and repair, meter replacement, and “intelligent”pressure management systems. The InternationalLeakage Index (ILI) is being applied as a performanceindicator to gauge success in controlling leakages.

The leakage level of 2800m3/hr recorded in 1995has now dropped to 1210m3/hr, and is targeted toreach 830m3/hr in 2003 and 398m3/hr in 2006.The Faculty of Engineering at the University ofMalta is also assessing the possibility of locating leaksthrough spectral analysis (Cilia, et. al., 2001).

Team-working structures adopted within the WaterServices Corporation, research and development,information technology, and innovative work practiceshave also contributed towards the achievement oftargets set out in the Corporation’s strategic plan(Rizzo, 2001). Tariff revisions in recent years have alsohelped in reducing wastage although consumptionhas continued to increase. The tariff structure allowsthe consumer to benefit financially by saving water.Subsidies are limited to a block of basic waterrequirements while any excess over that is chargedat full price.

Consumer education on water conservation mayalso have limited the increase in consumption. Toreduce salinity at source, abstraction for municipalpurposes from the mean sea-level aquifer has beenreduced and in certain areas wells have been shutdown.

With regard to energy consumption by reverseosmosis plants, special attention is being given to plantefficiency to produce best quality drinking water atthe lowest price. Energy consumption of reverseosmosis plants has already been reduced considerablyand the commissioning of special energy saving de-vices will reduce energy consumption rangingbetween 12 and 20 per cent in those modules wherethe devices are installed.

As from February 2001, the responsibility forregulating the water sector has been handed over tothe Malta Resources Authority (MRA), a publicinstitution with regulatory responsibilities over water,energy and mineral resources in the Maltese Islands.


In order to ensure sustainability in the use offreshwater resources, further measures in watermanagement need to be taken, including the following:• Water quality needs to be improved to

internationally acceptable standards. Thedistribution network is now being modernisedand rehabilitated to cater for increased blendingof groundwater with nitrate-free desalinatedwater in storage reservoirs before reaching theconsumer. In Gozo, all groundwater sources willbe collected in one reservoir and treated for theremoval of chloride, iron, sodium, sulphate, fluorideand nitrate.

• There is the need to identify, monitor and protecthigh status sites and to introduce catchmentmanagement, in l ine with the EU WaterFramework Directive, which covers all surfacewaters.

• The entire Maltese Islands need to be designatedas a nitrate vulnerable zone in order to protectthe quality of groundwater. Plans are already inhand in this regard.

• Water conservation measures (including the useof cisterns) need to be encouraged further.

• Integrated water resources management coupledwith further enforcement of regulatory measures(in par ticular illegal abstraction) remains anoverarching objective.

• There is also the need to optimise the use ofsecond class water (discussed further in Section3.5 below).

Freshwateris a very scarceresource inthe MalteseIslands.



3.4 MARINE AND COASTALENVIRONMENT

Marine and coastal environments play a crucial rolein Malta. Maritime transport provides a life link withthe outside world while the sea itself is a source ofpotable water, as described above. Recreation forMaltese people as well as tourists is highly dependenton the marine and coastal environment, while theintroduction of aquaculture in the early 1990s andthe liberalisation of bunkering operations opened themarine environment for more investment. Otheractivities that utilise the coast include shipbuilding,ship-repair and fishing. Yet, as competition for all typesof uses increases, so does conflict amongst them.

Malta’s gently sloping coastal areas and sandy beachesare under pressure from tourism and recreationaldevelopments and infrastructural needs, and this isoften to the detriment of biodiversity, aesthetic valueand open space. A detailed assessment of trends inmarine environmental quality and threats may befound in Axiak et al., (2002).

Current Status

Development on the coast is regulated by the MaltaEnvironment and Planning Authority. Pollutionprevention from marine vessels is regulated by theMalta Maritime Authority, which has to complywith international regulations. Both the EnvironmentProtection Act (1991), and its new version,(2001) and the Development Planning Act (1992)allow and enable the setting-up of marineprotected areas.

Although at present there are no formal marine pro-tected areas, the area of 1 nautical mile around theislet of Filfla has served as a strict marine reserveand no activities other than fishing are allowed there.(Mifsud, 2002). Fourteen sites were proposed as can-didate marine conservation areas in the Structure Planfor the Maltese Islands elaborated in 1990.

In 1994, a report commissioned by the RegionalActivity Centre on Specially Protected Areas identified27 marine and 17 coastal sites that were recom-mended as deserving protection by virtue of theEnvironment Protection Act, without specifying thetype and extent of protection (Schembri, 1994).There is public pressure for such designations,particularly from NGOs and the diving community.

Marine living resourcesThe fishing industry in Malta is largely artisanal, andonly a small number of fishing vessels operate on thehigh seas. An assessment of the fishing fleet, fishermenand fish catches is available in Schembri et al., 2002.As on 18 September 2001, there were a total 1,736licensed fishing vessels (1,411 in Malta and 325 inGozo). Of these, only 45 were considered industrialvessels (over 15 m in length). The rest wereconsidered to be multipurpose since they undertakeall types of fishing on a small scale and in territorialwaters only. The total number of registered fishermenin 1999 was 1,707.

The most widely used gear is long-lines, set adrift forpelagic species and close to the bottom for demersalspecies. Modified seines are used for dorado andlampara species (lampara is a form of night fishingutilising powerful light) whilst bottom trawling takesplace during two seasons. Deep bottom trawling takesplace offshore for crustaceans in spring and summer.Fishing in shallow coastal waters for demersal speciestakes place in autumn and winter. Harmful and illegalfishing practices also exist. The main fishing seasonsare given in Table 3.2.

The fishingindustry in

Malta islargely

artisanal.

37

The total fish landings in 2001 amounted to approxi-mately 850 tons with a value of about Lm 1.6 mil-lion in 2001 (source: NSO). The most important fishcaught are dorado (lampuka) (about 36 per cent),bluefin tuna (about 22 per cent of catch), and sword-fish (about 9 per cent), although there is consider-able variation in these percentages from one year toanother. Not all fish is landed at the local fish market– some is sold directly to restaurants or to small fishmarkets.

AquacultureThe aquaculture industry was introduced in Malta in1989 and it proliferated rapidly from a production of300 tonnes in 1992 to a total licensed productionpotential estimated at 3,000 tonnes per year in 2001.The main species produced on both commercial sea-based and land-based operations were sea bass(Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus aurata).Interest has now shifted towards tuna penning withsea bream operators seeking to convert and extendtheir farms for such purposes. Bluefin tuna is caughtfrom the wild stock in the Central Mediterranean.

Potential pollutants include nutrient inputs from cagesites, slick of fish oil on the surface of the water anddecomposition from overfeeding. In some cases, thereis evidence of impact on water quality and on thePosidonia oceanica meadows for inshore fish farms,and on sediment quality, in offshore tuna penning.A more detailed review is included in Schembriet al., (2002).

Environmental Issues

Marine spillsAlthough no major oil spill has ever reached ourcoastline, the Central Mediterranean is an area withrelatively high maritime traffic and the associated risksof incidents are evidently high. The area around Malta

and in the Sicilian Straits is one of the most oil-pollutedregions in the Mediterranean. The Maltese coastlineand coastal waters are continuously exposed tothreats of spills originating from maritime activities,as well as from land-based operations. A moredetailed review is available in Axiak et al., (2002).

Integrated management andsustainable developmentThe main threats to the coastal and marineenvironment stem from lack of integrated planningand management. The exploitation of the marine andcoastal environment has historically been addressedin a sectoral manner, without adequate strategic long-term direction. The majority of coastal uses havebeen developed without considering the implicationson the natural processes, cultural resources and otheruses. This pattern has been mostly felt in areas wherenew forms of development have been introduced incoastal waters. Dumping at sea is regulated by theMalta Maritime Authority and the Environment Pro-tection Directorate, although illegal dumping of wasteat sea does exist.

Information and monitoringThe largest collection of information on marinehabitats around the Maltese Islands was carried outover the last decade, mainly as part of environmentalimpact assessments of existing and proposed projects,or to produce inventories of coastal resources. Thesebaseline studies on the submarine littoral andmacrobenthic assemblages cover approximately 4.7square kilometres of sea-bed area and a coastal lengthof 20 kilometres. A study has recently been commis-sioned by MEPA to investigate the Posidonia oceanicameadows around the Maltese Islands. The Pollution

The Maltesecoastlineand coastalwaters arecontinuouslyexposed tothreats of spillsoriginatingfrom maritimeactivities, aswell as fromland-basedoperations.


Table 3.2 - Fishing Season

Species Season

Bluefin tuna May and JulyDorado September

to DecemberStone bass, Januarygroupers and snappers to April

Fish caught by MarchLampara Technique to July

Swordfish Septemberto November

Source: Schembri et al., 2002


Control Co-ordinating Unit within the EnvironmentProtection Directorate (MEPA) has also revivedthe MEDPOL monitor ing program for basicparameters such as nutrients, chlorophyll and watertransparency, all considered as indicators ofenvironmental quality.

Monitoring of bacteriological standards is also carriedout by the Health Department through their bathingwaters monitoring program. Fur thermore, theUniversity of Malta conducts ad hoc research in lo-calities such as harbours and sewage outfalls. Thereis also research work on coastal resources and onbaseline studies of macrobenthic communities andassemblages. Biodiversity data has also been gener-ated by other organisations namely, the MaltaCouncil for Science and Technology (MCST) and theInternational Environment Institute (IEI), the NationalAquaculture Centre (NAC), the Ministr y ofAgriculture and Fisheries and the former EnvironmentProtection Department within the Ministry for theEnvironment.

Malta hosts the Euro-Mediterranean Centre forInsular Coastal Dynamics (ICoD), which has

developed the capability for aerial surveillance andmonitoring of the coast and territorial waters. Thiscan be used for shoreline management and fordetecting illegal activities, such as discharges from ships.The Centre has undertaken preliminary short-termstudies on beach and shore-line erosion trends.

The main problem, in this regard, is that marine datahas been collected through project-based assessmentand baseline information is still lacking. Informationwith respect to impact from industrial discharge andthe location of landfills along the coast is also sparse.

Malta hosts the Mediterranean Global Ocean Ob-serving System (MedGOOS) which networks themain marine research centres in the region, however,there is no marine research centre per se in the Mal-tese Islands.

Coastal erosion and climate changeCoastal erosion locally can be associated with beachloss and cliff failure. To date no published studies existthat indicate the current rates and potential risks ofcoastal erosion around the Maltese Islands. Conse-quently, the main factors that accelerate erosion are

Table 3.3 - Main Legislation Adopted Between 1991-2001

Development Planning Act1992; Amendments in 1997

Civil Protection Act, 1999

Malta Resources Authority Act,2000

Fish Conservation andManagement Act, 2001

Environment Protection Act,1991, superseded by theEnvironment Protection Act,2000 and its subsidiaryregulations

Planning Authority

Civil ProtectionDepartment

Malta ResourcesAuthority

Department ofFisheries/MaltaCentre for FisheriesScience

Plan and control development on land and at sea

Preparation of contingency plans to respond tonational disasters/emergencies

Regulation, monitoring and review of all practices,operations and activities relating to energy, waterand mineral resources

Conservation of natural fish stocks, developmentand management of fish stocks, monitoring andregulating of fishing and aquaculture operations

Implementation of the Environment ProtectionAct, 2001 enables, amongst other things, thesetting-up of the National Commission forSustainable Development and the EnvironmentFund, issuing of regulations in relation tobiodiversity, pollution prevention and control andwaste management, licensing of establishments,environment impact assessments and access ofinformation on the environment by the public

Legislation Organisation Main Function

Malta Maritime Authority Act,1991; Yachting Centresregulation, 1992.

Malta MaritimeAuthority

To provide and maintain ports; prevent andcontrol pollution of any port; exercise control forthe preservation of good order in territorial andinternal waters

EnvironmentProtectionDepartment

39

associated with development carried out, withoutadequate understanding of coastal processes.

With respect to climate change, the United NationsEnvironment Programme commissioned a study(Attard, 1993) to investigate the implications ofclimate change, including sea level rise, on the MalteseIslands. The study suggests that the impacts areexpected to be relatively low. Nonetheless, it isimperative that this issue be given due attention sinceconsiderable commercial and industrial activity islocated along the low-lying coastal areas.

Remedial Action with regard to theMarine and Coastal Environment

An extensive set of legislation was enacted over thelast decade to create new agencies or empowerexisting ones with administrative functions thatfacilitate protection of the marine and coastalenvironment.

These laws have made it possible for the responsibleagencies to undertake several actions, including thefollowing:• The development of a National Oil Pollution

Contingency Plan (which however is yet to comein full operation).

• The adoption of a Program for a MarineEnvironment Risk Management System tomonitor and audit operations within the GrandHarbour.

• The adoption of Regulations on EnvironmentImpact Assessments.

• The adoption of Planning Policy guidelines on fishfarming (1994). Measures for a National Policyon Aquaculture are currently underway.

• The preparation of a Coastal Strategy to beadopted in the revised Structure Plan. The reportincludes a profile of natural and cultural resources,a revision of current practice and evaluates de-velopment trends.

• The undertaking of a Coastal Area ManagementProgram under the Mediterranean Action Plan,(2000 – 2002).

• Assistance to local NGOs to manage protectedcoastal areas.

• Research by the University of Malta and variousinstitutions on the marine environment toinvestigate habitats and impact of anthropogenicorigin and to collect baseline data, and investigatelevels and sources of pollution.

• The issue of a number of regulations protectingmarine biota via the Environment Protection Act

since 1992, including those protecting Reptiles,Marine Mammals and Flora and Fauna.

• Four coastal areas, namely the island of Filfla, St.Paul’s Islands, Fungus Rock and the salinemarshlands of Ghadira were declared asinternational ‘Specially Protected Areas’ throughthe “Protocol concerning Specially ProtectedAreas in the Mediterranean”.

• The development of a code of practice withguidelines to be followed by governmental andnon-governmental organisations in connectionwith cetacean strandings and beaching in the Mal-tese Islands and their territorial waters.

• The compilation of a Strategic Action Plan for theConservation of Marine and Coastal Biodiversity forthe Maltese Islands (SAP-BIO) being carried outby the Environment Protection Directorate withthe assistance of the Regional Activity Centre forSpecially Protected Areas (Tunisia) of theMediterranean Action Plan, which aims to analyseissues and identify actions required at nationaland regional (Mediterranean) level to conservemarine and coastal biological diversity.

• The development of action plans for marineinvasive species, accompanied by measures toprotect the Maltese Islands.

• The setting-up of a national team to determinewhich marine areas could qualify for inclusion inthe Emerald Network of the Council of Europe.

Since 1992, Malta has also become Party to a numberof treaties dealing with the marine environment,including the “Convention on Biological Diversity”,the “Convention on Migratory Species of WildAnimals” (or Bonn Convention), the “Agreement onthe Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea,Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area”(or ACCOBAMS) and the “Protocol concerning

The GhadiraNatureReserve – oneof the speciallyprotectedareas in Malta.



Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity inthe Mediterranean” of the “Barcelona Convention”.A number of coastal species were proposed for in-clusion into the Appendices of the “Bern Convention”(Stevens, 1999a; Schembri et al., 2002).

A more holistic approach essential for integratedmarine and coastal management started to evolvein the 1990s. The introduction of the PlanningAuthority in 1992 led to a more systematic planningand control of development on both land and sea.The Authority is legally bound to consult differentagencies and the general public on both developmentplans and projects. In addition, the increased interestfor development at sea brought to light issuesconcerning administrative overlaps and gaps, whichindirectly led to more policy co-ordination betweencertain agencies, albeit on an ad hoc basis.


While the legal package with regard to the marineand coastal environment is comprehensive, itssuccessful implementation requires that the followinggaps be addressed:• There is still very limited information regarding

the state of the marine environment. Moreresources need to be made available to allow formore extensive monitoring programmes.

• There is a need for capacity-building withingovernment agencies, including management andenforcement personnel.

• There is also a need to develop and implementintegrated management plans. The currentStructure Plan (Planning Authority 1990), calls forthe need of a comprehensive plan addressingcoastal zone management.

• The establishment of a system of MarineConservation Areas is a pressing need.

• There are data gaps with regard to fish stocks,aquaculture and other industrial impacts on themarine environment.

3.5 SOLID AND LIQUIDWASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste management is one of the most problematicenvironmental issues in the Maltese Islands. Malta’ssmall terr itor y, high population density, thesignificant increase in the standard of living andgeneral lack of awareness on waste managementoptions, all exacerbate the problem in Malta(Axiak, et al., 1999; Briguglio and Mercieca, 1998).Increased media pressure, as well as requirementsstemming from international commitments haveplaced waste management issues high on Govern-ment’s agenda.

Current Status

Solid wasteAlthough there are no official estimates of the rateof growth of waste, the Waste Management SubjectPlan for the Maltese Islands (Planning Authority, 2001d)assumes that waste will increase in proportion witheconomic growth. The State of the Environment Report(Axiak et al., 2002) gives an updated account ofstatistics of solid wastes and assesses the various im-plications of such wastes on the sustainable use ofour environmental resources.

Solid waste accepted at public disposal sites,namely landfills and the composting plant, averagedabout 1.4 million tonnes in recent years, of whichabout 11 per cent was municipal waste, 7 percent, industrial waste and 82 per cent, constructionand demolition waste (Axiak et al., 1999; 2002;Planning Authority, 2001d; Environmental PlanningDirectorate, 2002).

A holisticapproach isessential for

integratedmarine and

coastalmanagement.

41

Municipal waste. According to a recent (April 2002)survey carried out by the National Statistics Office,about 2.2 kilograms per household of domestic wastewas collected daily. Approximately about 60 per centof this waste was made up of food remains (organicwaste). Paper, cardboard and cartons accounted forabout 14 per cent, whereas plastic containers andfilm accounted for about 10 per cent. The remainingfractions included textile material, (5 per cent), glassbottles (4 per cent) and ferrous cans (4 per cent).Hazardous waste contributed less than 0.5 per cent(source: NSO).

Industrial waste. According to a survey, undertakenin 1996, reported in Axiak et al., (1999), the highestindustrial waste fractions related to inert residues(about 42 per cent) food residues (13 per cent),paper (12 per cent), hydrocarbons (7 per cent),metals (5 per cent) and slaughterhouse residues (5per cent). Other industrial waste fractions includedplastics, textiles, glass, wood, sludges, salt and ash.

Incinerated waste. Incinerated waste originates fromSt. Luke’s Hospital, Boffa Hospital and Gozo GeneralHospital (healthcare waste), the civil abattoirs (animalcarcasses) from the Malta Drydocks (waste fromships) and the Malta International Airport (openburning of airline catering waste). Generally speaking,old incinerating technology is utilised and no gas clean-ing occurs.

Liquid waste. Data regarding the actual amounts ofsewage discharged into the marine environment arenot available. However, it can be assumed that theproduction of urban wastewater is directly linked tofreshwater consumption. It is estimated that 80 percent of water consumed reaches the seweragenetwork. This sewage effluent is predominantly amixture of domestic, industrial and commercialwastewater. Using water consumption figures for2000, it is estimated that the annual volume of liquidwastes generated was approximately 18.7 million m3.

Current waste management practiceWith the exception of waste composting, solid waste(as well as some types of sludges and liquid waste)generated in Malta is disposed in landfills, which areowned and operated by the State. Maghtab Landfillon mainland Malta and Il-Qortin Landfill in Gozo haveminimal operational controls and limited facilities formitigating environmental impacts.

Private contractors provide collection services, whileLocal Councils are responsible for collection of

municipal solid waste on a daily basis at no cost tohouseholds. Industrial waste is collected at theexpense of the producer, and the same applies forconstruction and demolition waste. Since 1997 therehas been a nominal fee of Euro 0.9 per tonne ofwaste deposited at public waste deposit sites.

With regard to recycling, in 2001, approximately30,000 tonnes of solid waste was delivered forcomposting at the Sant’ Antnin Solid Waste TreatmentPlant, of which 57 per cent was actually composted(Axiak, et al., 2002). The plant has a design capacityof 85,000 tpa.

Separation and recycling initiatives are carried outby some entities, including collection and export forrecycling of paper and cardboard, batteries, scrapmetals and plastics, but there has been no sustainedeffort at separation at source as yet. An exceptionto this is the beverage manufacturing industry whichoperates an efficient deposit-refund scheme for glassbottles. Recovery (reuse) rates of over 90 per centare recorded on this sort of packaging. Unmeasuredquantities of excavation, construction and demolitionwastes are recycled and/or deposited in disusedquarries. Approximately 177,000 tonnes of excava-tion wastes was disposed offshore in 2001 (Axiak etal., 2002).


