MALDIVES POWER STATION IN FUTER

MAKE ELECITEY IN SEA WATER IN MALDIVES

MODEL TECONOLEY USING IM MALDIVES IN 2016

EVERY ATOLL ONE THAMES BARRIER MAKE SEA WATER ELETRICITY MAKE A BACKUP WATER PLANTE IN ALL AREA OF MALDIVES

Thames Barrierhe Thames Barrier is located downstream of central London. Operational since 1982, its purpose is to prevent thefloodplain of all but the

easternmost boroughs of Greater London from being flooded by exceptionally high tides and storm surges moving up from the North Sea. When needed, it is closed (raised) during high tide; at low tide it can be opened to restore the river's flow towards the sea. Built approximately 3 km (1.9 mi) due east of the Isle of Dogs, its northern bank is inSilvertown in the London Borough of Newham and its southern bank is in the New Charlton area of the Royal Borough of Greenwich. The report of Sir Hermann Bondi on the North Sea flood of 1953 affecting parts of the Thames Estuary and parts of London[1] was instrumental in the building of the barrier

HistoryDesign and construction

The concept of the rotating gates was devised by (Reginald) Charles Draper. In the 1950s, from his parents' house in Pellatt Grove, Wood Green, London, he constructed a working model. The novel rotating cylinders were based on a small household appliance – a brass gas tap which could be found in most post-war houses in the UK. The barrier was designed by Rendel, Palmer and Tritton for the Greater London Council and tested at the Hydraulics Research Station, Wallingford. The site at New Charlton was chosen because of the relative straightness of the banks, and because the underlying river chalk was strong enough to support the barrier. Work began at the barrier site in 1974 and construction, which had been undertaken by a Costain/HollandscheBetonMaatschappij/Tarmac Construction consortium,[3] was largely complete by 1982. The gates of the barrier were made by Cleveland Bridge UK Ltd[4] at Dent's Wharf on the River Tees.[5]

In addition to the barrier, the flood defences for 11 miles down river were raised and strengthened. The barrier was officially opened on 8 May 1984 by Queen Elizabeth II. Total construction cost was around £534 million (£1.3 billion at 2001 prices) with an additional £100 million for river defences.

Built across a 520-metre (570 yd) wide stretch of the river, the barrier divides the river into four 61-metre (200 ft) and two, approximately 30 metre (100 ft) navigable spans. There are also four smaller non-navigable channels between nine concrete piers and two abutments. The flood gates across the openings are circular segments in cross section, and they operate by rotating, raised to allow "underspill" to allow operators to control upstream levels and a complete 180 degree rotation for maintenance. All the gates are hollow and made of steel up to 40 millimetres (1.6 in) thick. The gates are filled with water when submerged and empty as they emerge from the river. The four large central gates are 20.1 metres (66 ft) high and weigh 3,700 tonnes.[6] Four radial gates by the riverbanks, also about 30 metres (100 ft) wide, can be lowered. These gate openings, unlike the main six, are non-navigable.

Predictions for operation

A Thames Barrier flood defence closure is triggered when a combination of high tides forecast in the North Sea and high river flows at the tidal limit at Teddington weir indicate that water levels would exceed 4.87 metres (16.0 ft) in central London. Though Teddington marks the Normal Tidal Limit, in periods of very high fluvial flow the tidal influence can be seen as far upstream as East Molesey, location of the second lock[clarification needed] on the Thames.[7][8] Forecast sea levels at the mouth of the Thames Estuary are generated by Met Office computers and also by models run on the Thames Barrier's own forecasting and telemetry computer systems. About 9 hours before the high tide reaches the barrier a flood defence closure begins with messages to stop river traffic, close subsidiary gates and alert other river users. As well as the Thames Barrier, the smaller gates along the Thames Tideway include Barking Barrier, King George V Lock gate, Dartford Barrier and gates at Tilbury Docks and Canvey Island must also be closed. Once river navigation has been stopped and all subsidiary gates closed, then the Thames Barrier itself can be closed. The smaller gates are closed first, then the main navigable spans in succession. The gates remain closed until the tide downstream of the barrier falls to the same level as the water level upstream.

After periods of heavy rain west of London, floodwater can also flow down the Thames from areas upstream of London. Because the river is tidal from Teddington weir all the way through London, this is only a problem at high tide, which prevents the floodwater from escaping out to sea. From Teddington the river is opening out into its estuary, and at low tide it can take much greater flow rates the further one goes downstream. In periods when the river is in flood upstream, if the gates are closed shortly after low tide, a huge empty volume is created behind the barrier which can act as a reservoir to hold the floodwater coming over Teddington weir. Most river floods will not fill this volume in the few hours of the high tide cycle during which the barrier needs to be closed. If the barrier were not there, the high tide would fill up this volume instead, and the floodwater could then spill over the river banks in London. About a third of the closures up to 2009 were to alleviate fluvial flooding.