The Maghtablandfill – itsclosure is amajorchallenge inwastemanagement.


ThreatsThe current waste management scenario posesseveral threats to the environment due mainly tothe heavy dependency on landfills. Landfill is a veryland-intensive option, a consideration that is especiallyproblematic in Malta given the small land area. Thefact that landfills in Malta are not properly managedresults in significant environmental problems includingnegative visual impact, emissions of toxic gases fromspontaneous combustion of waste , leachategeneration, vermin, odours, and groundwater andmarine contamination (Axiak, et al., 2002).

Incineration practices in Malta are also leading tosignificant environmental risks, given that none of theexisting incinerators are equipped with flue gas clean-up equipment, and that most of the incinerators donot produce complete combustion of the wasteincinerated.

With the possible exception of the abattoirincinerator in Gozo, all the waste combustion facilitieswill need to be closed down in order to meet EUstandards.

The composting plant at Sant’ Antnin currently re-ceives mixed municipal waste (in the absence ofsource separation) which results in the productionof compost of an inferior quality. Some concernhas been expressed about the possibility of soilcontamination by heavy metals and othercontaminants where the compost is applied foragricultural purposes.

Other environmental threats associated with thecurrent waste management situation include unoffi-cial dumping in various areas around the country-side and the illegal dumping of waste at sea.

With regard to liquid waste, the direct discharge ofraw sewage into the sea leads to microbial pollution,degradation of mar ine flora and fauna andeutrophication. In addition, there are health threatsto bathers and divers. Problems with the dischargeof raw sewage into the sea are further exacerbatedby the high rates of malfunctioning of Malta’s mainsewage outfall at Wied Ghammieq, as well as of somecoastal pumping stations.

Remedial Action regarding Waste

In 2001, Government published the Solid WasteManagement Strategy for the Maltese Islands whichprovides a strategic framework for waste manage-

The Sant’Antnin Waste

TreatmentPlant

With regard to liquid waste, almost all areas in theMaltese Islands are connected to the sewerage systemwhich collects domestic and industrial waste as wellas some storm water runoff. Animal breedingestablishments are not allowed to connect to thepublic sewerage system and their waste is disposedof in cesspits, which have to conform to strict designstandards. The sewerage system directs most of theeffluents into the marine environment, with anaverage of less than 15 per cent of the total sewagegeneration being treated prior to discharge. Thereare currently three main sewage outfalls in mainlandMalta, another three in Gozo, and a minor outfall inComino. The only outfalls equipped with properdiffusers are those at Wied Ghammieq and Ras il-Hobz, with the former being particularly prone tobreakage.

The Sant’ Antnin Waste Treatment Plant (constructedin 1982 and upgraded in 1998) is connected to themain sewage collection infrastructure. This plant pro-duces second-class water that is used for irrigationand some industrial processes. The by-product ofsewage treatment (i.e ., sludge) is discharged,untreated, into the sea. There are also a number ofsmall-scale treatment plants that have been installedin major hotels.

43

ment. An inter-ministerial group, acting as a nationalsteering committee, has been set up to oversee theimplementation of the strategy and to ensure thatdeadlines are respected. The Malta Environment andPlanning Authority has finalised its Waste Manage-ment Subject Plan, following public consultation. ThePlan covers waste management issues from a landuse point of view and builds upon the direction pro-vided in the National Solid Waste Management Strat-egy. The policies in the Waste Management SubjectPlan are based on modern waste managementprinciples and take full consideration of the princi-ples of sustainability and standards adopted by theEuropean Union. Subsidiary legislation has also beendrafted or enacted to regulate various aspects ofwaste management in the process of accession tothe EU.

Malta has also become a Contracting Party to the“Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movementof Hazardous and other Wastes”. This Convention isconsidered to be a crucial tool for the environmen-tally sound management of certain fractions ofhazardous waste generated in Malta. Axiak et al.,(2002) have recently identified a number ofencouraging signs of improvements in solid wastemanagement. Private scrap dealers and industrialestablishments recovered considerable quantities ofscrap metal. These materials were stored on site; somefractions were treated and subsequently exportedto several European and other states for recycling.There is also an increasing tendency for reuse of inertwastes (both excavation and C&D wastes) in variousprojects. The amounts of compost produced and dis-tributed has been steadily increasing since 1997, andfurthermore, there are indications that the quality ofcompost produced in 2001 is better than thatproduced over the period 1992-1997.

Regarding liquid waste, the most significant pieces oflegislation in force in Malta on this subject are theEnvironment Protection Act 2001 and Legal Notice8 of 1993. The former prohibits any discharge intothe sea, disposal and dumping of certain substanceson land without a written permit while the latterregulates discharges into the sewerage system,obliging industry to apply for a Public SewerDischarge Permit prior to connecting the publicsewerage system. The level of enforcement for suchsewer discharge control, however needs to be greatlyimproved.

In addition to legislation, Government prepared aSewage Master Plan in 1992, covering upgrading of

the sewerage infrastructure in order to bring it inline with internationally acceptable standards. Dur-ing the past 10 years there have been majorimprovements in the network and in 1998, majorupgrading works were completed on the Ras il-Hobzoutfall. The capacity of the existing large-scale sewagetreatment plant at Sant’ Antnin was expanded in 1998,to be able to treat 17,000m3/day.

Furthermore, the Government is committed to treatall sewage produced in the Maltese Islands by 2007.For this purpose three new treatment plants, andrelated transmission infrastructure , wil l beconstructed. These plants will cater for Gozo, theNorth of Malta and another one in the South ofmainland Malta. Environmental Impact Assessmentsare being undertaken for these projects. There arealso current plans for the treatment of the limitedamount of sewage produced on Comino.


The necessary waste management plans have nowbeen finalised and the next step is the setting-up ofthe necessary administrative capacity to oversee theirimplementation. The adoption and implementationof the stringent EU legislation of waste managementis expected to bring about major improvements inthe future. The Solid Waste Management Strategy forthe Maltese Islands, once implemented, will usher inthe following changes:• Enacting subsidiar y legislation under the

Environment Protection Act (2001) and theestablishment of technical standards and codesof practice.


TheGovernment iscommitted totreat allsewageproduced inthe MalteseIslands by2007.


The rareSicilian Squill –

endemic tothe MalteseIslands, Sicilyand Calabria.

• Closing all non-compliant incinerators by the endof 2003, upgrading incineration plant for abattoirwaste and replacing incineration plants in hospitalsby non-burn technology.

• Closing all non-controlled landfills by 2004 andestablishment of new controlled landfills andtreatment plants for hazardous and non-hazardous wastes by 2004.

• Establishing facilities for the interim storage priorto shipment of certain hazardous wastes.

• Introducing deposit refund systems for selectedpotentially hazardous and/or recyclable fractions.

• Setting and imposing targets for recycling anddevelopment of new recycling facilities.

• Reducing particular waste streams and separationat source.

• Upgrading the Sant’ Antnin composting plant.• Introducing economic instruments conducive to

improved waste management practices.• Setting up a waste transfer station in Gozo.• Development of facilities for the separate

collection of wastes by Local Councils.

There is the need for a comprehensive inventory onwaste production, composition and disposal practices,since the available data are only indicative. Thesituation would be improved by legally obliging wasteproducers to assist in providing the necessaryinformation.

With regard to separate collection of waste fractions,little significant progress has been reported. However,following the results of two pilot projects, a nationalcomprehensive programme of waste separation isplanned, and scheduled to be completed by the endof 2004.

With respect to used lubricating oils, half of theestimated volume requiring collection and treatment

is still being illegally used or disposed of in theenvironment. There is therefore the need for bettermonitoring and enforcement in this regard.

There is also the need to strengthen deterrence withregard to illegal tipping, which still takes place, mostlyin rural areas. The number of cour t cases inconnection with such activities is pitifully small, andthe fines and penalties imposed on the polluter wererarely high enough to deter further tipping.

With regard to liquid waste, there is an urgent needto upgrade the present sewerage system to decreaseto a minimum the present rates of failure of somecoastal pumping stations as well as Malta’s majorsewage outfall at Wied Ghammieq.

Furthermore, greater efforts must be made to avoidfragmentation of responsibilities within the presentadministrative structures.

3.6 CONSERVATION OFBIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Despite their small size, the Maltese Islands areendowed with a variety of habitat types. Apart fromtheir local importance, some elements of Malta’sbiodiversity have a wider regional importance withinthe Mediterranean. Numerous endemic species areof evolutionary and biogeographical interest. Someare relics from the pre-glacial Mediterranean floraand fauna whereas others have no close relativesanywhere else in the world. Numerous species ofMaltese flora and fauna have a restr ictedMediterranean distribution. Some locally relativelycommon species are endangered on a European scale(Schembri et al., 1999; Axiak et al., 1999).

Current Status

The present landscape of the Maltese Islands is almostentirely shaped by humans, and very few areas ofnatural habitat remain. As a result, human activitiesare the single most important factor affecting habitatsand wildlife (Schembri, 1997). Through direct orindirect human intervention, many habitats in theMaltese Islands, including wetlands, sand dunes andwoodlands have disappeared or are on the verge ofdisappearing, and a large number of species, includ-ing endemic forms, such as the Freshwater Crab andthe Maltese Everlasting, are also threatened withextinction, while some, including the Jackdaw, the BarnOwl and the Yellow Iris, have already become extinct(Schembri et al., 1999).

45

An assessment of the conservation status of locallyoccurring terrestrial, freshwater and marine specieswas made in 1989 when the first Red Data Book forthe Maltese Islands was prepared (Schembri andSultana, 1989). Table 3.4 gives a summary of the statusof species (see also Axiak et al., 1999).

Over the past decade, the main factors that havethreatened biodiversity relate to destruction ofhabitats, uncontrolled exploitation and, indirectly, lackof awareness.

Habitat destructionHabitat destruction is an important factor whichnegatively affects local biodiversity. It is mainly causedby development of land and related activities (suchas mineral extraction and construction). Habitatsfound in a few scattered pockets on the Islandsare particularly vulnerable. The most importantof these include: woodlands, saline marshlandsand other coastal wetlands, sand dunes, permanentsprings and caves. Examples of such habitats lostover the past ten years include those associated with


Table 3.4 - Extinct and Threatened Species of the Maltese Islands

Group X E V R I Total

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) 0 0 0 0 1 1

Chlorophyta (green algae) 1 0 1 2 0 4

Fucophyta (brown algae) 0 0 3 2 0 5

Rhodophyta (red algae) 1 0 0 3 0 4

Macrofungi (“higher “ fungi) 0 1 0 16 1 18

Bryophyta (mosses and relatives) 0 1 0 33 3 37

Lycophyta (club-mosses and rel.) 1 0 0 1 0 2

Filicophyta (ferns and relatives) 3 2 0 0 0 5

Pinophyta (conifers) 1 1 0 0 0 2

Gnetophyta (gnetads) 1 0 0 0 0 1

Magnoliophyta (flowering plants) 109 80 44 136 38 407

Cnidaria (cnidarians) 0 0 0 4 0 4

Hirudinea (leeches) 0 0 1 0 0 1

Chelicerata (spiders and relatives) 0 1 0 4 4 9

Crustacea (crustaceans) 0 2 2 8 2 14

Mollusca (snails and relatives) 5 11 10 19 7 52

Odonata (dragonflies and rel.) 0 0 1 1 0 2

Dictyoptera (mantises and rel.) 0 0 0 2 0 2

Orthoptera (grasshoppers and rel.) 1 0 2 5 0 8

Dermaptera (earwigs) 0 0 1 0 0 1

Hemiptera (bugs) 0 0 0 1 4 5

Homoptera (scale insects and aphids) 0 0 0 0 2 2

Trichoptera (caddisflies) 0 0 0 2 0 2

Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and ants) 0 1 7 4 0 12

Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) 7 1 11 9 4 32

Coleoptera (beetles) 11 0 38 66 48 163

“Pisces” (fish) 0 0 1 0 0 1

Amphibia (amphibians) 0 0 1 0 0 1

Reptilia (reptiles) 0 1 12 1 1 15

Aves (birds) 4 4 17 0 0 25

Mammalia (mammals) 0 0 13 8 3 24Adapted from Schembri et al. (1999).Legend: X= Extinct; E = Endangered; V = Vulnerable; R = Rare; and I = IndeterminateNote: Only those groups included in the Red Data Book for the Maltese Islands (Schembri and Sultana, 1989) are shown in the table.


The islet ofFilfla has been

declared aSpecially

ProtectedArea.

sandy beaches – of some 36 sites with ‘dunes’ thatare known to have existed in the past, only foursites still have extant dunal systems. Since thesehabitats are rare on the Islands, the organisms theysupport are also rare.

Uncontrolled exploitationThe decline of some species populations is alsoaffected by the use of indiscriminate methods ofcollection and commercial exploitation. Some fishing,hunting, and collecting methods in use are non-spe-cific and they indiscriminately capture all species,including rare ones. Although many of these methodsare illegal, they are still used. Enforcement capabilitiesin this regard are, however, being strengthened. Wildpopulations of some local species (such as a varietyof song birds and wild flowers) are exploited forcommercial purposes.

Since these populations depend on natural mecha-nisms for replenishment, they are declining becausethe numbers removed are too high for these mecha-nisms to sustain the yield. In this regard, bird huntingis responsible for the extinction of some local speciesand for preventing other potentially breeding speciesfrom nesting on the Islands.

Awareness and alien speciesWhile awareness activities have been organised bythe former Environment Protection Department,often in conjunction with the Government’sEducation Division, it is recognised that more

environmental awareness is necessary, and that aconcerted action (aimed at enabling sustainableaction) is required in this respect. The introductionof alien plants and animals to ‘improve’ the local‘impoverished’ wildlife and in local afforestationprojects (Schembri and Lanfranco, 1996) is amanifestation of lack of awareness about Maltesebiodiversity, and poses a threat thereto. The issue ofawareness is discussed further in Chapter 4.

Remedial Action regarding Biodiversity

Recent Acts and regulations affording legal protectionto Maltese biodiversity and species include the 1991Environment Protection Act, superseded by theEnvironment Protection Act 2001, and its subsidiaryregulations. The 2001 Act is based on sustainabledevelopment principles, and has brought Malta in linewith EU legislation. A number of regulations protect-ing biodiversity have also been issued, since 1992, viathe Environment Protection Act.

Different categories of protected areas occur in Malta.To date Malta has three ‘strict‘ nature reserves, whereall the flora and fauna are protected, namely the is-land of Filfla, Selmunett (St. Paul’s Islands) and FungusRock. Filfla has been declared a Specially ProtectedArea under the auspices of the “Protocol concerningSpecially Protected Areas in the Mediterranean”(1982 version). Various other sites are protectedunder the name ‘Nature Reserves’ by virtue of the1991 Environment Protection Act including the entireisland of Comino. These are actually ‘bird-sanctuar-ies’, where shooting and trapping of birds is prohibited.Some of these areas are also incorporated in inter-national networks, including those set by the “RamsarConvention” and the “Protocol concerning SpeciallyProtected Areas and Biological Diversity in theMediterranean”. There are also a number of treeprotection areas.

The Development Planning Act and subsidiarylegislation protect habitats (and flora and faunaindirectly) through site scheduling. Some 140 siteshave been scheduled over the past ten years as Ar-eas of Ecological Importance and/or Sites of ScientificInterest in terms of the Development Planning Act.Although management of such areas has to date beenlimited, one area of ecological and scientificimportance (at Ghajn Tuffieha) is currently beingmanaged by a local NGO. A habitats map for theMaltese Islands is currently being compiled, whichwill be inputted into a Geographic Information Systemby the end of the year 2002.

47

The CommonHawthorn – anindigenousshrub generallyfound in widienand maquishabitats.

Table 3.5 provides a list of protected areas byhabitat type.

In addition, the setting-up of the Species Action PlanProgramme, initiated in 1998, involves specificmanagement plans for the protection of endangeredspecies and their habitats and similar eradication plansor control mechanisms for invasive alien species. Thisprogramme is currently in its initial phases, whichinvolves the identification of endangered speciesrequiring special conservation measures for their long-term sur vival. The Impor tant Area Inventor yProgramme, started in 1999, involves the identificationof national and international sites important forbiological diversity. This also includes the EmeraldNetwork – Natura 2000 Project being implementedby the MEPA, with the assistance of the Council ofEurope.

Considerable work has been carried out with respectto tree protection. Regulations for the protection ofspecific trees and woodland areas were issued in 2001under the Environment Protection Act and, in thesame year, the Planning Authority published a Policyand Design Guidance on Trees, Shrubs and Plants forplanting and landscaping in the Maltese Islands. Theseregulations protect a number of tree species on theIslands and the policy guidance relate to the imple-mentation of landscaping schemes. The objective isto preserve local biodiversity, to be achieved throughthe protection of trees and any uprooting that maybe required would have to be compensated forthrough new plantings. A list of alien flora of theMaltese Islands was commissioned in November2001, and has been published in 2002.

There have also been several awareness-raisinginitiatives by the public sector and non-governmentalorganisations. The former Environment ProtectionDepartment has published a number of works onnative and archaeophytic trees and woodlands,cetaceans, and marine migratory and alien species.

Malta has also become a Party to a number ofinternational treaties concerned with the protectionof biodiversity. These include the following:• “Convention concerning the Protection of the

World Cultural and Natural Heritage”.• “Convention on Wetlands of International

Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitats”.• “Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species of Wild of Flora and Fauna”.• “Convention on the Conservation of European

Wildlife and Natural Habitats”.• “Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas

and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean”.• “Convention on Biological Diversity, the Conven-

tion on the Conservation of Migratory Speciesof Wild Animals”.

• “Agreement on the Conservation of Bats inEurope, the Agreement on the Conservation ofCetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Seaand Contiguous Atlantic Area”.

• “European Landscape Convention”.• “Memorandum of Understanding concerning

Conservation Measures for the Slender-billedCurlew”.

• “Agreement on the Conservation of AfricanEurasian Migratory Waterbirds”.

• “Car tagena Protocol on Biosafety” and the“Convention on the Protection of theEnvironment through Criminal Law”.


Table 3.5 - Protected Areas

Habitat Type No.

Saline marshlands 12

Sand dunes 6

Coastal cliffs 9

Freshwater wetlands 6

Parts of watercourses 1

Afforested sites and forest remnants 29

Caves with subterranean water 1

Widien (valleys) 47

Minor Islets 4

Miscellaneous (complex of habitat types) 8

Sources: Malta Environment and Planning Authority; Ministry ofAgriculture and FisheriesNote: Many protected localities comprise a number of differenthabitat types and appear under more than one heading.


Between 1956and 1997, thepercentage ofbuilt-up area

on the MalteseIslands

increased from4% to 22% ofthe total land

area.

Some of these are described in more detail in Chapter5 of this Report.


Despite the remedial action taken, a number of issuesremain to be addressed. These include:• The need to monitor and legally protect all rare

and/or threatened endemic species, and otherlocally occurr ing species of internationalimportance, and to take active measures for theirconservation.

• The need to designate conservation areas (inparticular marine areas) based on sound scientificinformation, to protect habitats fromdevelopment, and to manage them. Wherenecessary habitats should be re-constructed.

• Obligations under existing internationalenvironmental treaties concerning biodiversity arenot always fulfilled. There is a need to equip localagencies responsible for implementing these trea-ties with the necessary resources, personnel andadministrative machinery to enforce legislation.

• The need to promote and fund research to gaina better understanding of local biodiversity,including the establishment and funding of anational inventory/database of biodiversity.

• The need to adopt an official policy on theintroduction of alien species (including geneticallymodified organisms).

• The need to improve awareness on localbiodiversity.

3.7 LAND USE

As stated earlier in this Report, Malta’s populationdensity exceeds 1,200 persons per square kilometre.This makes Malta one of the most densely populatedcountries in the world and the sustainable use ofland, one of its most pressing priorities.

Between 1956 and 1997, the percentage of built-uparea on the Maltese Islands increased from 4 percent to 22 per cent of the total land area. During theten years from 1990 – 2000, land developmentcontinued, although it was mainly contained withinurban areas.

In addition to the rapid development, the use ofpr ivate transpor t, the increase in tour isminfrastructure, extensive quarrying and land-intensivewaste disposal have emerged among the mostpressing environmental issues of the decade.

Current Status

Human settlements and adequate shelterThe main objective advocated by Agenda 21 in thefield of human settlements is to “improve the social,economic and environmental quality of human set-tlements”. This is reflected in the fundamental goalsof the national planning framework for Malta. TheStructure Plan adopted by Parliament in 1992 setsthe strategic planning framework for a 20-year periodwith two of its major goals aiming to encourage thefurther social and economic development of the Mal-

49

tese Islands, to ensure as far as possible that suffi-cient land and support infrastructure are available toaccommodate it, and to radically improve the qualityof all aspects of the environment of both urban andrural areas.

Successive administrations have given due attentionto the provision of adequate housing provision.Various schemes providing financial incentives forhome improvements, as well as incentives to acquirehomes at less than market rates or throughsubsidised bank loans, have been put in place overthe past ten years.

Legislative provisions provide adequate protectionagainst eviction from homes. Analysis of viability hasbeen undertaken with a view to promoting publicsector/private partnerships for the provision of newhousing.

Notwithstanding the reduction of the developmentzones in 1989, through the formulation of theTemporar y Provisions Schemes, the PlanningAuthority granted permission for an average of about3,000 dwellings annually between 1994 and 2000.The increase in the number of households was about2,000 annually between 1995 and 2000.

The current trend for residential development to takeplace in the Temporary Provisions Schemes hasresulted in a sub-urbanisation tendency that hasdepopulated Malta’s older urban areas.

Twenty three per cent of Malta’s housing stock isnow vacant, of which 75 per cent are new or in agood state. Only 36 per cent of this stock is used assecond homes. Many house owners prefer to keeptheir property vacant rather than rent it due torestrictive rent laws for properties built before 1995.In June 1995, rent was liberalised for new rentalcontracts. However this has had a minimal effect onthe housing rental market, possibly due to the factthat there was no consensus on this matter betweenthe two main political parties, and this could haveinfluenced the decisions of property owners. Houseprices in Malta are high in comparison with averagewages, and this remains a pressing concern for Gov-ernment, particularly in view of the limited rentalmarket for Maltese properties.

Social facilitiesThe provision of schools, hospitals, and other socialfacilities, discussed in Chapter 2, has land useimplications, associated, in par ticular, with the

geographical distribution of these facilities. This, in turn,is connected with the need to ensure that allcommunities are catered for in terms of, for example,education, health and facilities for the elderly.

Improvements in both the internal and externalquality of buildings for social facilities, and efficiencyin land use for new developments and for existingbuildings, are not always given due attention.

TransportThe rapid increase in car ownership (described inSection 3.1) is generating problems of congestionand parking. The main transport issues currentlyaffecting Malta and Gozo are the impacts of cars onsociety, health and the environment. Congestion, noisepollution, air pollution, road accidents as well aseconomic costs point to a need to reduce thedependency on private cars. Land use, transportplanning and location of industry are generally notproperly integrated towards this end. Investment inpublic transport has been recognised as a priorityarea in this regard.

QuarryingUse of locally available naturally occurring buildingstone is still widely promoted. There are some 90licensed and active hardstone and softstone quar-ries, producing some 5.2 million tonnes of stone.

A stonequarry. Use oflocally availablenaturallyoccurringstone is stillwidelypromoted.



Quarrying activity in Malta is often associated withenvironmental damage and unsustainable practices.In addition, some quarries operate illegally. Theconstruction industry, which utilizes quarried stone,produces a large amount of inert waste, which alsocreates environmental problems.

Tourism and recreationThe rapid increase in tourist inflows during the 1990shas led to an increase in the provision of accommo-dation facilities for tourists, giving rise to excess sup-ply of tourist beds and a significant impact on thesocial and physical fabric of certain localities – par-ticularly of coastal areas. This is taking its toll on scarceland resources. A carrying capacity study has beencarried out by the Ministry of Tourism but transla-tion of the results of the study into policy actionsremains a challenge. Ministry policy encouragesfurther product development as opposed to accom-modation and of management and proper planningof tourism activity and development in the traditionalresorts to improve the image of these areas.

Demand for recreation provision has also increasedover the past decade and according to MEPA find-ings, standards of formal recreational provision needto be improved in urban areas. In coastal areas, thedemand for the provision of facilities is sometimesnot channelled towards already committed anddeveloped coastal areas.

Employment areasAccording to MEPA findings, the overall rate of ap-provals for offices has averaged 22,600m2 per year(1993-2000), but modernisation of officeaccommodation remains a challenge. The rate of plan-ning approvals in warehousing has averaged 31,400m2

per year (1993-2000) yet the provision of modern,

centralised facilities is necessary to facilitate the relo-cation of inappropriate large-scale storage uses fromresidential areas. In addition, there is about3,780,000m2 of zoned industrial land in the MalteseIslands, however the use of such land is not alwaysefficient. Over the past 10 years, there has also beenrapid modernisation of the retail sector, although thetraditional pattern of small-scale retail provision,spread across many towns and villages, has remainedlargely in place. However, there is a slow but risingtrend towards out-of-town shopping and aparallel decline in the fabric and prosperity oftraditional centres.

AgricultureIn a thirty-year span between 1971 to 2001 agricul-tural land has decreased from 15,200 to 10,700hectares, although the rate of decrease has sloweddown considerably during the last 15 years. The vastmajority of farmers are in part-time employment.Between 1991 and 2001 it is estimated that therehave been decreases of 51 per cent in part-time farm-ers and 35.5 per cent in full-time farmers. Notwith-standing the limited contribution of Agriculture toGDP, it is still important to sustain this sector forfood security, and for the rural character of thecountryside. An aging farming labour force, landfragmentation, and lack of data on resource capacityare among the problems facing planners. Improperagricultural practices, including lack of integrated pestmanagement, disposal of waste and uncontrolled useof fertilisers, need to be addressed.

Cultural heritageThe Maltese Islands have a rich urban fabric which isof universal value because of the cross-cultural andhistorical spectrum (going back 5,000 years toNeolithic settlements) that it covers. The key issuesfor cultural her itage are the inappropr iateconservation standards, methodologies or techniquesthat have sometimes been used, the absence ofproactive management, inadequate buffer zones andsetting/context, natural deterioration, visitor pressureand deliberate damage and vandalism. In essence,preservation and proactive conservation of the siteshave not been accorded sufficient priority. The recentlyenacted Cultural Heritage Act (2002) seeks to redressseveral of these issues.

Remedial Action:Integrated Planning and Management

The Development Planning Act is the primarylegislation that regulates land use and development

In a thirty-yearspan between1971 to 2001

agriculturalland has

decreasedfrom 15,200 to

10,700hectares.

51

in Malta. The planning system has been instrumentalin instilling an interdisciplinary approach to dealingwith land and natural resource issues. A nationalstrategic framework (the Structure Plan for the MalteseIslands) is translated into more detailed site-specificpolicies through Local Plans, which deal with specificgeographic areas, and Subject Plans which deal withspecific sectors. Legislative measures have also beenput in place to protect environmentally sensitive areas.Environmental assessment regulations have also beenadopted, which examine the impacts of proposeddevelopments and recommend mitigation measures.Policy measures taken since 1992 have somewhatcontrolled the urban sprawl of previous years bydefining development boundaries around the urbanareas and directing investment to established areas.Numerous sites of scientific, ecological, archaeological,or cultural interest have been protected by virtue ofthe Development Planning Act (1992).

Sustainable use of land has now been formallydeclared as the principal goal of the planning systemfollowing the revision of the Development PlanningAct in 2001. The new planning system has providedopportunities for dialogue between the various actorsin the development process. It has also enhancedpossibilities for public participation in the decision-making process and allows access to planning andenvironmental information.

Since 1992, the Planning Authority (now MEPA) hasalso set up systems to collate data on urbandevelopment and environmental factors linked intoa Geographic Information System. A land registrysystem has been adopted which facilitates recognitionof land ownership titles and land transactions,although the system is not yet adopted over the fullextent of land territory.

Concurrently, the newly enacted EnvironmentProtection Act has provided for the setting-up of aNational Commission for Sustainable Developmentchaired by the Prime Minister. Integrated planningand management has been further strengthenedthrough the planned amalgamation of responsibilitiesfor physical planning and environmental protectionunder one Authority – the Malta Environment andPlanning Authority.

Through the recently enacted Cultural Heritage Act,the protection and conservation of cultural property,as well as improved co-ordination to safeguard thecultural heritage, are envisaged. The primaryresponsibility for archaeology rests with the Museums

Department, which has implemented a programmeof preservation and presentation including theupgrading of the Hypogeum, the upgrading of theMuseum of Archaeology, the Hagar Qim/MnajdraHeritage Park and Ggantija Temples visitor centres.Malta has also become a signatory to a number ofconventions and char ters including the “WorldHeritage Convention”, 1972, the “Valletta Charterfor the Protection and Management of theArchaeological Heritage”, 1992, the “Athens Charterfor the Restoration of Historic Monuments”, 1931,and the “Venice Charter for the Conservation andRestoration of Historic Monuments”, 1964.

In addition, the setting-up of Local Councils in 1994,with direct responsibilities for the upkeep of thevarious urban localities, has greatly assisted in themanagement of localities.


The Malta Environment and Planning Authority iscurrently undertaking a review of the Structure Plan,which guides land use in the Maltese Islands. Thefollowing issues have been identified for the review:• Encouraging integration of transport and land use,

improving transport infrastructure and promotingbetter use of public transport.

• Addressing the land use issues related to wastemanagement.

• Reducing the outflow of people from historiccores.

• Protecting and rehabilitating historic buildings.• Addressing the impacts of tourism in view of

Malta’s carrying capacity.• Reversing the negative impacts on the rural

A number ofprehistoricarchitecturalstructures inMalta are onthe UNESCOWorldHeritage SiteList.



environment, resulting from the decline ofagriculture.

• Managing conflicting activities in coastal areas.• Rendering the quarrying sector more sustainable

and reducing its negative environmental impacts.• Encouraging the use of vacant property.• Revitalising existing town centres, making them

more viable, improving efficiency of use ofindustrial areas, and upgrading the quality of otheremployment areas.

• Developing a spatial policy which seeks tointegrate all members of society.

These needs will be addressed through a newStructure Plan which is being drafted with the aimsto:• Encourage fur ther social and economic

development by ensuring that sufficient land isavailable to accommodate it and by encouragingthe upgrading of land, buildings and infrastructure.

• Promote stewardship of the rural, urban, coastaland marine environment, and channel urban

development into existing development areas.• Facilitate an integrated and efficient approach to

the development and use of land, buildings andinfrastructure.

• Facilitate accessibility, participation and inclusionin the planning process.

3.8 CONCLUSION

This Chapter has described the most importantenvironmental issues in the Maltese Islands. It has beenshown that there are many areas of concern, mostlyarising from the small size of the Islands, the highpopulation density and the impact of economic andsocial development on the Islands. The Chapter hasalso shown that Government has upgraded legislationand has taken remedial action to counteract ormitigate negative environmental impacts on air,freshwater, the marine environment and biologicaldiversity, to step up waste management and improveland use.

Salt harvesting:traditional

knowledge putto good use in

the coastalarea.

53Major Environmental Issues

However, much remains to be done for theseconcerns to be effectively and efficiently addressed.The most pressing needs in this regard are thefollowing:• Draw up strategies for integrated development

and management. This calls for increasedcooperation among government bodies with anenvironmental remit and between the public andprivate sectors.

• Encourage more efficient use of resources,promoting sustainable alternatives to currentproduction methods and consumption patterns.

• Put into place economic instruments whichreward sound environmental actions and penaliseharmful ones, and see to it that environmentalactors are more responsive to penalties andincentives associated with these instruments.

• Improve enforcement of legislation andmonitor ing of activities which affect theenvironment.

• Fur ther promote awareness, accessibility,participation and inclusion, properly planned toaddress priority issues.

• Set up standards and targets for environmentalquality and sustainability, and establish furtherzones and sites for protection and codes ofpractice.

• Direct substantial investment in new infrastructureand its upgrading to render current practicesmore sustainable.

The Government of Malta is aware of theseshortcomings and plans are in hand to undertakeaction to address them. In this regard, the NationalCommission for Sustainable Development is in theprocess of preparing a National Strategy forSustainable Development.

Contrastingactivities – amix of businessand leisure inthe coastalarea.

55

4

PROMOTINGPUBLICAWARENESSANDSTRENGTHEN-INGTHE ROLESOFMAJORGROUPS

Chapters 36 and 40 ofAgenda 21 deal witheducation, public awareness,training, and information fordecision-making, which arecross-cutting issuesconsidered to beprerequisites for thepromotion of sustainabledevelopment, while Chapter23 calls for the strengtheningof the roles of major groupstowards this end.


4.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapters 36 and 40 of Agenda 21 deal witheducation, public awareness, training, and informationfor decision-making, which are cross-cutting issuesconsidered to be prerequisites for the promotion ofsustainable development. These issues call for, amongstother things, appropriate data, including indicators ofsustainable development and institutional set-upsthrough which education, information and trainingcan be imparted. A related issue is public participationin decision-making, drawing on the involvement ofgroups and organisations. Chapter 23 of Agenda 21calls for the strengthening of the roles of majorgroups towards this end. (Quarrie, 1992; UnitedNations, 1992).

4.2 ENVIRONMENTALEDUCATION ANDTRAINING

Environmental education is “linked to virtually all ar-eas in Agenda 21” (Chapter 36). In Malta the provisionfor environmental education is enshrined in theEnvironment Protection Act (2001).

National EnvironmentalEducation Strategy

A major environmental education event in Malta,following the Rio Summit was the National TrainingWorkshop on Environmental Education (26-27 May1995). The workshop set out to bring together alllocal environmental education organisations to (a)become aware of the state of environmentaleducation in Malta (b) identify the problems, needsand support required for the successful implemen-tation of environmental education initiatives and (c)discuss the possibility of co-ordinating these initiativesso as to improve their effectiveness (Pace, 1996). Theevent’s recommendations proposed the setting-upof a National Environmental Education Strategy (NEES),in line with Agenda 21’s guidelines, that would “…focus its action on the formal and informal sectorsof education with the goal of directing educationalprocesses towards the development of a new envi-ronmental ethic - education for sustainability.”

Based on the principles of environmental educationoutlined in the Tbilisi Conference (UNESCO–UNEP,1978), and acknowledging that every citizen has avalid contribution to make towards the achievementof a sustainable society (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991),NEES initiated consultation with six different targetgroups.

Since its inception, NEES was constrained by limitedresources. In addition, for some of the target groups,environmental education was not a priority and theirparticipation in the consultation process was inad-equate. In spite of these handicaps, the strategy isnow in its final stages of development and a list ofguidelines and suggestions for the promotion ofsustainable lifestyles is being prepared.

Institutional Arrangements

Environmental education is carried by three majororganisations in Malta, namely, the EducationDivision (the Government’s agency responsible for

Government / Policy making organisations:• government departments and agencies

especially those directly related toeducational and environmental issues

• local councils• political parties

Environmental / Development organisations:• national environmental organisations,

especially those with educationalprogrammes

• national organisations representing peoplewith specific interests

Mass Media and the Arts:• media (e.g., press, television, radio, electronic

media)• bodies representing the arts

Educational organisations:• national associations of educators• national organisations representing

educational institutions• national associations representing museums

and similar facilities visited by the public• libraries and information networks

Religious organisations• religious institutions• religious orders and movements

Industry, Business and Professional groups:• representatives of major businesses and

industries in the public and private sector• representatives of the trade unions• national associations of those professions

which have a major impact on theenvironment (e.g., planners, architects)

• national associations representing majorrecreation activities that have an impact onthe environment (e.g., tourism)

NEES TARGET GROUPS

National Environmental Education Strategy(NEES) Target Groups

57

formal education), the Malta Environment and Plan-ning Authority (MEPA) and the University of Malta.Various other organisations, including the Malta Stand-ards Authority and environmental NGOs, are alsoinvolved in environmental education. Although therehave been attempts to co-ordinate such educationalactivities, each organisation usually functions inde-pendently of the others, sometimes resulting in du-plication of effort.

The new National Minimum Curriculum (NMC)process heralded a new era of curr iculumdevelopment in Malta in which various stakeholdersin education were formally involved in a thoroughnationwide consultation exercise to determine thecontent of the curriculum. Although the proposedcurr iculum does not contain provisions forenvironmental education, nevertheless it proposesseveral measures (such as interdisciplinarity and alearner-oriented pedagogy) that, if adopted, wouldfacilitate its infusion in the educational system (Gov-ernment of Malta, 1999). However, a proper envi-ronmental education policy is lacking and, as a result,environmental education in schools is rather spo-radic, not intimately related to the curriculum andeasily overlooked. Over this last decade, the incidenceof environmental topics and the range of environ-mental issues considered in school syllabuses haveincreased. However, the approach remains one ofproviding environmental information, and thefostering of pro-environmental values is not givendue importance in educational programmes.

The environmental dimension is increasingly beingfeatured in the various professional tertiary levelcourses offered by several faculties at the Universityof Malta. Personal development components are in-tegral features of the environmental education courseoffered by the Faculty of Education for studentteachers, with a focus on the promotion ofsustainable lifestyles. The Faculty also initiated aresearch programme through which severalenvironmental education curriculum resources wereproduced. Fur thermore, in collaboration withMEPA and the Education Division, the Facultyorganised several in-service courses aimed at helpingteachers to apply environmental education princi-ples in their teaching.

Informal and non-formal environmental education hasbecome more varied and has characteristicallyinvolved an input from a host of governmental andnon-governmental organisations. Consequently alarge proportion of community resources (e.g., na-

ture reserves, industry and historical sites) are in-creasingly being mobilised and used as sites of envi-ronmental interpretation and education.

Oppor tunities for public par ticipation inenvironmental decision-making relating to theapproval of development projects have become aregular feature. However, the vast majority of thepublic lack the necessary skills to interpret the datapresented in Environmental Impact Assessmentreports and to organise themselves into effectivepressure groups.


There is the need for Malta to make environmentaleducation a national priority. The recent appointmentof an environmental educator on the NationalCommission for Sustainable Development was a stepin the right direction.

Matters that need to be addressed to ensure qualityenvironmental education include:• Putting in place a National Strategy for

Environmental Education and adopting a clearpolicy about environmental education in theNational Minimum Curriculum.

• Appointing an environmental education co-ordinator responsible for the implementation ofenvironmental education in schools.

Promoting Public Awareness and Strengthening the Roles of Major Groups

Childrenattending anactivitypromotingenvironmentalawareness.Environmentaleducationmust start at avery young ageand continuethroughoutadult life.


The MaltaGovernment

website(www.gov.mt)which serves

as the principalpoint of entry

to allGovernmentinformation

and services.

• Providing environmental education programmes,especially for adults, which promote lifelong learn-ing, the adoption of sustainable lifestyles and ac-tive participation in the resolution of environmen-tal problems.

4.3 INFORMATION FORDECISION-MAKING

Malta is passing through a data and information revival,with the National Statistics Office acting as the focalpoint for this activity. During the past decade, datahave been generated at a rapid rate by differentorganisations, notably the Malta Environment andPlanning Authority, the University of Malta and theNational Statistics Office.

With the advent of fast and reliable on-line systems,the procedures for data storage, querying anddissemination have been radically altered.Organisations can now acquire access to informationat the touch of a button from any location they maybe in, within or outside the country.

This development pushed Malta ahead into the in-ternational arena with a number of projects beingdeveloped, such as on-line databases, image-mapping,Web-GIS and e-government.

Information Dissemination

The promotion of information relating to sustain-able development in Malta has been enhancedthrough the e-Government programme, on whichthe Maltese government has embarked, to improvepublic service delivery, to increase citizen participa-tion and to step up efficiency through the streamlin-ing of public service. The Government of Malta in-vested heavily in Communication and InformationTechnology to bring the benefits of e-Governmentto the citizens and many electronic transaction-basedservices have been placed on line.

Linked to this, is the implementation of theGovernment portal (www.gov.mt), which serves asthe principal point of entry to all Governmentinformation and services. Another stream is theinnovative development of the m-Governmentinitiative, whereby Government is working withthe local mobile telephony companies to offerelectronic public services via mobile technology. InMalta, a very high percentage of the population ownsa mobile telephone, rendering this means ofcommunication a very important means of servicedelivery.

The website of the Malta Environment and PlanningAuthority (www.mepa.org.mt) contains searchfacilities and e-commerce services that haveconsiderably improved public access to informationrelated to planning (including applications) andenvironmental policies. The Authority’s GIS wasplaced on line allowing users to browse maps andaerial photography. Planning applications, enforcementnotifications and scheduled sites may be locatedthrough this system on the Internet. This website hasreceived international acclaim (see, for example, Hall,2002).

Bridging the data gapData gathering in Malta occurs at various aggrega-tion levels. The basic and most common level of datagathered is based on 68-area administrative levelscalled Local Councils. Most data published by theNational Statistics Office are aggregated at this level.

At the micro-level, the Malta Environment and Plan-ning Authority gathers data at point, street and Enu-meration Area (EAS) level.