Barrier closures and incidents

During the barrier's entire history up to July 2014, there have been 174 flood defence closures. It costs £16,000 (2008) to close the Thames Barrier on each occasion.[10] The barrier was closed twice on 9

November 2007 after a storm surge in the North Sea which was compared to the one in 1953.[11] The main danger of flooding from the surge was on the coast above the Thames Barrier, where evacuations took place, but the winds abated a little and, at the Thames Barrier, the 9 November 2007 storm surge did not completely coincide with high tide.[12]

On 20 August 1989, hours after the Marchioness disaster, the barrier was closed against a spring tide for 16 hours "to assist the diving and salvage operations".[13]

On 27 October 1997, the barrier was damaged when the dredger MV Sand Kite, operating in thick fog, collided with one of the Thames Barrier's piers. As the ship started to sink she dumped her 3,300 tonne load of aggregate, finally sinking by the bow on top of one of the barrier's gates where she lay for several days. Initially the gate could not be closed as it was covered in a thick layer of gravel. A longer term problem was the premature loss of paint on the flat side of the gate caused by abrasion. One estimate of the cost of flooding damage, had it occurred, was around £13 billion.[14] The vessel was refloated in mid-November 1997.

The annual full test closure in 2012 was scheduled for 3 June to coincide with the Thames pageant celebrating Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee. Flood risk manager Andy Batchelor said the pageant gave the Environment Agency "a unique opportunity to test its design for a longer period than we would normally be able to", and that the more stable tidal conditions in central London that resulted would help the vessels taking part.[15]

The barrier has survived 15 boat collisions without serious damage

History

The Company emerged from modest beginnings in 1949 with an installed capacity of only 14 kW and providing electricity to just the residences in Male’.Over the past five decades the Company operated as a Government Department under different names like “Department of Electricity” and “Maldives Electricity Board” until 1997, when “State Electric Company”, STELCO, was formed.Initially the number of customers were 50 houses in Male’. Today the total number of customers have increased to 26,055 in Male’ and 20,503 customers in the islands (as at March 2009). Thus, STELCO now provide electricity to over 46% of the total population.

Welcome State Electric Company Ltd, STELCO, is wholly owned by the Government of Maldives. Our core business includes power generation, distribution and retail.We operate 27 power system in 27 islands, providing electricity to 43% of the population of the country. Each power system is independent with its own power generation and distribution infrastructure.STELCO has its largest operation in Male’, the capital of Maldives, with an installed capacity of 61.42MW, and a 26 km underground 11kV distribution network feeding power to 99 distribution transformers to provide electricity to 33,341 customers.Marine gas oil is the only fuel used for power generation and exhaust heat from the power station is used by an ME desalination plant with a daily production capacity of 150 tones per day to produce water for Male’ power station’s use.Today STELCO has an installed capacity of 79.2MW, 471 employees and a customer base of 41,743 (as at August 2012).

Malé

The Malé powerhouse is the largest generation facility in Maldives. We generate and provide reliable and efficient electric energy to meet the growing demand of Malé.A 56 member staff team, with engineers, supervisors, and technicians keep the power facility in operating condition at all times.

HOW TO MAKE ELETRICITY IN SEA WATER IN UK

MALDIVES ALSO MAKE ELETRICITY IN SEA WATER SAME AS UK

WATER FROM THE OCEAN OR THE SEA IS AVIABLE BY DIGGING A CANAL FROM THE OCEAN WATER SURFACE AND GOING DEEP INTO THE EARTH BY DIGGING 100 METERS BELOW THE SEA LEVEL AND THEN CONNECTING THIS CANAL INTO A HEAD RACE TUNNEL 100 METERS BELOW THE EARTH.FROM HERE THE UNDERGROUND DAMS WILL START IN THE STAITCASE MODEL AND WILL GO DEEP I.E. 2100