Whilst point data are used for highly detailedstudies such as ecological research, micro-management and land-use studies, socio-economicresearch occurs also at the EAS level. This level of

59Promoting Public Awareness and Strengthening the Roles of Major Groups

aggregation allows sub-local council studies such asanalysis of social deprivation, housing deterioration,and others.

Recent initiatives such as the Common DatabaseProject aim to bring together most data in govern-ment repositories and develop a national databasethat can be queried by users through a networkedinfrastructure. There are some restrictions on use(for example, due to confidentiality). At the privateorganisation level, data are rapidly increasing involume.

The Malta Observatory for Sustainable Indicators(SI-MO) initiative is an attempt to develop a numberof indicators in line with the recommendations out-lined by Agenda 21 (see www.um.edu.mt/intoff/si-mo). This initiative is being undertaken by the Islandsand Small States Institute of the University of Maltain collaboration with the National Statistics Office.The indicators are based on the UNEP/MAP list of130 indicators, covering a range of themes, includingdemography, environment, culture, education andhealth, and are being computed by a team ofspecialists in the individual fields.

Building on Agenda 21’s information initiative, Maltadeveloped a series of programmes that helped toanalyse the environmental situation. Recent initiativesinclude the State of the Environment Reports in 1998and 2002, a series of Urban Land Use MonitoringReports (Planning Authority, 1997 and 1999) and theset of sustainability indicators used for the StrategicEnvironmental Assessment of the Structure Plan,developed by the Planning Authority.

Other initiatives in this regard are the publication ofa collection of environmental data in Malta at a Glanceissued by the National Statistics Office (COS, 1998),the CAMP (Malta) Project, which used sustainabilityindicators to assess, monitor and evaluate projects inthe north of Malta (www.pap-thecoastcentre.org/camp-text-Malta.html), and the publication of a studyon sustainable development in Malta, by Friends ofthe Earth (Ragonesi, 1997).

Another development relates to the hosting in Maltaof the Mediterranean Global Observing System(MedGOOS) secretariat, which networks the mainmarine research centres in the region. MedGOOSaims to develop an operational coastal/coastal ob-serving and forecasting system that will provide datafor sustainable management of resources in the Medi-terranean basin.

Data at theMicro-level:Address Points.Source: MaltaEnvironmental andPlanning Authoritywebsite.

Data Aggrega-tion: CensusEnumerationLayer.Source: MaltaEnvironmentaland PlanningAuthority website.

Data Aggregation: LocalCouncils Layer.Demographic and otherdata can be obtained byclicking on the differentlocations.Source: Malta Environmentaland Planning Authority website(www.mepa.org.mt/Census/archive/summary/summary.htm)

Tonio Borg, Minister for HomeAffairs and the Environment(second from left), addressing aconference of the MaltaObservatory for SustainabilityIndicators (SI-MO) in June 2002.


information access innovations on the use of theInternet as the conveying medium.

Prior to 1992, no integrated network existed, result-ing in various proprietary databases, individual organi-sation protocols and non-transferable formats. Thishas now all changed and, through the launching ofInternet services, particularly the World Wide Web,new dimensions have been opened to data ownersand users alike.

The relevance of the Internet to current thinking hashelped to provide diverse products, from low tech/low cost to high tech/highly expensive systems, butalways aiming at user-accessibility. This was achievedthrough the investigation of data accessibility issuesand an assessment of the social and technologicalbarriers that hindered it.

Standardisation of Information

Malta has made major steps towards thestandardisation of its information infrastructure.New legislation (Government of Malta, 2000a;2000b) has been adopted (Act No. XXVI, 2001),legislation relating to digital information has beenintroduced through the Electronic CommerceAct (May, 2002) and the Data Protection Act(March, 2002).

Malta supports open systems that provide easy cross-operating data transference, distributed databasequery facilities, as well as on-line information systems.Standards being investigated include the Open-GISConsortium Inc., the Dublin Core metadata standardsand other Web-related knowledge management tools.Diverse projects have shown that this could beachieved very rapidly. This is enhancing capacity-building with regard to datasets that are now easilyaccessible, mostly in HTML format.

Through the use of Internet technology, Malta hasprovided a series of information systems that rankamongst the most advanced in the world. Users canaccess data without the need to possess high-endand very expensive software. Through the use of suchtechnologies as web-mapping and on-line queryingsystems, users can access databases containing infor-mation useful for decision-making.

Whilst the first web-mapping exercise was aimed atproviding the Malta Census 1995 in an image anddatabase format, new developments have broughtdynamic information systems to the general public.


Although considerable progress has been registeredin Malta with regard to data availability, there is theneed to address a number of issues in this regard,with the aim of further improving this accessibility.One problem is that data are sometimes hoardedand territoriality is evident in some quarters – oftenleading to duplication of effort.

In some areas, especially with regard to environmen-tal quality (for example, on soil pollution and coastalerosion) data are lacking.

There is the need for the development of a NationalInformation Strategy aimed at ensuring that all citi-zens are in a position to access and utilise the coun-try’s knowledge. Such a strategy should aid access toinfrastructure, produce reliable and updated content,as well as provide access to skills development toconvert data to information, and subsequently toknowledge. Particular attention should be given topersons with little or no access to IT, such as home-based persons – women, the elderly, and the disabled.Access control and use of public data should betackled within this framework.

4.4 INFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY

Systems management and innovation services havegiven rise to better dissemination of information,thereby permitting wider use of data for decision-making. Malta has been quick to make use ofinformation technology and has based its latest

61

Amongst these is the Malta Environment andPlanning Authority site and its Web-Server functionthat allows users to access spatial data in a mapor database format. Other organisations are alsodeveloping their systems or looking into thepossibility of integrating their data with the MEPAweb-server.

Impor tant measures in this regard include theactivities of the Malta Information Technology andTraining Services Ltd. (MITTS) entrusted with thesetting-up of IT systems in government organisationsand the Malta Commission that has been set upunder the auspices of Ministry of Justice andLocal Government.

The main objective of MITTS is to provide businesssolutions and technical expertise to the varioussectors of the Public Service. MITTS has been in-strumental in the implementation of an infrastruc-ture linking all Malta Government departments andenabling the sharing of information across the PublicService.


There is of course room for improvement inconnection with information technology, especiallywith regard to compatibility.

The main lacuna in the research and information fieldremains one of access to data. A large amount ofinformation is still in an analogue (hardcopy) formatand has yet to be digitised to allow for fast retrievaland cross-context analysis.

There is therefore the need for an island-wide exercise to conver t more public domaininformation into digital versions, allowing wideraccess and improved distr ibution of data tointerested users.

4.5 THE ROLE OF NGOs

NGOs play an important role in Maltese society. Theyperform the important function of awareness-raisingand engage in lobbying for the causes they uphold.They establish and operate programmes of education,environmental protection, social welfare andeconomic improvement, and some of them have thepromotion of sustainable development as their mainobjective.


The Local Situation

During the last ten years there has been a rising in-terest in NGOs (Abela, 2001). In 2000 a total of63,718 people were members of non-governmentalorganisations – signifying a substantial rise of 31.1per cent during the previous four years (The Times,2001). However, environmental and animal rightsgroups and organisations concerned with socialwelfare, health, local community, third worlddevelopment and human rights tend to attract feweryoung people than other organisations such as sportsor religious ones. Female membership tends to belower than that of males, and most of the leadershippositions are in the hands of males. NGO memberstend to have a high standard of education (Caruana,1998).

Some important trends have been observed duringthe past decade with regard to NGOs:• The Rio Summit and its declarations have been a

constant reference point for many of Malta’sNGOs.

• Various local NGOs have forged links with NGOsin other countries or affiliated themselves withinternational NGOs (Caruana, 1998). They oftenparticipate in international conferences and intransnational projects.

NGOsperform theimportantfunction ofawareness-raising andengage inlobbying forthe causesthey uphold.


• A number of new NGOs have been formedfocusing on issues relating to justice andenvironmental concerns. Issues barely discussedtill recently, such as animal rights and fair trade,have been attracting increasing interest. Somecultural organisations have star ted to takeenvironmental issues seriously.

• NGOs are increasingly being recognised by gov-ernment as potent forces for social, environmen-tal and economic development.

• While the fragmentation often associated withthe NGO movement persists, a trend towardsmore cooperation and collaboration has beennoticed. Four environmental NGOs have joinedforces to form a stronger umbrella organisationand to use human and physical resources moreefficiently. Others have come to an agreement tocollaborate together on specific issues. Seven De-velopment NGOs have formed the MaltesePlatform for Development Cooperation.

• Church groups and movements, that still repre-sent an important force in Maltese society, havebeen urged to take the issue of respect and re-sponsibility for the environment seriously(Overend, 2001).

A common problem faced by most NGOs is accessto funding (Caruana, 1998). Even when NGOs man-age to access funds they frequently feel that fundingis not secure. In addition, NGOs funded by oneagency sometimes find their independence under-

mined. The limited funds tend to discourage positivedevelopments in the field of NGO co-operation andnetworking.

An interesting initiative in this regard is that taken bythe Malta Environment and Planning Authority, whichover the years has accumulated funds as a form ofplanning gain associated with the issue of particulardevelopment permits. The Authority has identified anumber of NGOs that could benefit from such funds,and has offered to work in partnership with themfor the execution of environmental improvementprojects.


Although many NGOs, particularly the environmen-tal ones, have been actively envisioning a sustainableMalta and raising public awareness of unsustainablepractices and their consequences, they need to im-prove their effectiveness as agents of social change.This calls for the enhancement of the NGOs’ capac-ity in both mobilising citizen support and in shoringup grassroots involvement, especially in situationswhere the State and donors might not be open topopular participation (Caruana, 1998).

Legislation recognising the importance of NGOsinvolvement and participation in civil society shouldbe put in place, in consultation with the NGOsthemselves. This would create an enabling environ-ment for such organisations.

4.6 LOCAL AUTHORITIESINITIATIVES IN SUPPORTOF AGENDA 21

Local authorities are well poised to support Agenda21 in view of their proximity to local needs.Subsidiar ity, as practised through local self-government, offer s considerable scope andopportunities for local authorities’ direct involvementin any initiative intended primarily to improve theliving standards of the citizens they represent. Agenda21 is, undoubtedly, one such initiative.

Local Government in Malta

Local government in the Maltese Islands wasintroduced for the first time in June 1993, throughthe Local Councils Act. Through the application of

The emblemsof the MalteseLocal Councils.

63

the principle of subsidiarity, as enunciated in the Eu-ropean Charter of Local Self-government of theCouncil of Europe, which Malta ratified in Septem-ber of the same year, a political vision was translatedinto a commitment to create and develop the rightconditions and administrative framework withinwhich the overall objectives of sustainability couldbe effectively achieved.

However, Malta’s geographical size and infrastructuralconfiguration are, and will continue to be, determiningfactors on the mode and level of participation of thelocal authorities in any national programme orstrategy (including Local Agenda 21). The extent oftheir dependence on central authorities in the sphereof the environment and ecosystems inevitably re-stricts their effectiveness. Any review exercise in-tended to appraise Maltese local authorities’ level ofperformance in the context of Agenda 21 must,therefore, indispensably take these constraints intoaccount.

The fact that Malta came late on the scene in settingup local authorities has certain advantages, such asthe possibility of modelling the institutionalframework on the experience acquired by othersover time. However, the fact that the system is newpresents problems of experimentation, and trialand error.

The Maltese Local Councils have acquired consider-able experience in managing and administering certainbasic infrastructural ser vices. They have alsoparticipated in partnership schemes with a numberof government agencies. However, to-date, Malteselocal authorities have not, in any way, formally orotherwise, developed a pre-defined national actionplan to subscribe to the Agenda 21 programme. Plansare underway to do this in partnership with NGOsand the Ministr y for Home Affair s and theEnvironment.

Initiatives of relevance to Agenda 21The “Mediterranean Local Agenda 21 Conference”hosted by the Mayor of Rome on 22-24 November,1995, offered the first opportunity to the MalteseLocal Councils to subscribe to the “environment andsocial development partnership” programme whichfocused on the Mediterranean region. The Maltesedelegation recommended, inter alia, that (a) Maltashould not “remain indifferent to the emergingscenario” and (b) a co-ordinated local action planshould be drawn up and implemented through anad hoc Steering Committee, led by the then Planning


Authority and including the Local Councils’representatives in its constitution.

A further recommendation was put forward to in-duce the Local Councils to subscribe to the “Char-ter of European Cities and Towns Towards Sustain-ability”, generally referred to as the “Aarborg Char-ter”, which commits the signatories to work towardssustainability within their respective communities onthe basis of the Charter’s agenda.

In the absence of a formal national strategic actionplan based on Agenda 21, the Local Councils, eithercollectively through ad hoc partnership schemes pro-moted by central agencies, or by individual councilson their own initiative, did embark on a number ofinitiatives of direct relevance to Agenda 21. Detailsof these joint efforts and their respective contextsare given in Table 4.1 (next page).


The recently enacted Environment Protection Actrepresents a long-expected and unique opportunityfor the Local Councils to contribute towards theformulation and eventual application of any policydocument.

The following is a set of measures (starting from themost immediate priority) that need to be addressedfor the Local Councils to be direct participants inthe context of any local Agenda 21 programme:• The Local Councils Association could be desig-

nated as the Authority responsible for the co-

A LocalCouncilinitiative.


Med-Urbs

Sebbah PajjizekCompetition (inEnglish “Embellishyour Locality”)

This local environment embellishment initiative was introducedin early 1995 as a national competition open to all LocalCouncils with the title Sebbah Pajjizek (Embellish Your Locality).The scheme is on the lines of the “People and PlacesProgramme” supported by the Tidy Britain Group whoseadvice was sought before launching the scheme. The modalitiesof the competition were revised in 2000 as a result of which 3award-giving ceremonies are organised each year coveringdifferent categories of environmental improvement andupgrading initiatives. Competing Local Councils are given theopportunity to win cash awards offered by the sponsors andto receive merit certificates. The competition includes entriescovering: playing fields, gardens, parks, sandy and rocky beachesand bays, promenades and building facades.

• The Ministryresponsible forLocal Government(through the LocalCouncilsDepartment)

• Ministry ofTourism

• Bank of Valletta• Maltapost• Central Cigarettes

Ltd• Middle Sea Group

Ongoing (annualevent)

This programme was developed (and subsidised) as part ofthe European Union policy to create a Euro-Mediterraneanpartnership in order to promote decentralised co-operationbetween EU local authorities and those in the MediterraneanNon-EU Member countries. By creating these links, Med-Urbsaims were to develop the capacity of local authorities topursue economic development, social stability, management ofthe environment and higher quality of life. In this context, anumber of programmes were initiated locally, including “LADD”which covered the training of Local Councillors and Councils’Executive Secretaries, and “Heritage Tourism” whichdetermined the necessary framework and the requiredtransfer of expertise to regenerate the Victoria Lines; in theprocess, creating awareness for the procurement of supple-mentary funds for other restoration projects to enhance localtourism (Mosta Local Council – lead authority). Other “Med-Urbs” programmes involved the localities of Bormla (CulturalTourism), Swieqi (co-operation in urban economic develop-ment), Siggiewi (Hinterland Tourism), Iklin (“Med Polis” – urbanenvironmental planning and management) Bormla/Isla/Birgu(“Poleis” – Promoting cultural patrimony in the Mediterranean),Valletta (Local Development Strategy for Urban Port Areas)and Santa Lucija (“Clever City Network” – harmonisation ofurban development with environmental planning)

• European Union(sponsor)

• EU localauthorities(partners)

• Non-EUMediterraneanlocal authorities(partners)

1992-1995programme (sincesuperseded bythe MEDAprogramme)

“Urban Environmen-tal ImprovementPartnership Scheme”

The aim of this competition was to offer Local Councils theopportunity to devise schemes to improve the quality of thephysical environment in urban areas (especially, UrbanConservation Areas), having regard to their competencies interms of the Local Councils Act. Local Councils competed forfunding (cash awards) on strict criteria based on a number offactors, including the physical appearance of the area, theexpected benefit to the local community and value for money.The scheme was initiated by the Planning Authority as a “pilot”project during 1995, assuming that supplementary fundingwould be eventually sourced from the Local CouncilsDepartment.

• Planning Authority Schemewithdrawn aftertrial for one year,consequent tolack of fundingsupport

Programme Activity Partners/Sponsors Status

Table 4.1 – Initiatives of relevance to Agenda 21

65

Programme Activity Partners/Sponsors Status


“National Environ-mental HealthAction Plan”(NEHAP)

NEHAP is a mandatory action plan on environmental health,incorporating the necessary mechanisms to ensure thatnational strategic plans are implemented by all key players. TheLocal Councils have been identified as key players. NEHAP is aproduct of the Helsinki Declaration (June 1994) and alsoechoes the global aspirations of Agenda 21. NEHAP’s main aimis to promote a healthy environment based on the threegroups of actions (priorities) set by WHO. Local Councils, inthe discharge of their functional responsibilities, are expectedto take into account all NEHAP’s expectations. The LocalCouncils Department is expected to act as Co-ordinator on allrelated initiatives. A paper with the theme: “NEHAP Implemen-tation – the local agenda” was presented by the rapporteurduring the Workshop held on 9 June, 1998.

• The Departmentof Health Policyand Planning(Ministry ofHealth)

Ongoing

Social HousingPartnership Scheme

The National Conference held on 13 April 2000 with thetheme: ”Social Housing Now and in the Future” discussed therole Local Councils could have as key partners. The paperentitled: “Defining a Role for Local Councils” gave participantsthe opportunity to seriously consider involving the Councils inthe formulation of a national integrated policy on socialhousing for medium and long-term application. Emphasis waslaid on the need to have Local Councils on board as pro-actors (partners), rather than “reactors”, when dealing withsocial housing problems. Besides the collection of rents and thedistribution of literature (brochures), Local Councils could alsobe involved in a number of Social Housing Schemes such asthose referring to the subsidisation of essential repairs,adaptation works, dangerous structures, disability-assistanceand embellishment/upgrading of existing structures.

• The Ministry forSocial Policy

• Housing Authority• Department for

Social Housing

Underconsideration

Social ServicesSupport Scheme

The Local Councils’ Annual Conference held on 3 March, 2001with the theme: “Local Government for Social Inclusion”considered a number of sectors in which the Local Councilswere already playing, or could in the future play, a veryimportant supportive role in the provision of social services.These included the dissemination, exploitation and applicationof information technology and also Councils’ participation inthe “Social Welfare Development Programme”. The currentgovernment’s social programme focuses on the enhancementof the quality of life through social inclusion schemes in whichthe Local Councils are and would be active partners.

• The Ministry ofJustice and LocalGovernment(through the LocalCouncilsDepartment)

• The Local CouncilsAssociation

• The Social Welfareand DevelopmentProgramme (nowAppogg)

• eMaltaCommission

Ongoing


A meetingbetween

representativesof employers

and tradeunions.

ordination, overseeing and monitoring of all Lo-cal Councils’ initiatives undertaken in the contextof the National Strategy for Sustainable Develop-ment (NSSD).

• The Local Councils Department (LCD), withinthe Ministry of Justice and Local Government,could be designated as the Co-ordinator of allNSSD initiatives. This will require the support ofother public bodies or the facilitation of any devo-lution measures proposed by the Local CouncilsAssociation and aimed at the attainment ofAgenda 21 objectives within the context of theNSSD.

• The Malta Environment and Planning Authority,as the designated competent authority to regu-late the environment sector, should be encour-aged to seek closer formalised co-operation withthe Local Councils to better monitor theimplementation of and compliance with the pro-visions of this Act.

• Local Councils, through their Association, shouldseriously consider the advantages of subscribingto the Charter of European Cities and TownsTowards Sustainability (the “Aarborg Charter”).

4.7 STRENGTHENING THEROLE OF WORKERS ANDTHEIR UNIONS

The right of all citizens to work, and the State’s rolein promoting the conditions to make this right effec-tive, is recognised by Malta’s 1974 Constitution. TheConstitution also upholds a number of workers’ rights,such as the maximum number of daily working hours,a weekly rest day, minimum working age, genderequality, professional and vocational training forworkers, contributory social insurance and theprovision of the means of subsistence for those un-able to work.

Labour Legislation in Malta

The main legal provisions establishing the minimumconditions of employment, including overtime rates,working hours and holidays, are provided in the Con-ditions of Employment (Regulation) Act, 1952, whichis soon to be replaced by the Employment and In-dustrial Relations Act, 2002, currently being discussedin Parliament.

Table 4.2 - Labour Legislation in Malta

Conditions of Employment (Regulation) Act (Act11 of 1952) Chapter 135 of the Laws of Malta

Industrial Relations Act (Act 30 of 1976), Chapter266 of the Laws of Malta

Social Security Act (originally Act 10 of 1987) –Chapter 318 of the Laws of Malta

Employment & Training Services Act (Act 28 of1990)

Equal Opportunities [Persons with Disability] Act(Act 1 of 2000)

Business Promotion Act (originally Act 21 of1988) – Chapter 325 of the Laws of Malta.

Occupational Health and Safety [Authority] Act(Act 28 of 2000) – Chapter 424 of the Laws ofMalta

Malta Council for Economic and Social Develop-ment Act (Act 15 of 2001)

Employment and Industrial Relations Act (2002)– bill published 22 April 2002 (will replace theConditions of Employment (Regulation) Act, andthe Industrial Relations Act)

The signing ofa collectiveagreement.

67

Industrial relationsThe other pivotal piece of labour legislation is theIndustrial Relations Act, 1976, also currently beingrevised. The Employment and Industrial Relations Act,2002, will consolidate the principle of collective bar-gaining at enterprise level as the principal means ofagreeing on wages and other working conditions inthe private sector. It will recognise the rights ofworkers and employers to form and registerassociations and establishes a state-providedframework for the settlement of industrial disputeson the basis of mediation, conciliation or tribunalservices.

Professional arbitration services are also nowavailable and regulated by specific legislation enactedduring 2001. Public employees, in contrast, havetheir recruitment, career progression and disciplinegoverned by the Public Service Commission,while conditions of employment are guided by acumulative set of internal circulars, known as theEstacode.

Except in relation to very small enterprises, wherebenign paternalism is practised on essentially familylabour, bipartite industrial relations on an enterpriselevel are well established. A number of collectiveagreements are in force, typically for 3-year periods,fixing conditions of employment for practically all em-ployees in the public sector, and for some 70 percent of those in the private sector.

On a national level, labour relations in Malta operatein a tripartite framework, with the Government,employers and union as social partners, playing a vitalrole in social and economic development. In 1990,the Malta Council for Economic Development wasset up by Government in order to provide a tripartiteforum to debate national issues. The social partner-ship model of industrial relations in Malta has recentlybeen bolstered by specific legislation, establishing arevamped Malta Council for Economic and SocialDevelopment (MCESD) which also incorporates aforum for civil society, primarily NGOs. The MCESDenjoys full consultative rights on most labour andemployment matters.

Employee unions are legitimate players on the localpolicy stage. This is a natural consequence of the largesize and ‘catch all’ nature of the two largest unions –the General Workers’ Union (GWU) with over48,000 members and the Union HaddiemaMaghqudin (UHM) with over 25,000, from a nationallabour force of about 150,000. Their concerns extend

The concernsof employeeunions extendbeyond “breadand butter”issues andincludeworkplacesafety.

beyond ‘bread and butter’ issues and includeworkplace safety, vocational and in-service training,social housing, price control, fair taxation and socialjustice in general. Thirty-two other unions, mostly or-ganised on a company, profession or trade basis, gainthe legal right to collective representation once theycan provide evidence of having over 50 per cent plusone of the workers they seek to represent as theirmembers. The largest amongst these are the MaltaUnion of Teachers (MUT) – Malta’s oldest trade union,set up in 1919 – and the Malta Union of BankEmployees (MUBE) with some 5,500 and 2,900 mem-bers respectively.

In all, the total trade union membership amountedto just over 87,000 in 2001, which was approximately57 per cent of the labour force. This ranged sectorallyfrom some 90% in the public sector to 23% in privatemarket services. Approximately a quarter of thesewere females. Females are less likely to become tradeunion members than males, but the gap is narrowing.

Malta has enjoyed relative industrial stability over thelast two decades. Industrial disputes registered withthe Depar tment of Industrial and EmploymentRelations have decreased markedly in recent decades.Since 1995, there have been on average 11 tradedisputes a year, featuring an average annual loss of6,000 person days. Such disputes are almostexclusively confined to the public sector.

Malta has an Occupational Health and SafetyAuthority, forming par t of the Depar tment ofIndustrial and Employment Relations. Its majorfunctions are related to the promotion of health and



Industry inMalta is

concentratedin 13 industrial

estates. TheTechnopark at

Mosta is afacility housing

companiesengaged in

technologicaldevelopment.

safety at places of work. The Authority also tendersadvice to interested parties and voluntary bodieson issues related to occupational health and safety,to the enforcement of the Act for the Promotion ofOccupational Health and Safety (Act VII of 1994)and to the investigation of occupational accidents,injuries and diseases. Its remit also includes the healthevaluation of workers involved in high r iskoccupations.


The next step with regard to labour and employ-ment is the adoption of the remaining provisions ofthe EU social policy as laid down in the acquiscommunautaire. The main legal provisions establish-ing the minimum conditions of employment – in-cluding overtime rates, working hours and holidays– are already provided for in the Employment andIndustrial Relations Act (2002). Malta is also intro-ducing Gender Equality legislation in areas includingemployment and training, based on EU legislation.

Steps are being taken to adopt the EU EmploymentStrategy, based on employability, entrepreneurship,adaptability and equal opportunities. Malta will haveto prepare a National Action Plan for Employment forthe European Commission, which will enable thelatter to review the country’s performance in thisregard.

4.8 STRENGTHENING THEROLE OF BUSINESS ANDINDUSTRY

Sustainable development is often associated with theenvironmental impacts arising from economicactivities. Following the 1992 Earth Summit, the

business world has become increasingly aware thatthe environmental impacts of economic production,such as those relating to levels of pollution in air,water (including sea) and land, also have seriouswelfare implications.

The Maltese Industrial Sector

In recent years, new legislation has been enacted toprotect the environment from human activitiesincluding industrial processes. This has taken place asa result of attempts to align Maltese environmentallegislation with that of the EU, as well as in responseto pressure from the environmental lobby. In addition,the environmental committees within the MaltaFederation of Industry and the Malta Chamber ofCommerce have taken an active par t in theconsultative process regarding waste managementplans and strategies.

The manufacturing industrial base in Malta consistsof over 5000 enterprises. The absolute majority (over85 per cent) employ between 1 and 5 employees,14 per cent employ between 6 and 100 employees,with a very small minority having a workforce of over100. The main pressures on the environment byindustry are associated with energy consumption andthe resultant air-polluting effects, and the productionof hazardous/problematic waste. A few enterprisesuse cutting edge technologies that incorporatemeasures to minimise adverse pollution impacts, whilethe majority employ technologies with high potentialenvironmental impacts.

While large firms with transnational connections havemade considerable progress in their environmentalperformance , the thousands of small andmicro enterprises lag far behind. In fact, only avery small propor tion of manufacturing firmshave adopted environmental management systems(ISO 14000).

Steps towards sustainabilityIn response to its concerns and following variousreports, the Government in 1994 decided to establishthe Cleaner Technology Centre (CTC). The Centre,situated at the University of Malta, is the result of atr ipar tite agreement between the formerEnvironment Protection Depar tment, theGovernment’s Department of Industry and MaltaUniversity Services. The Centre’s main brief is toassist industry in finding feasible solutions to envi-ronmentally challenging situations through the adop-tion of cleaner technology.

69

In close collaboration with the Malta Federation ofIndustry and other organisations such as the Institutefor the Promotion of Small Enterprise (IPSE) andthe Institute for Energy Technology, the CTC em-barked on a sustained programme of seminars andworkshops to sensitise industry to its environmentalobligations. These provided the opportunity for localindustrialists to meet local and foreign experts todiscuss various challenges and come up with possiblesolutions. The seminars covered issues such as tourism,construction, metal plating and chemical industries,energy management, waste management, liquid ef-fluents, environmental design, environmental healthand EU Environmental Law.

Other initiatives consisted of collaboration with theEnvironment Protection Department and the MaltaFederation of Industr y in an EU LIFE-funded16-month programme to introduce EnvironmentalManagement and Audit System (EMAS) tomanufacturing industry in Malta. Surveys on wastegeneration by industry have also been carried out inan effort to try and introduce waste minimisationprogrammes in areas where particularly problematicwaste is being generated. Pilot energy audits havebeen offered free of charge to small and microenterprises in order to help them improve theirenergy use efficiently.

In 2001, the Ministry for the Environment establishedan Environment Award for Industry to rewardthose enterprises that take proactive steps inenvironmental protection procedures. Incollaboration with the Malta Federation of Industry,the Malta Government Drainage Department hasmanaged to establish a rudimentary voluntary agree-ment system to curtail the disposal of hazardouseffluents. A recent survey (Pizzuto and Rizzo, 1999)carried out by the CTC amongst the industrialcommunity concluded that environmental issues werenot high on the agenda of small firms. This may bedue to their belief that the environmental harmcaused by small firms is negligible.


Awareness regarding the association betweensustainable development and industrial activitiesneeds to be stepped up through continuouseducation campaigns involving all the stakeholders.In addition, research on the environmental impactsof industrial activity should be encouraged, with aview to, amongst other things, quantify emissions of


Wasteminimisation isessentialparticularly inareas whereproblematicwaste couldbe generatedby industry.

polluting gases and waste generation, and to pro-mote the sustainable use of materials and energy. Itis also important to strengthen legislative and en-forcement structures, with a view to reducing pollut-ing activities.

Training of people involved in the upgrading of cleanerproduction (this incorporates life cycle analysis andproduct design) is a priority. In this regard, the com-petitiveness factor should also be taken into consid-eration.

In the long term, carrot and stick economic instru-ments such as incentives, fees and taxes should beused more extensively to discourage environmentaldamage while encouraging the use of cleaner pro-duction. In this regard, it is important to developmethods of accounting for environmental costs, soas to foster an awareness of the externalities associ-ated with industrial and commercial activities and toassess the impact on prices associated with the in-ternalisation of costs.

Self-regulation should also come into play as marketsreflect environmental as well as purely financialrealities. This process will be enhanced as consumersbecome more prone to support environmentallyfriendly processes through their buying preferences.


Malteseagriculture is

highlyfragmented,

and ischaracterised

by a limitedrange of

products andrestricted

possibilities foruse of largemachinery.

4.9 STRENGTHENING THEROLE OF FARMERS

The Maltese agricultural sector is relatively small, ac-counting for about 2 per cent of GDP in recent years.Agricultural land has been on the decline in recentdecades, and currently covers about 10,700 hectares,which is approximately 33 per cent of all land area.

Nevertheless, Malta’s agricultural sector remains animpor tant one from a national developmentperspective.

fragmented holdings leading to limited produc-tion capacity.

• A limited range of products and limitedpossibilities for use of large machinery.

• The oppor tunity cost of land with theresultant high economic rental value comparedto that in other developing and neighbouringcountries.

• Scarcity of water for irrigation, with more thanhalf of Malta’s water supply originating from costlydesalinisation processes.

• Scarcity of agricultural land with resultant over-cropping, poor soil fertility, low yields per hec-tare, and lack of crop rotation methods.

• High labour costs in a situation where the rate ofnational unemployment is only about five per cent.

• The need to import practically all the requiredagricultural inputs.

In spite of all these constraints, Malta is self-sufficientin fresh vegetables, processed tomatoes, eggs, poultry,rabbit meat, pork, fresh milk and fresh milk products.

However, Maltese agriculture is highly protectedthough import licence control and prohibitive im-port levies. Even with such protection, there is highdependence on imports of wine-grapes, fresh fruitsand beef. Malta is not a producer of cereals, sugar,rice, butter, cheese, and most fresh fruits, all of whichhave to be imported.

Agriculture and Malta’s accession to the EUWith Malta’s application for membership of theEuropean Union and with the eventual adoption ofthe Single Market and Common Agricultural Policymeasures, import controls through import levies willhave to be dismantled and substituted by supportmeasures contemplated by the reformed CommonAgricultural Policy, as well as by specific supportmeasures that are considered necessary to ensureand strengthen the livelihood of Maltese farmers.

These measures are considered an integral part ofMalta’s endeavours towards the liberalisation ofimported food and agricultural products and theadoption of the Common External Tariff.


To strengthen the role of farmers, following Malta’saccession to the EU, specific supply arrangements(especially for cereals for animal feedstuffs), are beingrequested. In addition, specific support measures such

The Importance of Agriculture

The farming community constitutes an importantcomponent of Malta’s social structure, contributingto the maintenance and enhancement of Malta’s ruralenvironment and landscape and, indirectly, to Malta’stourism industry. Furthermore, in view of Malta’s islandstatus in the periphery of the production centres ofEurope, Maltese agriculture affords a limited but vitalsource of food security.

ConstraintsThe development of agriculture in Malta is con-strained by:• The small size of the Maltese Islands and the highly

Table 4.3 - Agricultural Land as aPercentage of Total Land Area

Year Agricultural Land Per cent of totalland area

1971 15, 000 hectares 471991 12, 000 hectares 382001 10, 700 hectares 33

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

71

as permanent aid per hectare are being introducedto serve as direct income support for farmers.

Malta intends to make full use of the reformed EURural Development Programme to strengthen the roleof farmers within the modern concept ofmultifunctional agriculture. Thus, plans are in hand togive greater attention to policies aimed at the con-solidation of agricultural land, the structural moderni-sation of farms and the improvement of marketingand processing of agri-food products. In addition,attention is being focused on agri-environmentalmeasures aimed at conserving the traditionalcharacteristics of Maltese agriculture and theproduction of market-oriented, high-quality products.

The Rural Development Programme has, as its mainshort term objectives, the decrease in the salinitylevel of the water table and of soil erosion, increasedenvironmental awareness and responsibility amongstfarmers, enhanced competitiveness in farming, anddevelopment of multifunctional agricultural activities.The medium term objectives of the Programmeinclude the slowing down of the loss of agriculturalland and of the number of full-time farmers, themaintenance of the cultural landscape, the generationof positive externalities associated with culture,tourism and food security, and the conservation ofthe environment, including protection of biodiversity.To achieve these aims steps are being taken tostrengthen the administrative and technical capacityof the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Thesetting-up of Producer Organisations will also be pro-moted and encouraged, with the objective of ensuringthat production is planned and adjusted to demand,while improving product quality with reducedproduction costs.

An important objective that needs to be pursued isthe promotion and encouragement of sustainablefarming practices and technologies. Towards this end,it is necessary to develop a policy framework thatprovides incentives that motivate farmers to adoptsuch practices.

4.10 THE SCIENTIFIC ANDTECHNOLOGICALCOMMUNITY

Scientists have an important role to play with regardto sustainable development by, amongst other things:• Alerting society to problems, including those

associated with sustainable development.

• Carrying out studies; which, in the case of Maltaincluded the State of the Environment Reports.

• Devising methods for environmental monitoring.• Assessing the costs and benefits of alternative

energy and environmentally friendly technologies.

Post-Rio Developments in Malta

Post-Rio, there was a strong interest in Malta amongpolicy-makers, practitioners and the research com-munity in Agenda 21. This led the Malta Council for


Onions,tomatoes andpotatoes:major cropsproduced byMaltesefarmers.


“Delays in thegrowth of a

scientific andtechnological

culture canonly mean

retardeddevelopment”.

Science and Technology (MCST), the advisory bodyto Government on national science and technologypolicies, to set up the National Agenda 21 Group in1993, in order to co-ordinate Malta’s response toAgenda 21 in the fields of Science and Technology.The Group brought together a wide spectrum ofinterests and expertise, including the Ministries ofForeign Affairs, Agriculture and the Environment, theUniversity of Malta and the Planning Authority. TheGroup was effective in tackling the following tasks,with regard to science and technology:• Formulating Malta’s proposals for the restructur-

ing of the “Barcelona Convention” and relatedprogrammes in the light of the Rio Conference(1992).

• Setting up of a Regional Commission forEnvironment and Development for theMediterranean. The Agenda 21 Group wassuccessful in promoting the restructuring of the“Barcelona Convention” in 1994.

• Co-ordinating Malta’s position on Agenda 21 ininternational fora.

• Advising on the setting-up of a Local Agenda 21Directorate.

• Updating the National Report to UNCED andcompilation of a National Agenda 21 Directory.

• Co-ordinating the implementation of Agenda 21at a national level .

Education and researchThe work of the Agenda 21 Group gave rise to theformulation, amongst other activities, of the NationalScience and Technology Policy Document adoptedby Government in 1994 – drawing on the policyrecommendations and strategies developed by MCST(Government of Malta, 1994). The Documentidentified two key national policy objectives, firstly

sustainable development in recognition of the RioSummit (1992) and Agenda 21; and secondly, thedevelopment of the Integrated Resource Manage-ment (IRM) concept. The National Science andTechnology policy was thus not oriented primarily atdeveloping Science and Technology per se, but as ameans to an end, i.e., supporting the country’s sus-tainable development.

The Document states that:“Delays in the growth of a scientific andtechnological culture can only mean re-tarded development… To secure ourfuture prosperity we cannot wait for anatural organic growth in our scientificawareness and proficiency; we have tospearhead a rapid and strategic Scienceand Technology penetration in all areas(institutional, educational, industrial).This process would require initially aconsiderable stimulus from above tocombine with a diffused bottom-upapproach.”

This highlights an important orientation for the de-velopment of a National S&T policy, through openprocesses of social participation and not throughexclusively top-down approaches. The S&T PolicyDocument also features a number of innovative con-cepts, including S&T prospecting for the anticipationof emerging technologies and related niches; strate-gic long-term technology planning; S&T audits ofpublic and private sector institutions to replace ob-solete practices; and public-private sector partner-ships.

Other initiatives that are contributing to theimplementation of Agenda 21 with regard to scienceand technology, are Malta’s participation in a numberof EU Research Programme projects (FP4 and FP5)in the environment and sustainable development field.The interest in joining these projects within the publicsector and academia has been encouraging and willno doubt have a long-term impact on the country’ssustainable development.

The MSCT also encourages the training and mobil-ity of researchers. Co-operation between MCST, theInstitute for the Promotion of Small Enterprise (IPSE),the Malta Development Corporation (MDC), andthe Malta Business Bureau, promoting joint scienceand technology ventures, is being sought. This shouldencourage the participation of the private sector ininternational programmes.

73


The following issues relating to science andtechnology still need to be addressed, with the aimof promoting more sustainable use of resourcesthrough science and technology, to address nationaland local priorities, as well as to contribute to theinternational challenge of sustainable development.

There is the need to adopt a National Strategy forScience and Technology and to establish appropriatesystems for a holistic and focused approach in nationalexpenditure on research and development.

With regard to research on sustainable development,there is a need to overcome the fragmentation arisingfrom situations where different people and organi-sations work in isolation from one another. Thereneeds to be some effor t invested in evaluatingongoing research in order to identify its quality (inrelation to international benchmarks), potential areasof strength and weakness, and gaps that need to beaddressed urgently. There is also the need for capacity-building in this regard, involving more dedicatedresources, possibly through a national research fundingprogramme.

There exists the need for enhanced collaborationon matters relating to the environment and scienceand technology, between key policy advisory bodiesto Government, in particular the Malta Environmentand Planning Authority, the Malta Council for Scienceand Technology, the Malta Council for Economic andSocial Development and the University of Malta. Thisneeds to extend to government departments, localauthorities and non-government agencies responsiblefor implementing these policy recommendations. TheNational Commission for Sustainable Developmentcould be a useful platform in this regard.

4.11 WOMEN AND EQUITABLEDEVELOPMENT

Maltese Legislation and Women

The Maltese Constitution prohibits discriminationbased on sex. Moreover, a White Paper on “GenderEquality Legislation” (Government of Malta, 2002)has been drafted to include the regulation of theprivate sector and to establish a structure of redressin cases of alleged sex-based discrimination. Following


the ratification of the UN “Convention for the Elimi-nation of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women”(CEDAW) in 1991, Malta committed itself toimplement the 1995 Beijing UN World Conferenceon “Women: Platform of Action”. Legislation andpractices are also being reviewed and amended inline with Malta’s drive to join the European Union.

Gender mainstreamingGender mainstreaming has been adopted as the mainstrategic tool for achieving gender equality, thusensuring the integration of the male and female per-spectives in all government work, including provisionof services and conditions of employment. During2001, with the assistance of the Commonwealth Fundfor Technical Co-operation (CFTC), “genderawareness” for senior public officers and “trainingthe trainers” workshops have been undertaken inorder to empower the Public Service to developand implement this strategy (Department for Womenin Society, 2001).

The role of the Department of Women in Societyhas been instrumental in this regard. This Departmentis the Government’s entity responsible for theexecution of gender policy, and works closely withthe Commission for the Advancement of Women,which is an advisory body on gender issues.

The MalteseGovernmenthas adoptedgendermainstreamingas the mainstrategic toolfor achievinggenderequality.