METERS ,INTO THE EARTH TO FORM STEPS ONE STEP STARTS WHERE THE OTHER ENDS AND ON EACH INDIVIDUAL STEP THERE WILL BE INDIVIDUAL DAMS TO GENERATE ELECTRICITY AND WHEN THE LAST STEP IS CONSTRUCTED THE BASE RESERVOIR STARTS BELOW THE LAST STEP AND THE WATER RUNNING DOWN THE HILL AFTER SPINNING THE TURBINES WILL BE COLLECTED INTO THIS RESERVOIR . WATER PUMPS WILL BE USED TO LIFT THIS WATER FROM A DEPTH OF 2100 METERS DEEP BELOW THE EARTH IN STEP WISE ONLY AND HERE IN EACH STEP , THE STEP IS DIVIDED INTO 3 CHAMBERS .THE FIRST CHAMBER WILL HOLD THE PUMPED WATER ,THE SECOND CHAMBER WILL HAVE A HYDRO TURBINE AND THE THIRD CHAMBER WILL HOLD THE WATER COMMING OUT OF THE TURBINE SO THAT THE WATER PUMPS CAN LIFT THIS WATER TO THE NEXT STEP THIS STEPS ARE ALSO IN THE STAIRCASE MODEL.THE EARTH WHICH IS REMOVED TO DIG THE STEPS WILL BE USED TO CONSTRUCT A BIG MOUNTAIN AND ON THIS MOUNTAIN TOO THERE WILL BE DAMS .THE WATER IS PUMPED INTO THE DAMS FROM THE SURFACE OF THE FINAL STEP AND WATER IS COLLECTED INTO A RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTED ON TOP OF THE MOUNTAIN AND WATER IS RELEASED INTO THE DAMS FOR THE SEA WATER ELECTRICAL GENERATION. AS THE WATER IS COMMING DOWN THE MOUNTAIN THIS WATER IS COLLECTED INTO A CANAL AND THIS CANAL IS CONNECTED ONCE AGAIN INTO THE OCEAN.THIS IS A CIRCUIT AND A FACILITY IN WHICH SEA WATER WILL CIRCULATE IN THE ENTIRE FACILITY AND THERE IS ELECTRICAL GENERATION IN THE ENTIRE FACILITY. IN ALL THE STEPS SEA WATER WILL FALL IN A WATER FALL TO GET THE REQUIRED DRAG INTO THE TURBINE I.E. 6000000/- LAC LITERS OF SEA WATER PER EVERY INDIVIDUAL SECOND FROM A HEIGHT OF 100 METERS DIRECTLY INTO THE 1000 MEGAWATT TURBINE-GENERATOR . THE RAW MATERIAL IS AVIALABLE IN PLENTY AND IT IS FREE OF COST TO GENERATE CHEEP SEA WATER ELECTRICITY.24X7=366 DAYS THE GENERATION IS EVER GREEN. IN THIS INVENTION WE CAN DESIGN THE SEA WATER ELECTRICITY FACILITY ACCORDING TO OUR REQUIREMENTS AND FINANCE AVIALABLE WE CAN GENERATE FROM FEW WATTS TO ANY NUMBER OF MW , EITHER SMALL OR BIG GENERATIONS ANY WHERE ON THE GLOBE BECAUSE IN THIS FACILITY THE HEAD AND WATER VELOCITY WILL BE CONSTANT AND THE WATER IN THE OCEAN IS EVER GREEN

CSR SYSTEMS IS A COMPANY DEDICATED TO THE OCEAN HYDRO ELECTRICAL GENERATION BY DESIGNING CHEAP AND ECONOMICAL GENERATION FACILITIES TO GENERATE OCEAN POWER GENERATION SUTIBLE TO ANY PART OF THE WORLD IN A SCIENTEFIC AND INNOVATIVE WAY SO THAT THE GENERATED ELECTRICITY CAN BE CONNECTED TO THE GRID WITH IN A VERY SHORT PERIOD OF TIME.CSR SYSTEMS MAIN OBJECT IS TO ERIDICATE POVERTY BY GIVING CHEAP ELECTRICITY TO ALL PEOPLE AND FOR THE HUMAN UPLIFTMENT SO THAT THER WILL BE ALL ROUND DEVELOPMENT IN EVERY SECTOR I.E.INDUSTRY, AGRICULTURE, ETC.

Flowing salt water over graphene generates electricity

An image of graphene, showing defects in its single-atom thickness

Hydroelectricity is one of the oldest techniques for generating electrical power, with over 150 countries using it as a source for renewable energy. Hydroelectric generators only work efficiently at large scales, though—scales large enough to interrupt river flow and possibly harm local ecosystems. And getting this sort of generation down to where it can power small devices isn't realistic.

In recent years, scientists have investigated generating electrical power using nano-structures. In particular, they have looked at generating electricity when ionic fluids—a liquid with charged ions in it—are pushed through a system with a pressure gradient. However, the ability to harvest the generated electricity has been limited because it requires a pressure gradient to drive ionic fluid

through a small tube. But scientists have now found that dragging small droplets of salt water on strips of graphene generates electricity without the need for pressure gradients.

In their study, published in Nature Nanotechnology, researchers from China grew a layer of graphene and placed a droplet of salt water on it. They then dragged the droplet across the graphene layer at different velocities and found that the process generated a small voltage difference.