Education and vocational trainingfor womenDuring the 1990s, significant progress has been madein women’s participation in post-secondary education.However, women still lag behind in vocational edu-cation. In 1999, only 32.5 per cent of studentsattending vocational education were women. Thesewere mainly attracted to banking, accounting, secre-tarial, insurance and tourism studies, with a negligiblefemale participation at the technical institute. Thissituation was mirrored in certain areas of tertiaryeducation, such as engineering, where males greatlyout-numbered females. However, during the pastdecade, the number of university female students hastended to increase, and stood at 56 per cent in 2002.

The Government is committed to monitoring themodernisation of the vocational education andtraining system in Malta to ensure that both femaleand male students have a viable alternative to uni-versity education. Opportunities in vocational train-ing continue to be developed for school-leavers inorder to meet skill shortages in the labour market.The opening of the Malta College of Arts, Scienceand Technology (MCAST) in 2001 brought togetherfive institutions catering for engineering, business, artand design and maritime studies and inaugurated theInstitute of Information and CommunicationTechnology.

A Non-Government Organisation that is involved intraining and lifelong learning for women is theNational Council of Women, which is an umbrellaorganisation with 24 affiliated organisations.Established in 1964, this organisation has been crucialin the social and economic advancement of womenin Malta.

The labour market and womenThe Maltese Government is committed to raisingthe participation rate of women in the labour market,particularly in the light of an ageing population andthe need for economic growth to further nationaldevelopment, including the sustenance of the welfaresystem. To this effect, the Employment and TrainingCorporation is drawing up a gender action plan to-gether with the relevant stakeholders. Moreover,Government has been focusing on the implementa-tion of measures to address gender gaps, includingthe enactment and enforcement of comprehensivegender equality legislation and the amendments inthe conditions of employment legislation.

Women’s participation rate has risen to about 32per cent in 2000 from about 27 per cent in 1994(ETC, 2001). The number of persons in part-timeemployment increased considerably in the last 10years, and at the end of 2000, it amounted to 13.2per cent of persons in full-time employment. Womenmade up 60.6 per cent of these persons (source:COS, 1999; and NSO).

The rate of registered unemployment has remainedfairly stable over the last decade (averaging around5 per cent). The unemployment rate of women(around 2 per cent) was lower than that of men.Unemployed women tend to have higherqualification profiles than unemployed men (ETC,2001). However, this may conceal the fact that anumber of low-skilled women operate outside theformal economy.

Flexibility at the work place, the promotion of family-friendly working arrangements and provisions tocontrol discrimination, victimisation and harassmentare among the issues covered in the White Paperthat has recently been published to cover privatesector and public agencies. The provisions includelonger and more flexible maternity leave, threemonths of parental leave and urgent leave for familyreasons, the possibility to revert to a reduced workingschedule, as well as legal measures to deal withdiscriminatory behaviour at the work place.

Theparticipation

rate of womenin the Malteselabour market

is low byEuropean

standards –the Maltese

Government iscommitted to

raising it.

75

Poverty alleviation and womenThe 1995 Census Data revealed that women madeup 79.3 per cent (5,914) of a total of 7,462 loneparents. Of these, 30.8 per cent have to care fordependent children. There is no evidence ofwidespread poverty in Malta as the level and coverageof non-contributory assistance offers a safety net.Women tend to be the major beneficiaries of socialassistance. During 1998 and 1999, single andseparated women made up 84.2 per cent and 87.5per cent respectively of the total number of femalebeneficiaries (Abela, 1998b:122).

Women and decision-makingWomen make up 9.2 per cent of elected membersof the House of Representatives, a slight increaseover the previous General Elections held in 1996.The percentage of female representation in LocalCouncil stood at 21 per cent (as at December 2001),again, a slight increase over the previous two years.Government-appointed Boards and Committeesinclude 362 (18.1 per cent) women among their2,000 members.

In December 2000, female public officers made up11 per cent of officers in the top five scales of thePublic Service (Department for Women in Society,2000), although there were no women officers inthe top three scales.


With regard to gender mainstreaming, the next stepis the setting-up of structures within the various min-istries/departments/entities for the execution of gen-der impact assessments in policy, planning and op-erations of government work.

Financial provisions have been made for the trainingof public officers to empower them to carry out thisexercise. This strategy will bring about a focus on theneeds and expectations of both women and men, atall ages, in all sectors, thus encompassing thedevelopment of society as a whole.

It is anticipated that vocational training for womenwill be stepped up, as a result of the developmentpolicy and strategy on human resources to be drawnup by the Employment and Training Corporation(ETC). The Corporation is also formulating policiesto attract women to traditionally male-oriented vo-cational training. There is the need for measures to


Genderequality mayfurther theadvancementof women andcould alsofoster thesustainabledevelopmentof society as awhole.

encourage women in entrepreneurship and the co-operative system.

The preparation of a strategy to increase the numberof women in decision-making levels of the PublicService will be further developed following the im-plementation of the recommendations contained inthe report entitled “Maximising Talent in the MaltesePublic Sector” (Leighton, 2001) which was drawn upin January 2001.

The legal, social and economic provisions underwaywill empower women in their drive towards self-development and fuller participation in the economic,political and social spheres of the country. Their rippleeffect could be translated into a higher nationalproductivity that could contribute towards thesustenance of the welfare services which wouldcushion other women in distressful situations. Thus,gender equality may foster the achievement ofsustainable and equitable development of the wholeof society.


4.12 CHILDREN AND YOUTHIN SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT

Vulnerability of Childrenand Young People

Children and young people are not only highly vul-nerable to the effects of present environmental deg-radation but they will also have to face the futureconsequences caused by the actions of today’s society.It is crucial to take into account the specific needs ofthe young in matters relating to environment anddevelopment, in order to safeguard their interests.Furthermore, children and youth are also the futureguardians of the Earth so there is the need to instilpositive values towards the environment in youngpeople.

In Malta, the State provides a high level of educationfor all, yet a systematic approach to encourage theparticipation of children in the process leading tosustainable development is not given due importance.

Several NGOs have carried out environmentalprojects for children and young people – yet theseare generally sporadic and lack the participatoryprocesses required in the context of sustainabledevelopment.

Children andyouth are the

futureguardians of

the Earth.

The Environment Protection Department created acartoon character called Xummiemu, in order to pro-mote environmental education amongst children. Thishas proved to be very popular among children andhas helped to foster awareness of environmentalissues among the younger generation (Farrugia et al.,2001).


There is the need to develop a well-defined educa-tional strategy for sustainable development among

Xummiemu: thelikeable hedgehogused to promotepublic awareness

on theenvironment,among young

people.

77

children and youth. Though the Xummiemu charac-ter has helped to foster awareness on environmen-tal concerns among young people, such initiativesneed to be consolidated and integrated into a planwith clearly defined short-term and long-term goals.The emphasis should be more on sustainability, ratherthan on basic environmental protection.

In addition, educational programmes that promote abetter quality of life for all should be devised. Oneimportant aspect of such programmes should relateto pro-environmental values at the household andcommunity level.

It is important to encourage the participation andempowerment of young people by establishingprocedures allowing for consultation and participa-tion of youth in decision-making processes with re-gard to the environment and sustainable developmentin general.

The mobilisation of communities through schools andlocal civic centres should be stepped up so that chil-dren and youth can bring environmental issues tothe fore within their community. Procedures shouldbe established to incorporate the concerns of theyoung generation into all relevant policies forenvironment and development.

One way of increasing the participatory role of youngpeople is by promoting further dialogue with youthorganisations at the drafting and evaluation stage ofenvironment plans and programmes.

4.13 CONCLUSION

The focus of this chapter was on awareness and publicparticipation, which the Government of Malta con-siders to be a major prerequisite for the promotionof sustainable development. It has been shown thatMalta has taken a number of actions with regard toeducation, public awareness, training, and informationfor decision-making. Action has also been taken tostrengthen the roles of major groups in this regard.This task however is not completed, and muchremains to be done.

This Chapter has pointed to a number of areas thatneed to be addressed with the ultimate aim ofpromoting active and meaningful participation by civilsociety, in issues associated with sustainabledevelopment. Further attention needs especially to


be given to Agenda 21, as an educational processthrough which civil society could be involved in alearning and development experience, and throughwhich citizens find it possible to make informeddecisions about matters that affect them and futuregenerations.

79

5

MALTA’SCONTRIBUTIONTO THEINTERNATIONALCOMMUNITY

The commitment of Malta tothe ideals of the United Nations,particularly in the environmentalsphere, is evident in Malta’snumerous initiatives at theUnited Nations. Two notablecontributions by Malta werethose related to the conceptof the Common Heritage ofMankind with regard to theinternational sea-bed and oceanfloor and its subsoil, in 1967,and the Protection of GlobalClimate, in 1989. Thesewere important initiativescontributing to the employmentof international machinery forthe promotion of the economicand social advancement ofall peoples.

Edward Fenech-Adami, PrimeMinister of Malta,addressing theMillenniumSummit of theUnited Nations, inSeptember 2000.


Arvid Pardo,Malta’s former

PermanentRepresentative

at the UnitedNations.

From a paintingby Raymond Pitré.

5.1 INITIATIVES WITHIN THEUNITED NATIONS

The commitment of Malta to the ideals of the UnitedNations, particularly in the environmental sphere, isevident in Malta’s numerous initiatives at the UnitedNations. Two notable contributions by Malta werethose related to the concept of the CommonHeritage of Mankind with regard to the internationalsea-bed and ocean floor and its subsoil, in 1967, andthe Protection of Global Climate, in 1989. These wereimportant initiatives contributing to the employmentof international machinery for the promotion of theeconomic and social advancement of all peoples(Government of Malta, 1990a and 1998; Borg, 1998).

Malta has also played an important role at the UNby promoting the strengthening of environmental co-operation in the Mediterranean where the problemsof pollution are becoming a threat to ecosystemsand to the socio-economic development of countriesbordering the Mediterranean Sea. In fact, Malta hasbeen at the forefront in setting up a MediterraneanCommission for Sustainable Development under theauspices of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP).

Malta has also played an important role in mattersaffecting the special needs of Small Island DevelopingStates (SIDS) and was instrumental in thedevelopment of the concept and measurement ofan index to measure the vulnerability of such states(United Nations, 1997). The construction of such anindex was first formally proposed by Malta in 1990,dur ing an UNCTAD meeting at the UNHeadquarters in New York. Subsequently the UnitedNations called for the construction of such an indexin Articles 113 and 114 of the 1994 Programme ofAction for the Sustainable Development of SmallIsland Developing States (United Nations, 1994).

Convention on the Law of the Sea

Malta’s principal contribution to the internationalcommunity date back to August 1967 when, throughits Ambassador Arvid Pardo, Malta submitted amemorandum to the Secretary-General of the UNrequesting him to include in the agenda of the Twenty-Second Session of the General Assembly an itementitled: “Examination of the question of thereservation exclusively for peaceful purposes of thesea-bed and the ocean floor, and the sub-soil thereof,underlying the high seas beyond the limits of presentnational jurisdiction, and the use of their resources inthe interest of mankind”.

Later in December of that same year, the GeneralAssembly unanimously adopted a resolution that be-gan a process culminating, three years later, in anotherunanimous Declaration of Principles which stated that“the sea-bed and ocean floor, and the subsoil thereof,beyond the limits of national jurisdiction…as well asthe resources of the area are the common heritageof mankind”. This led to the Third UN Conferenceon the Law of the Sea, which adopted the final textof the new Convention on 30th April 1982. The finalAct of the Conference was approved by consensusand was signed by 117 States and two other entitiesat a formal ceremony in Jamaica in December 1982.Malta was one of the signatory states of theConvention, which it ratified on 20th May 1993. Maltahas also participated in the Preparatory Commis-sion for the International Sea-Bed Authority andratified this agreement on 26th June 1996.

Malta has been elected in the Council of theInternational Sea Bed Authority for the period 2000-2004 and was instrumental in bringing to a fruitfulconclusion the negotiations, leading to the adoptionof the Mining Code on Polymetallic Nodules on theSeabed beyond National Jurisdiction.

81

The Delegation of Malta to the UN also played anactive role in the discussions leading to theestablishment of the UN Informal ConsultativeProcess on Oceans and the Law of the Sea, bythe General Assembly during its 54th session. Inthis respect the Delegation of Malta hadpreviously submitted a proposal during the 7th sessionof the Commission on Sustainable Development.The purpose of this process is to coordinateactions in ocean affairs taken by the internationalcommunity.

Protection of Global Climate

Malta’s role in international affairs was fur therunderlined when, on 9th September 1988, theGovernment of Malta requested the UN Secretary-General to include an item on the agenda of the43rd session of the General Assembly entitled“Conservation of climate as part of the CommonHeritage of Mankind”. This initiative taken byMalta brought to the attention of the worldcommunity the urgent need to conserve climate inthe interest of present and future generations ofmankind. The Maltese government felt that such astrategy should be initiated by a UN resolution,because only the UN General Assembly providedthe adequate forum wherein an effective andcomprehensive strategy to protect climate could beformulated.

At a Special Plenary Meeting of the same session ofthe General Assembly, Malta introduced the itemdescribing this new initiative on climate change as animportant and urgent issue that “may threaten thevery existence of life on earth” and that “unless urgentaction on a global level is taken, this change couldvery well lead to irreversible damage”.

In the days that followed, Malta piloted a draftresolution, which, after intensive negotiations in theSecond Committee, was unanimously adopted bythe General Assembly as resolution 43/53 entitled“Protection of global climate for present and futuregenerations of mankind”. This resolution describedclimate change as the common concern of mankind.It strengthened the mandate of the IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change (IPCC) established in June1988 by the World Meteorological Organisation(WMO) and the United Nations Environment Pro-gramme (UNEP). Malta has been active in the workof the IPCC and was the first country to present theinternational community with elements of a “ClimateChange Convention”.

Since 1989, Malta has continued to take a prominentpart in the debate and consideration of this subjectat the UN and other international fora. The adoptionof General Assembly resolutions 44/207 and 45/212and 46/169 gave the Maltese initiative a newinternationally accepted dimension to a universallyrecognised common concern.

Malta ratified the “Climate Change Convention” on17th March 1994 and the obligations entered intoforce in the same year. A Maltese delegation alsoparticipated in the 6th session of the Conference ofthe Par ties to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change held in Bonn. Thissession will be remembered in the history of theinternational community as the session whichresuscitated the climate change process because,despite many political setbacks, the “Climate ChangeConvention” took the necessary commitments tobreathe life back into the “Kyoto Protocol”. Maltacontinued to participate in this process by signingthe Protocol on 17th April 1998 and by ratifying it on9th November 2001.

Extra-Territorial Spaces

At the 44th session of the UN General Assembly,Malta put forward for active consideration anotherinitiative entitled “The Environmental Protection ofExtra-territorial Spaces”. In this regard, Malta sug-gested through a draft resolution that a group ofeminent persons be established by the UN SecretaryGeneral to prepare a study, which would, inter-alia,make recommendations with respect to the identifi-cation and extent of extra-territorial spaces, the stateof the environment in such spaces, the rights and

Joe Borg,ForeignMinister ofMalta,addressing the54th session ofthe UNGeneralAssembly.

Malta’s Contribution to the International Community


Presentgenerations

have anever-growingresponsibilityto keep theinterests of

futuregenerations in

mind.

duties of states and the international communitytherein, and possible strengthening of relevant existinglegal instruments. The group of experts would alsomake proposals on how the effective and compre-hensive environmental protection of such spaces canbest be achieved.

An important and significant step was taken by theInternational Law Commission, which at its 45thsession discussed in detail the environmentalprotection of the “global commons”. In presentinghis fifth report to the commission in July 1989, theSpecial Rapporteur on “International Liability forInjurious Consequences arising out of Acts notProhibited by International Law,” referred specificallyto the issue of liability in respect of activities causingharm to the “global commons”, in areas beyond thenational jurisdiction of any State and, in particular,those constituting the common heritage of mankind.

Malta believes that unless action to protect extra-territorial spaces is undertaken, current efforts toprotect areas falling under national jurisdiction couldprove futile.

A Guardian for Future Generations

The initiatives undertaken by Malta at the UN andother Organisations in the course of the last thirty-five years were all directed at the protection of theinterests of future generations. Malta took one step

further in this direction when, during the SecondSession of the Preparatory Committee of UNCED,Malta made the following proposal for inclusion ofthe “Earth Charter”:

“We declare that each generation has, inparticular, the responsibility to ensure that inany national or international forum, where itis likely that a decision be taken affecting theinterests of future generations, access be givento an authorised person appointed as‘Guardian’ of future generations to appear andmake submissions on their behalf, so thataccount be taken of the responsibilities statedin this Declaration and the obligations createdthereby”.

The appointment of a ‘guardian’ with the right tomake representations on behalf of future generationsis an innovative idea reflecting the conviction whichthe Government of Malta has, namely that as progressis made through increased research in the field ofscience and technology, the possibility that activitiesof the present generations affect the lives and well-being of future ones, is increasing rapidly. Presentgenerations have therefore an ever-growingresponsibility to keep the interests of futuregenerations in mind in everyday decision making.

The appointment of a ‘guardian’ for future generationswith a right to make representations on their behalfcan go a long way in encouraging present generationsto focus more attention on the effects which theiractivities may have on the lives of future ones, andconsequently act in such a way as not to prejudicetheir existence or well being.

It is appropriate to point out that in 1986, UNESCOassigned the International Environment Institute, inMalta, which is part of the Foundation for InternationalStudies, as the permanent secretariat for the FutureGenerations network which is part of a UNESCOprogrammed called “Responsibilities Towards FutureGenerations and their Environment”.

The Trusteeship Council

Malta has also put forward a proposal to the UnitedNations regarding the transformation of the UnitedNations Trusteeship Council into a guardian andsupervisor of the common heritage of mankind.

The Char ter of the UN under its Chapter XIIestablished an International Trusteeship System for

83

the administration and supervision of territories thepeoples of which have not yet attained a full measureof self-government. Since its establishment, the Trus-teeship Council has monitored and administeredmost of the territories and peoples that today have,in their majority, acquired their independence.

To extend the mandate of the Trusteeship Councilso that it can play a more beneficial role in thecontemporary world, Malta has proposed that theCouncil should be given a new function, additionalto the ones it already has under the Charter, to holdin trust for humanity its common heritage and itscommon concerns: the environment; the protectionof the extra territorial zones and of the resources ofthe sea and of the sea-bed; the climate; and the rightsof future generations.

Mediterranean Commissionfor Sustainable Development

Malta played a leading role in the creation of theMediterranean Commission for SustainableDevelopment (MCSD). In the meeting of legal andtechnical experts to examine amendments to the“Barcelona Convention” and its related Protocols, andthe Mediterranean Action Plan, which took place inBarcelona between the 14 and 18 November 1994,Malta’s Delegation stated that the Government ofMalta considered that the time was ripe for thecreation of the MCSD and that the “BarcelonaConvention” was the ideal legal instrument throughwhich the Commission could possibly becomefunctional.

The Mediterranean Commission for SustainableDevelopment was established in 1996 within theframework of Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP). Itconstitutes a forum for dialogue and consultation onpolicies for promoting sustainable development inthe Mediterranean Basin on the basis of activitiesand contributions identified by MAP Phase II andimplemented by Parties and the MAP in line withAgenda MED 21. It tenders advice on activityprogrammes and formulates recommendations of theContracting Parties.

The Commission is composed of 36 members,representing each of the 21 Contracting Parties, aswell as five representatives from each of the followingthree groups: local authority networks, socio-economic actors and NGOs. The First Meeting ofthe MCSD was held in Rabat, Morocco on 16-18December 1996.

The MCSD has also been instrumental in thedevelopment of sustainability indicators for the region.Here again, Malta played an important part by hostinga meeting, in November, 1999, during which theContracting Parties, adopted a “joint set” of 130indicators for sustainable development in theMediterranean.

5.2 MALTA’S MULTILATERALLEGAL OBLIGATIONS

Overview

Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) notonly have an important role in the protection andmanagement of the environment at the global level,but they also affect environmental policies andpractices at the national level. They open uppossibilities for transboundary co-operation and raisepublic awareness in the countries that are Parties tothese Agreements. Sustainable development has beenwidely accepted as the ultimate objective of Post-Rio multilateral legal instruments relating toenvironment protection, and these agreements laydown standards, thresholds and action plans towardsthis end.

Malta is Party to a number of MEAs relating toenvironmental protection and sustainabledevelopment, as explained below.

MEAs Relating to Biodiversity

Malta has a major obligation as a State Party underthe “International Plant Protection Convention” to

Meeting of theMediterraneanCommissionfor SustainableDevelopmenthosted byMalta inNovember1999. Maltahasparticipatedactively inMediterraneanfora onsustainabledevelopment.



Under the“Convention

on theConservationof EuropeanWildlife and

NaturalHabitats” Malta

is obliged toconserve wild

flora and fauna,and their

naturalhabitats.

have a national organisation for plant protection. Asa Contracting Party, Malta requires consignments ofparticular plants or plant products to be importedonly through specified points of entr y. Suchrestrictions on points of entry shall not be madeunless the plants, or plant products, concerned arerequired to be accompanied by phytosanitarycertificates, or to be submitted to inspection ortreatment.

As a Contracting Par ty to the “Convention onWetlands of International Importance especially asWaterfowl Habitat” (Ramsar) as amended by the“Paris Protocol” of 1982, Malta has designated suitablewetlands under the Convention. These Wetlandswere selected and listed on account of theirinternational significance in terms of ecology, botany,zoology, limnology or hydrology.

By virtue of it being a Party to the “Convention onInternational Trade on Endangered Species of WildFlora and Fauna” (CITES), Malta regulates internationalexports and imports of specimens of species of liveand dead animals and plants and their parts andderivatives. This is based on a system of permits andcertificates that can be issued if certain conditionsare met and which have to be presented before con-signments of specimens are allowed to leave or entera country. As a Party, Malta also maintains records oftrade in specimens of species included in AppendicesI, II and III of the Convention. Malta prepares periodicreports on the implementation of the Conventionand transmits to the Secretariat annual and biennialreports on legislative, regulatory and administrativemeasures taken to enforce the provisions of theConvention.

Under the “Convention on the Conservation ofEuropean Wildlife and Natural Habitats” Malta isobliged to conserve wild flora and fauna and theirnatural habitats, especially those species and habitatswhose conservation requires the co-operation ofseveral States, and to promote such co-operation.Particular emphasis is given to endangered andvulnerable species, including endangered andvulnerable migratory ones. Malta takes requisitemeasures to maintain the population of wild floraand fauna at, or adapt it to, a level that correspondsto ecological, scientific and cultural requirements, whiletaking account of economic and recreational factors,and the needs of sub-species, varieties or forms, locallyat risk.

As a State Party to the “Bonn Convention on theConservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals”Malta promotes co-operation to support researchon migratory species. Malta is obliged to provide im-mediate protection to such species. Malta has alsoconcluded agreements to conserve and managemigratory species namely, the “Agreements for theConservation of European Bats” (EUROBATS) andthe “Agreement for the Conservation of Cetaceansin the Mediterranean, Black Sea and their ContiguousZone” (ACCOBAMS). The objective of each of theseagreements is to restore the migratory speciesconcerned to a favourable conservation status.

As a Party to the 1982 “Convention and Managementof Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory FishStocks”, Malta undertakes to co-operate with otherState parties to adopt measures that would improvethe conservation and management of fish stocksparticularly migratory fish stocks. Ships registeredunder the Maltese flag are also subject to theobligations of the Convention. Malta’s accession wassignificant because it brought the Convention intoforce.

Malta is in the process of preparing a national strategyand programme to implement the obligations of the1992 “UN Convention on Biological Diversity”. Maltahas also embarked on a process to integrateconservation and sustainable use of biological diversityinto the relevant sectoral and cross-sectoral plans,programmes and policies. As a Par ty to the“Convention to Safeguard the Sustainable Use ofBiodiversity”, Malta is also integrating theconsideration of conservation and sustainable use ofbiological resources into national decision-makingand to minimise or avoid adverse impacts onbiodiversity.

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MEAs relating to Pollution Control

Malta is a Party to the “International Convention forthe Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil”, the“Convention on the Continental Shelf ”, and the“Convention on the Terr itor ial Sea and theContiguous Zone”. These Conventions however havebeen superseded by the 1982 “Convention on theLaw of the Sea”, to which Malta is also a Party asnoted above. In addition, Malta is Party to the “CivilLiability Convention” and the “InternationalConvention on the Establishment of an InternationalFund for Oil Pollution Damage.” These twoConventions were superseded when Malta ratifiedthe 1992 “International Convention on Civil Liabilityfor Oil Pollution Damage” and the 1992 “Interna-tional Convention on the Establishment of anInternational Fund for Compensation for Oil PollutionDamage”. These new Conventions have a widerscope of application by providing for oil pollutiondamage not only in territorial waters but also in theExclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Furthermore, theConventions have an in-built mechanism to increasecompensation limits.

As a Contracting Party to the 1972 “Convention onthe Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping ofWastes at Sea and other Matter”, Malta has agreedto this Convention thereby accepting that dumpingis a source of marine pollution, and that States shoulduse the best practicable means to prevent suchpollution and develop products and processes whichwill reduce the amount of harmful wastes to bedisposed of. Malta therefore is obliged to promotethe effective control of all sources of pollution of themarine environment, and pledges itself to take allpracticable steps to prevent the pollution of the seaby the dumping of waste and other matter that isliable to create hazards to human health, toharm living resources and marine life, to damageamenities, or to interfere with other legitimate usesof the sea.

Malta’s obligations relating to sustainable developmentand environmental law also include the provisionson the protection of the marine environment andthose relating to fisheries. Under the “Law of the SeaConvention”, Malta is to notify other States and othercompetent international organisations if they are likelyto be affected by imminent or actual damage to themarine environment by pollution. To this end, Maltahas developed and promoted contingency plans forresponding to pollution incidents in the marine envi-ronment.

By virtue of the “Law of the Sea Convention”, Maltahas been able to establish its right as a coastal Stateto set up, implement and enforce legislative measuresand obligations regarding the exploitation of marineliving resources situated within the marine territoryover which it has jurisdiction. Malta, for example, claimsan Exclusive Fishing Zone but has not declared anExclusive Economic Zone. As a coastal State, Maltais empowered to enforce national conservationlegislation such as fishing methods, closed and openfishing seasons and the restriction of fishing in cer-tain ecologically vulnerable areas.

Malta’s obligations under the 1979 “GenevaConvention on Long-Range Transboundary AirPollution” is to endeavour to limit and, as far aspossible, to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution.

MEAs relating to Nuclear Safety

Malta is a Party to the “Treaty banning NuclearWeapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Spaceand Under Water” and the “Treaty on the Prohibition

Malta’sobligationsrelating tosustainabledevelopmentandenvironmentallaw include theprovisions onthe protectionof the marineenvironment.



TheMediterraneancoastal regions

– underserious threat

from pollution.

of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and OtherWeapons of Mass Destruction on the Seabed andthe Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof ”. Theaim of these two Treaties is mainly to ensure that theatmosphere, outer space, the sea-bed, and the oceanfloor and its subsoil, are not used for nuclear testingor stockpiling of nuclear weapons, in order to maintainworld peace and to ensure that the marineenvironment is used by humankind only for peacefulpurposes. In order to promote the objectives of andensure compliance with the provisions of theseTreaties, Malta as a State Party shall have the right toverify through observation the activities of other StateParties.

Regional MEAs

Malta has been a Party to the “Convention for theProtection of the Mediterranean Sea AgainstPollution” now called the “Convention for theProtection of the Marine Environment and theCoastal Region of the Mediterranean”. Malta ratifiedthe Amendments to the “Barcelona Convention” in1999. The amended Convention changed the nameof the existing Convention to “The Convention forthe Protection of the Marine Environment and theCoastal Region of the Mediterranean”. Theamendments have not yet entered into force becausenot enough States have ratified the Convention. Theamended version of the Convention includes withinits objectives post-Rio concepts in international en-vironmental law and policy, where the ultimate goalis not only to eliminate pollution in the MediterraneanSea to the fullest extent possible, but also tocontribute towards its sustainable development.

Malta is also a Party to the 1976 “Protocol for thePrevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea byDumping from Ships and Aircrafts” as amended andwhich is now the 1996 “Protocol for the Prevention

and Elimination of Pollution of the MediterraneanSea by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft orIncineration at Sea”. As a Contracting Party, Malta isto prevent, abate and eliminate to the fullest extent,possible pollution of the Mediterranean Sea, causedby dumping from ships and aircraft and incinerationat sea with respect to ships and aircraft registered inits territory or flying its flag, as well as ships and aircraftloading in its territory wastes or other matter thatare to be dumped. Ships and aircraft believed to beengaged in dumping in any area under its jurisdictionalso fall within the scope of its obligations under theConvention. As a Party, Malta is to ensure that itsships, aircraft and other appropriate services, are toreport to the authorities, any incidents or conditionsin the Mediterranean Sea Area which may give riseto suspicion that the obligations of this Protocol mayhave been infringed.

Malta is also a Party to the “Protocol ConcerningCo-operation in Combating Pollution of theMediterranean Sea by Oil and other HarmfulSubstances in Cases of Emergency”. As a ContractingParty to this Protocol, Malta is obliged to co-operatein taking the necessary measures, in cases of graveand imminent danger to the marine environment,due to the presence of massive quantities of oil orother harmful substances, resulting from accidentalcauses of an accumulation of small discharges, whichare polluting or threatening to pollute theMediterranean Sea.

As a Party, Malta issues instructions to the mastersof ships flying its flag and to the pilots of aircraftregistered in its territory, requiring them to report,through the most rapid and adequate channels, allaccidents causing or likely to cause pollution of thesea by oil or other harmful substances. The presence,characteristics and extent of spillages of oil or otherharmful substances observed at sea which are likelyto present a serious and imminent threat to themarine environment or to the coast or relatedinterests of one or more of the Parties, are also tobe reported.

Malta is a Par ty to the 1996 “Protocol for theProtection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollutionfrom Land Based Sources and Activities”. ThisProtocol, known as the “The LBS Protocol”, wasadopted on 17th May 1980, by the “Conference ofPlenipotentiaries of the Coastal States of the Medi-terranean Region for the Protection of theMediterranean Sea Against Pollution from Land basedSources” held in Athens. The original Protocol was

87

modified by amendments adopted on 7th March 1996.The amended Protocol, renamed the “Protocol forthe Protection of the Mediterranean Sea AgainstPollution form Land Based Sources and Activities”has not yet entered into force. As a Party to theProtocol, Malta is to address discharges originatingfrom land based points and diffuses sources andactivities within the territories of the contractingparties that may affect the Mediterranean Sea Area,directly or indirectly.

Malta is a Par ty to the “Protocol ConcerningProtected Areas and Biological Diversity in theMediterranean”. Its preamble contains the conceptof conservation of biological diversity. This is a regionalresponse to the adoption of the UN “Conventionon Biological Diversity” at UNCED. As a Party, Maltais to protect, preserve and manage, in a sustainableand environmentally sound manner, areas which arethreatened, as well as endangered species of floraand fauna. In so doing Malta is to identify and compileinventories of the components of biological diversity,adopt strategies, plans and programmes for theconservation of biological diversity and integrate themin policy instruments; Malta is also obliged to monitorthe components of biological diversity and identifyprocesses and activities likely to have a significantadverse impact on them.

Malta has already established Specially ProtectedAreas and is in the process of designating more inthe imminent future. This new Protocol provides foran entirely new regime namely the establishment ofthe list of “Specially Protected Areas of MediterraneanImportance” (SPAMI). As a Party, Malta is to draw alist of these SPAMI.

Malta has also ratified the “Protocol on the Preventionof Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea byTransboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes andtheir Disposal”. This Protocol has not yet enteredinto force, because not enough States have ratified it,to date. It is a regional response that supplementsand builds upon the “Basel Convention for theTransboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes andtheir Disposal”. As a Party, Malta’s general obligationsunder this Protocol are to take all appropriatemeasures to prevent, abate and eliminate pollutionof the Protocol area, which can be caused bytransboundar y movements and disposal ofhazardous wastes. Malta has to take all appropriatemeasures to reduce to a minimum and, wherepossible, eliminate the generation of hazardouswastes.

Malta is embarking on a legislative and administrativeprocess to reduce to a minimum the transboundarymovement of hazardous wastes, and, if possible, toeliminate such movement in the Mediterranean.Under this Protocol Malta, as a Party, has the right toban the import of hazardous wastes. Other partiesshall respect this sovereign decision and not permitthe export of hazardous wastes to States which haveprohibited their import.

Miscellaneous MEAs

Malta’s major obligations under the 1982 “ViennaConvention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer”relate to the adoption of legal and administrativecontrol on a municipal level to protect human healthand the environment from the adverse effects ofozone depletion. In so doing, it is obliged to co-operate, harmonise and formulate agreed measures,procedures and standards for the implementation ofthis Convention. As a Party, Malta has to assess thecauses and effects of ozone depletion and is dutybound to transmit that information and to exchangeinformation and technology.

Malta is also a Party to the “Montreal Protocol onSubstances that Deplete the Ozone Layer” asamended in 1990. Under this Protocol, Malta has setfirm targets to reduce and eventually to eliminateconsumption and production of a range of OzoneDepleting Substances. Consequently, Malta hasestablished controls of consumption and productionpatterns to protect the interests of producers andimporters, and to deter price inflation and over-production in the interim period till the phase-out.

Pollution fromland-basedsources andactivitiespresents aserious threatto the marineenvironment.



As a Party to the “Basel Convention on the Controlof Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastesand their Disposal”. Malta has taken steps to controland safely dispose of hazardous wastes that are sub-ject to transboundary movement. Under thisConvention, Malta is to ensure that the generationof hazardous waste or other waste, is reduced to aminimum, taking into account social, technologicaland economic considerations. Furthermore, it has tomake available adequate waste disposal facilities,for the sound management of hazardous andother wastes.

Malta is finalising the process that would enable it tofulfil its commitments under the “United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change” namely,to develop, update, publish and make available to theConference of the Parties, national inventories ofanthropogenic emissions by sources and removalsby sinks of greenhouse gases not controlled by theMontreal Protocol. It is obliged to formulate,implement, publish and regularly update nationalprogrammes containing measures to mitigate climatechange, by addressing anthropogenic emissions bysources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gasesnot controlled by the “Montreal Protocol”, and totake measures to facilitate adequate adaptation toclimate change.

Malta ratified the “Kyoto Protocol” to the “UnitedNations Framework Convention on Climate Change”in November 2001.

As a Party to the “United Nations Convention toCombat Deser tification in those Countr iesexperiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification”,particularly in Africa, Malta is bound to ensure theparticipation of all stakeholders in the design andimplementation of programmes to combatdesertification.

5.3 MALTA AND THE EUPOSITION ONSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT

Overview

The European Union was one of the maincontributors to the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development. The Union assumedthe lead, amongst the members of the internationalcommunity to address environment and developmentchallenges to ensure sustainable development inaccordance with Agenda 21.

To meet its responsibility as a key player in bringingabout sustainable development, the EU, together withother states that endorsed the “Rio Declaration”,committed itself, at the 19th Special Session of theUnited Nations’ General Assembly in 1997, to drawup a strategy for sustainable development in timefor the 2002 Wor ld Summit on SustainableDevelopment.

The European Union Sustainable Development Strategywas adopted by the European Commission on 15May 2001 and contains a number of proposals andrecommendations aimed at improving policyeffectiveness. It seeks to make sure that differentpolicies reinforce one another and not pull in differentdirections. It includes a set of headline objectives andspecific measures at the EU level to address the mostserious challenges to sustainable development inEurope as well as concrete steps to implement thestrategy and to review its progress.

Malta, together with EU Member States and othercandidate countries, has improved its policy co-ordination in order to ensure that all new legislationand policies include a sustainable development

Francis ZammitDimech, thenMinister for

theEnvironment,addressing a

seminar on thecoming intoforce of the

“BaselConvention”

in Malta,in November

2000.

89

considerations covering social, economic andenvironmental repercussions.

Harmonisation with the EU

The EU environmental acquis is based on the conceptof sustainable development and, although Malta is notyet a member of the EU, a number of measuresrequired by EU environmental legislation have alreadybeen transposed locally or are about to be transposed(Briguglio, 2001; Government of Malta, 2001a).

The new Environment Protection Act, 2001 hasentered into force in September 2001 and aims toprotect and manage the environment in a sustainablemanner. Section 3 of this Act provides that: “It shallbe the duty of ever yone together with theGovernment to protect the environment and to assistin the taking of previous and remedial measures toprotect the environment and manage naturalresources in a sustainable manner”.

As stated elsewhere, the Act provides for the setting-up of a National Commission for SustainableDevelopment in line with the principle of integrationof environmental protection requirements into socialand economic factors as required by the conclusionsof the Helsinki European Council and Article 6 ofthe EC Treaty. The primary function of the Commissionis to advocate sustainable development across allsectors in Malta, review progress in the achievementof such sustainable development and build consensuson action required to achieve further progress.

Subsidiary legislation, transposing the EU environ-mental acquis under the Environment Protection Act,(2001) includes regulations on air quality assessmentand management; freedom of access to informationon the environment; pollution caused by certaindangerous substances into the aquatic environment;quality of petrol and diesel fuels; waste permits, controland incineration; urban waste water treatment; andthe protection of waters against pollution by nitrates;to name a few. Other regulations are, and will continueto be, published under the Environmental ProtectionAct and under other framework Acts.

5.4 ISSUES TO BEADDRESSED ANDMEASURES TO BE TAKEN

Environmental law and policy in Malta are currentlyundergoing major restructuring. Environmental issues

feature high on the national agenda and this requiressubstantial improvement in the legal framework, andbacking by the appropriate administrative structuresand adequate implementation and enforcementmeasures.

Above all, Malta needs to integrate environmentalconcerns into its socio-economic policies to ensurethat its rapid development does not occur at theexpense of the quality of the natural environment,which has, over the last thir ty-five years, beenconsiderably impaired.

Membership within the European Union should leadto a significant leap forward in ensuring thatenvironmental standards are maintained andimproved upon.

Membershipwithin theEuropeanUnion shouldlead to asignificant leapforward inensuring thatenvironmentalstandards aremaintained andimprovedupon.


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6

CONCLUSION

This Report has reviewedMalta’s progress in implementingsustainable development duringthe past decade. It has beenshown that, since the 1992Rio Earth Summit, successiveMaltese governments haveenacted laws, adopted policiesand taken action to addressseveral important economic,social and environmental issues.However, sustainabledevelopment has only recentlystarted to emerge as a specificgoal. In particular, the translationof the commitments of Agenda21 to a Local Agenda 21 remainsa major challenge and anopportunity for Malta.


6.1 OVERVIEW

This Repor t has reviewed Malta’s progress inimplementing sustainable development during thepast decade. It has been shown that, since the 1992Rio Earth Summit, successive Maltese governmentshave enacted laws, adopted policies and taken actionto address several important economic, social andenvironmental issues. However, sustainabledevelopment has only recently started to emerge asa specific goal. In particular, the translation of thecommitments of Agenda 21 to a Local Agenda 21remains a major challenge and an opportunity forMalta.

6.2 THE COMMITMENTS

Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action to betaken globally, nationally and locally by Governments,by major social groups and by the UN agencies them-selves. By adopting Agenda 21, countries committedthemselves to build capacity through education,information and training, to adopt national strategiesfor sustainable development, and to enlist theparticipation of major groups towards this end. Gov-ernments that accepted to implement Agenda 21also committed themselves to promote sustainable

development at the global level, since sustainabledevelopment problems do not stop at nationalboundaries.

6.3 THE MAINACHIEVEMENTS

To summarise, the actions taken by Malta in line withAgenda 21, include:• Enacting a body of legislation conducive to

environmental protection and sustainable landuse.

• Strengthening institutional set-ups of relevanceto sustainable development.

• Providing financial outlays and securing fundingfrom international bodies to under takeinvestment conducive to sustainabledevelopment.

• Encouraging wider application of science to policyformulation and collating environmental data,useful for decision-making.

• Increasing environmental awareness througheducational initiatives and dissemination ofinformation.

• Putting in place new procedures to encourageand enable public and stakeholder participationin decision-making with regard to environmentand development issues.

• Participating in international initiatives for thepromotion of sustainable development at the localand global levels.

6.4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS

As indicated throughout this Report, there are manysustainable development issues in Malta that havenot been successfully addressed since 1992, and thatwarrant priority attention by Government. TheRepor t listed gaps with regard to the majorenvironmental concerns, namely those relating to en-ergy, transport, freshwater, the marine environment,solid and liquid waste, biodiversity and land use. Othergaps were identified with regard to information,awareness and participation by civil society.

From an overview of these gaps and shortcomings, anumber of cross-cutting needs emerge. These include:• Increased co-operation and collaboration among

public institutions and civil society in mattersrelating to sustainable development.

• Improved integrated management of theenvironment.

Thepromotion of

sustainabledevelopment

calls forincreased

cooperationand

collaborationamong public

institutions andcivil society.

93

• More efficient use of resources.• Promotion of sustainable consumption patterns

and production methods.• Wider application of economic instruments,

including subsidies, tariffs and fees to encouragegood practices and discourage unsustainable ones.

• Setting of targets, development of indicators andestablishment of codes of practice for improvedenvironmental quality.

• Substantial investment to upgrade the physicalinfrastructure.

• Stepping up the monitoring and enforcement oflegislation.

• Enhancing capacity in institutions, funding researchand improving data relating to sustainabledevelopment.

• Developing a strategy to improve awareness,accessibility, participation and inclusion.

6.5 THE WAY FORWARD

Agenda 21 created a new development model, aimedat preparing the world for the challenges of the 21

st

century. It placed the primary, though not exclusive,responsibility on the national governments, who wereexpected to adopt national strategies, plans, policiesand processes conducive to sustainable development,in order to secure the well-being of current and futuregenerations.

The Maltese Government views this as a majorchallenge for the future. It is implementing majorlegislative and institutional changes towards this end,and is taking steps to formulate a national strategyfor sustainable development.

Conclusion

Agenda 21 isan importanttool forsecuring thewell-being offuturegenerations.


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97

A

Aarborg Charter, 63, 66Abela, Anthony, M., 8, 19, 61, 75, 94Acquis communautaire, 12, 14, 68,

89, 95Ageing population, 14, 15, 74Agenda 21, 5, 8, 40, 48, 55, 56, 59,

62, 63, 64-65, 66, 69, 72, 81, 83,88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 95

Agriculture, 15, 17, 24, 27, 31, 34,47, 50-53, 70-71, 72, 96

Alien species, 23, 46-47, 48, 96Aquaculture, 15, 23, 27, 36, 37, 38,

39, 40Aquifers, 23, 34, 35Attard, David J., 39, 94Awareness, 9, 24, 32, 40, 45, 46, 47,

48, 53, 56-61, 64, 69, 71, 72, 73,76, 77, 85, 92, 93, 95

Axiak, Victor, 8, 32, 36, 37, 40, 41,42, 43, 44, 45, 94, 96

B

Baldacchino, Alfred E., 96Baldacchino, Godfrey, 8Barcelona Convention, 40, 72, 83,

86Biological diversity, 9, 19, 23, 24, 25,

29-30, 36, 38, 39, 40, 45-48, 52,71, 83, 84, 85, 87, 92

Birth rates, 13Bonn Convention, 39, 81, 84Borg Joe, 81Borg, Michelle, 8Borg, Simone , 8, 80, 94, 100Borg, Tonio, 59Briguglio, Lino, 5, 8, 18, 94, 100Briguglio, Marie, 8, 40, 89, 94, 100

C

Camilleri, A., 96Camilleri, Marguerite, 8, 95CAMP (Malta), 59Cancer, 22Capacity-building, 27, 40, 41, 43, 60,

64, 71, 73, 92, 93Carbone, George, 8Carrying capacity, 14, 23, 29, 30, 50,

51Caruana, Maurice, 8Caruana, Vince, 8, 61, 62, 94Casingena-Harper, Jennifer, 8Cassar, Godwin, 8Census, 13, 59, 60, 75, 94Central Office of Statistics (see also

National Statistics Office), 59,74, 94

Children, 9, 19, 20-21, 57, 75, 76-77,94, 95

Cilia, Joseph, 30, 32, 35, 94, 96Civil Protection Department, 27, 38Civil society, 8, 62, 67, 77, 92Cleaner Technology Centre, 68-69,

95Climate, 9, 12, 15, 79, 80-81, 83, 96Climate change, 31, 33, 38, 39, 81,

88Climate Change Convention, 31, 81Coal, 30, 32Comino, 11, 12, 42, 46Common Agricultural Policy, 70Common Heritage of Mankind, 79,

80-82Composting, 40, 41, 42, 44Construction Industry, 15, 16, 33,

40, 41, 45, 50, 69, 80Consumption patterns, 18, 32, 53,

93Conventions, international, 32, 39,

40, 43, 46, 47, 51, 72, 73, 80-88,96

Cremona, Alexandra, 8Cultural heritage, 12, 50, 51

D

Darmanin, P. J., 30, 94Data, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 50, 51,

56-59, 60-61, 74, 92, 93Demography, 9, 13-14, 59, 95Department for Women in Society,

73, 75, 94, 95Department of Health Promotion,

21Department of Industrial and

Employment Relations, 67, 68Department of Industry, 67-68Department of Information, 65, 95,

96, 100Department of Primary Health

Care, 21Department of Public Health, 21,

27Department of Social Housing, 65,

67Department of Social Security, 21Desalination, 23, 33, 34, 35, 70Desertification, 88Disease, 21-22, 68Drainage Department, 27, 69Dumping at sea, 37, 42, 43, 85, 87

E

E-commerce, 58, 60Economic instruments, 44, 53, 69,

93Economic openness, 15, 17Economy, economic development,

9, 14-18, 49, 62, 64, 67, 75, 79,80

Ecosystem, 23, 63, 80Education, 9, 17, 18, 19-20, 27, 33,

35, 46, 49, 56-58, 61, 69, 72, 74,76, 77, 92, 94, 95, 96

Ellul, Raymond, 95Employment and Industrial Relations

Act, 66-68Employment and Training

Corporation, 74, 75, 94Endangered species, 44, 45, 47, 84,

87Enemalta Corporation, 32, 94Energy, 9, 15, 17, 23, 27, 30-35, 38,

68, 69, 70, 92, 94Environment Impact Assessment,

38Environment Protection Act, 24-26,

38, 39, 43, 46, 47, 56, 63, 89Environment Protection

Department, 31, 38, 46, 69, 96Environment Protection

Directorate, 25, 37, 39, 96Environmental education, 56-58, 96Environmental Management Audit

System (EMAS), 69Erosion, 22, 23, 38, 60, 71, 100EU Sustainable Development

Strategy, 88-89European Union, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16,

17, 18, 21, 22, 25, 31, 32, 33, 35,43, 46, 47, 63, 64, 66, 68, 69, 70,72, 73, 74, 88-89, 94, 95

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), 85Extinct species, 24, 44-45

F

Farmers, 50, 70-71Farrugia, Louise, 8Farrugia, Robert, 30, 76, 94Federation of Industry, Malta, 69Female employment, 16, 17, 73-75Fenech-Adami, Edward, 5, 79Fisheries, 15, 27, 36, 38, 47, 85, 96Formosa, Saviour, 8Freshwater, 9, 23, 29, 30, 33-35, 41,

44, 45, 47, 52, 92Friends of the Earth, 95Fsadni, Mario, 30, 32, 94, 95Future generations, 76, 77, 81-83,

93

G

Gauci, Vince, 8, 94General Assembly, UN, 80, 81, 88General Workers Union, 67Geography, 9, 12GIS, 58, 60Gozo, 11, 12, 24, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42,

43, 44, 49, 95Greenhouse gases, 23, 31, 88Groundwater, 33-35, 42Groups, major, 61-77

INDEX

Index


H

Habitats, 24, 33, 34, 37, 39, 44-48,84, 96

Hazardous waste, 21, 23, 41, 43, 44,68, 69, 85, 87-88

Health, 9, 18, 19, 21-22, 24-25, 27,31, 38, 41, 42, 49, 59, 61, 65, 67,68, 69, 85, 87, 96

History of Malta, 12

I

Incineration, 24, 42, 44, 86, 89Industrial waste, 40-41, 42Inert waste, 41, 43Information technology (IT), 18, 20,

35, 60-61, 65Institute for Energy Technology, 69Institute for the Promotion of Small

Enterprise (IPSE), 69, 72Insularity, 17International Environment Institute,

38, 82International Trusteeship

Commission, 82-83Internet, 58, 60IPCC, 81ISO 14000, 68IUCN, 56, 95

K

Kyoto Protocol, 81, 88

L

Labour legislation, 66, 67Labour market, 16-17, 74Laiviera, Renee, 8Land use, 9, 23, 24, 29, 30, 31, 33,

34, 43, 48-52, 58, 59, 92Landfill, 24, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44Lanfranco, E., 46, 6Law of the Sea Convention, 80-81,

85Licari, Lucianne, 8Liquid waste, 9, 14, 23, 24, 40, 41-

44, 69, 92Living resources, 36, 85Local Agenda 21, 63, 65, 72, 91, 92Local Councils, 13, 27, 41, 44, 51, 56,

58, 59, 61, 63-66

M

Maghtab landfill, 41Mallia, Adrian, 94, 96Mallia, Edward A., 30, 32, 94, 95Malta Chamber of Commerce, 68Malta College of Arts, Science and

Technology (MCAST), 20, 74Malta Council for Economic Social

Development (MCESD), 66, 67

Malta Council for Science andTechnology (MCST), 32, 38, 73,95

Malta Council of Women, 74Malta Development Corporation

(MDC), 16, 72Malta Environment and Planning

Authority (MEPA), 13, 25, 33,37, 38, 43, 47, 50, 51, 57, 58, 59,61, 62, 66, 94, 96

Malta-EU Information Centre(MIC), 17, 95

Malta Information Technology andTraining Services (MITTS), 61

Malta Maritime Authority, 26, 36,37, 38

Malta Resources Authority, 25, 26,32, 38

Malta Standards Authority, 26, 57Malta Tourism Authority, 20, 27, 95Malta Union of Teachers (MUT),

67Malta University Services (MUS),

68Mangion, John, 8Manufacturing , 15-16, 41, 68-69Marine environment, 9, 23-24, 29,

30, 36-40, 41, 42, 52, 85-86, 92MedGoos, 38, 59Mediterranean, 11, 12, 15, 20, 31,

33, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 46, 47, 59,63, 64, 71, 80, 83, 84, 86-87, 94,95

Mediterranean Academy ofDiplomatic Studies, 20

Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP),39, 80, 83, 94

Mediterranean Commission forSustainable Development(MCSD), 83

Mercieca, Kevin, 8, 40, 94Mifsud, Carmen, 36, 95Mifsud, Paul, 8Migration, 13, 14Migratory species, 15, 39, 47, 84Ministry for Development and

Infrastructure, 95Ministry for Economic Services, 94,

95Ministry for Home Affairs and the

Environment, 25, 63Ministry for Justice and Local

Government, 61, 65, 66, 95Ministry for Social Policy, 27, 65, 94Ministry for the Environment, 8, 25,

69, 95Ministry of Agriculture and

Fisheries, 27, 38, 47, 70, 71Ministry of Education, 94Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 94, 95Ministry of Health, 27Ministry of Tourism, 50, 64, 95Mizzi, Stephanie, 8Mortality, 13

Multilateral legal obligations, 9, 25,83-88

Municipal Solid Waste, 41, 42

N

National Action Plan forEmployment, 68

National Aquaculture Centre(NAC), 38

National Commission forSustainable Development, 25,26, 38, 51, 53, 73, 89

National Environmental HealthAction Plan (NEHAP), 22, 65

National Information Strategy, 60National Minimum Curriculum, 57National Oil Pollution Contingency

Plan, 38, 39, 85National Statistics Office (see also

Central Office of Statistics), 13,37, 41, 58, 59, 74, 95

National Strategy for EnvironmentalEducation (NEES), 57

National Strategy for Science andTechnology, 73

National Strategy for SustainableDevelopment, 53, 66, 93

Natural resources, 15, 26, 27, 89NGOs, 4, 9, 17, 19, 22, 36, 39, 46,

57, 61-62, 63, 67, 73, 76, 83, 92,94, 96

Nolle, Michael, 31, 95Nuclear Safety, 85, 86

O

Occupational Health and SafetyAuthority, 25, 27, 66, 67, 68

Overend, Eric , 62, 95Ozone, 23, 31, 32, 87, 95

P

Pace, Paul, 8, 56, 95, 100Pardo, Arvid, 80Participation, 5, 17, 22, 51, 52, 53,

56-58, 62, 63, 65, 72, 74, 75, 76,77, 88, 92, 93, 94

Pizzuto, Anton, 8, 69, 95, 96Planning Authority, (see also Malta

Environment and PlanningAuthority), 13, 14, 24, 25, 38,40, 47, 51, 59, 61, 64, 73, 95

Political parties, 49, 56Pollution, 14, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30,

31-32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 49,60, 68, 80, 85-87, 89

Population, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20,21, 22, 23, 40, 48, 52, 58, 74, 84,94

Population density, 13, 22, 23, 40,48, 52

Portelli, Rachel, 8, 100

99

Poverty, 19, 75, 94Power station, 30, 32, 33Primary school, 20Privatisation, 16, 17Programme for the Assessment and

Control of Pollution in theMediterranean Region(MEDPOL), 38

Protected areas, 36, 39, 40, 46, 47,87, 95, 96

Public consultation, 8, 9, 25, 32, 43,56, 57, 62, 77, 83, 95

Public sector, 15, 16-17, 47, 49, 60,67, 72, 75

Pullicino, George, 8

Q

Quarrying, 23, 48, 49, 50, 52

R

Racial divisions, 18Ragonesi, R. 59, 95Rainfall, 12, 13, 33Recycling, 26, 41, 43, 44Religious divisions, 18Religious organisations, 56, 61Renewable energy, 32, 33, 94Reverse osmosis, 23, 34, 35Rizzo, Anthony, 35, 69, 94, 95, 96Rural Development Programme

(RDP), 71

S

Said, George, 8Sant’Antnin Waste Treatment Plant,

41, 42, 43, 44Scerri, Edward, 30, 94Schembri, Patrick, 8, 36, 37, 40, 44,

45, 46, 94, 96Schools, 19, 20, 49, 57, 77Science and Technology, 32, 38, 72-

73, 82, 94, 95Sea-bed , 37, 79, 80, 83, 86Secondary schools, 20Sewage, 23, 24, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44Shipbuilding, 16, 36Ship-repairing, 16, 36Small Island Developing States

(SIDS), 17, 18, 80, 94, 96Social benefits, 19, 75Social change, 19, 62Social exclusion/inclusion, 19, 53,

65, 94

Social expenditure, 19Social housing, 19, 65, 67Social justice, 67Social partners, 67Social policy, 19, 27, 68Social security, 16, 18, 19, 21, 66Social services, 19, 65Social values, 19Social welfare, 19, 61Society, Maltese, 18-20, 56, 61, 62,

75Solar energy, 30, 32Solid waste, 24, 40-44, 94Solid Waste Management Strategy,

24, 42, 43, 95Spiteri Staines, Cyril, 32, 25, 94,

96State of the Environment Report,

25, 40, 59, 71, 94, 95, 96Stevens, Darrin, 40, 96Subsidiarity, 19, 62, 63Sultana, Joseph, 45, 96Sustainability Indicators, 59, 83Sustainability Indicators - Malta

Observatory (SI-MO), 59Sustainable Development, 5, 7, 8, 9,

14, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 32,35, 38, 43, 51, 53, 55, 56, 57, 61,66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77,80, 81, 83, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92,93, 94, 96,

T

Tanti, Christine M. , 96Temperature, 12, 13Threatened species, 24, 44-45, 48,

87Tourism, 27, 36, 48, 49, 50, 51, 56,

64, 69, 70, 71, 74, 95Traffic, 14, 30, 31, 33, 37Transport, 3, 9, 16, 17, 23, 24, 29,

30-33, 36, 49, 51, 92, 95

U

UN World Conference onWomen, 73

UNCED/Rio Summit, 56, 72, 82,83, 87, 88, 91, 92, 95, 96

UNDP, 18, 96UNEP, 56, 59, 81, 94, 95, 96UNESCO, 51, 56, 82, 96Union Haddiema Maghqudin

(UHM), 67, 94Unions, 9, 56, 66, 67

United Nations, 7, 8, 9, 39, 79,80-82, 88, 94, 96

University of Malta, 20, 30, 31,32, 35, 38, 39, 57, 58, 59, 68,72, 73, 94

V

Values, 18, 19, 30, 32, 57, 76Vella, Alfred, 8, 31, 94, 96Vella, Catherine, 8Vulnerability/vulnerable, 17, 18, 19,

21, 22, 31, 35, 45, 76, 80, 84, 85,94, 96

W

Waste, 9, 14, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 29,30, 31, 34, 37, 38, 40-44, 48, 49,50, 51, 52, 68, 69, 85-88, 89, 92,94, 95

Water, 9, 15, 22, 23, 26, 27, 29,30, 32, 33-35, 36, 37, 38, 39,41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 52, 68,70, 71, 84, 85, 86, 89, 92, 94,95, 96

Water Services Corporation (WSC),33, 34, 95, 96

Wetlands, 24, 44, 45, 47, 84White Papers, 73, 74, 95Wildlife, 24, 44, 46, 47, 84, 96Wind energy, 30, 32, 94Winds, 13Women, 9, 19, 21, 22, 60, 73-75, 94,

95World Health Organisation (WHO),

21, 96World Meteorological Organisation

(WMO), 81World Summit on Sustainable

Development (WSSD), 5, 7, 8World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 56,

95

X

Xummiemu, 76-77

Y

Youth/young people, 9, 14, 21, 76-77, 94

Z

Zammit Dimech, Francis, 88

Index


The team of authorsof this Report:

Lino Briguglio (leadauthor, third from

right) with (from leftto right) Rachel

Portelli, Paul Pace,Gordon Cordina,Simone Borg and

Marie Briguglio

Picture Page Credit

Prime Minister of Malta 5 DOI, MaltaThe Maltese Islands 7 ICoD, MaltaMr Pullicino addressing Conference 8 Martin Psaila, MaltaA section of the audience attending 9 Martin Psaila, MaltaValletta 10 DOI, MaltaLocation of the Maltese Islands 12 Formatek, MaltaThe Malta Freeport 14 Ray Attard, MaltaPie chart of GDP 15 Formatek, MaltaTourists on a pleasure boat 16 Ray Attard, MaltaElderly people 19 Ray Attard, MaltaSchoolchildren 20 Martin Psaila, MaltaThe New Hospital 21 Ray Attard, MaltaHospital bed 22 Ray Attard, MaltaCliffs 23 Ray Attard, MaltaBuildings 24 Ray Attard, MaltaMEPA Head Offices 25 Martin Psaila, MaltaSession of the NCSD 26 DOI, MaltaWindmill in Gozo 27 Alvin Scicluna, MaltaGhajn Tuffieha 29 ICoD, MaltaTraffic 31 Ray Attard, MaltaMobile air monitoring unit 32 MEPA, MaltaPicture of desalination plant 33 Martin Psaila, MaltaPrecious water 35 Martin Psaila, MaltaFisherman mending nets 36 Ray Attard, MaltaSpilled oil 37 MEPA, MaltaGhadira reserve 39 Ray Attard, MaltaThe islands 40 Alvin Scicluna, MaltaMaghtab landfill 41 Martin Psaila, MaltaSant’ Antnin waste treatment plant 42 Martin Psaila, MaltaAerial view of sewage in the sea 43 Mark Mercieca, MaltaRare Sicilian Squill 44 Martin Psaila, MaltaThe islet of Filfla 46 Ray Attard, MaltaCommon Hawthorn 47 Martin Psaila, MaltaBuilt up areas 48 Saviour Formosa, MaltaAgricultural land 50 Julian Manduca, Malta

Picture Page Credit

Prehistoric site 51 Ray Attard, MaltaSalt harvesting 52 Alvin Scicluna, MaltaMan fishing at Birzebbuga 53 Ray Attard, MaltaHappy people 55 Ray Attard, MaltaChildren 57 DOI, MaltaSI-MO conference 59 DOI, MaltaInside a computer 60 Ray Attard, MaltaLobbying 61 Ray Attard, MaltLocal council initiative 63 Ray Attard, MaltaUnions 66 Union Print, MaltaTechnopark 68 Ray Attard, MaltaIndustry 69 Ray Attard, MaltaAgricultural land 70 ICoD, MaltaPotatoes, tomatoes and onions 71 Ray Attard, MaltaLaboratory 72 Ray Attard, MaltaWomen 73 Ray Attard, MaltaWoman at work 74 Ray Attard, MaltaWoman behind a desk 75 Ray Attard, MaltaChildren playing 76 Ray Attard, MaltaYoung girl waking away 77 Ray Attard, MaltaThe Prime Minister at the UN 79 Arrigo Azzopardi, MaltaArvid Pardo 80 Ray Attard, MaltaMinister Borg addressing UNGA 81 UN/DPI, Eskinder DebebeCurrent and future generations 82 Formatek, MaltaMediterranean Commission for S.D. 83 DOI, MaltaTamarisk tree 84 Martin Psaila, MaltaThe sea 85 Martin Psaila, MaltaMediterranean 86 Blue PlanPolluted sea 87 Martin Psaila, MaltaSeminar on the Basel Convention 88 Martin Psaila, MaltaThe flag of the EU 89 DOI, MaltaBoats at Mgarr Harbour 93 Ray Attard, MaltaShaking hands 92 Ray Attard, MaltaThe future generation 93 Ray Attard, MaltaThe contributing authors 100 Ray Attard, Malta

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