In addition to being the first to demonstrate this effect, the scientists found a linear relationship between the velocity and the generated electricity. The faster they dragged the droplet across the graphene strip, the higher the voltage they generated. The scientists also found that the voltage increased when multiple droplets of the same size were used at once.

What’s the mechanism behind this? The scientists looked at the charge distribution on the sides of the droplet when it was sitting still on graphene, as well as when it was moving. When the droplet was static, the charge redistributed symmetrically on both sides, leaving a net potential difference of zero between them.

However, when the droplet was dragged across the graphene strip, this distribution became unbalanced. The scientists found that electrons are desorbed from the graphene at one end of the droplet and are adsorbed into the graphene at another end, which results in a large potential on one side of the droplet and generates a measurable voltage across its length.

The scientists then scaled this technology up to demonstrate that you can harvest electricity from it. They used a droplet made of copper chloride and placed it on a graphene surface. The surface was tilted to one side and the droplet was allowed to flow from one end to the other under gravity, resulting in the generation of a measurable voltage—approximately 30mV.

Although orders of magnitude lower than today’s hydroelectric generators, these nano-sized generators can work with small devices, something that hydroelectric systems can't do. And they can easily be scaled up, providing the potential to create large-scale generators.

Generating power from salty water: Unique salt allows energy production to move inlandProduction of energy from the difference between salt water and fresh water is most convenient near the oceans, but now, using an ammonium bicarbonate salt solution, researchers can combine bacterial degradation of waste water with energy extracted from the salt-water fresh-water gradient to produce power anywhere.

Microbial reverse dialysis test cell.

Credit: Penn State, Dept of Public Information

Production of energy from the difference between salt water and fresh water is most convenient near the oceans, but now, using an ammonium bicarbonate salt solution, Penn State researchers can combine bacterial degradation of waste water with energy extracted from the salt-water fresh-water gradient to produce power anywhere.

We are taking two technologies, each having limitations, and putting them together," said Bruce E. Logan, Kappe Professor of Environmental Engineering. "Combined, they overcome the limitations of the individual technologies."

The technologies Logan refers to are microbial fuel cells (MFC) -- which use wastewater and naturally occurring bacteria to produce electricity -- and reverse electrodialysis (RED) -- which produces electricity directly from the salinity gradient between salty and fresh water. The combined technology creates a microbial reverse-electrodialysis cell (MRC). The researchers describe MRCs in the March 1 edition of Science Express.

RED stacks extract energy from the ionic difference between fresh water and salt water. A stack consists of alternating ion exchange membranes -- positive and negative -- with each RED membrane pair contributing additively to the electrical output. Unfortunately, using only RED stacks to produce electricity is difficult because a large number of membranes is required when using water at the electrodes, due to the need for water electrolysis.

Using exoelectrogenic bacteria -- bacteria found in wastewater that consume organic material and produce an electric current -- reduces the number of stacks needed and increases electric production by the bacteria.

Logan, working with Roland Cusick, graduate student in environmental engineering, and postdoctoral fellow Younggy Kim, placed a RED stack between the electrodes of an MFC to form the MRC.

While the researchers previously showed that an MRC can work with natural seawater, the organic matter in water will foul the membranes without extensive precleaning and treatment of the water. Seawater use restricts MRC operation to coastal areas, but food waste, domestic waste and animal waste contain about 17 gigawatts of power throughout the U.S. One nuclear reactor typically produces 1 gigawatt.

Rather than rely on seawater, the researchers used ammonium bicarbonate, an unusual salt. An ammonium bicarbonate solution works similarly to seawater in the MRC and will not foul the membranes. The ammonium bicarbonate is also easily removed from the water above 110 degrees Fahrenheit. The ammonia and carbon dioxide that make up the salt boil out, and are recaptured and recombined for reuse.

"Waste heat makes up 7 to 17 percent of energy consumed in industrial processes," said Logan. "There is always a source of waste heat near where this process could take place and it usually goes unused."

The researchers tested their ammonium bicarbonate MRC and found that the initial production of electricity was greater than that from an MRC using seawater.

"The bacteria in the cell quickly used up all the dissolved organic material," said Logan. "This is the portion of wastewater that is usually the most difficult to remove and requires trickling filters, while the particulate portion which took longer for the bacteria to consume, is more easily removed."

The researchers tested the MRC only in a fill and empty mode, but eventually a stream of wastewater would be run through the cell. According to Logan, MRCs can be configured to produce electricity or hydrogen, making both without contributing to greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. The MRC tested produced 5.6 watts per square meter.

Logan also said not having to process wastewater would save about 60 gigawatts.

Electricity generation

Turbo generatorElectricity generation is the process of generating electric power from other sources of primary energy. The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a magnet.[1] For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The other processes, electricity transmission, distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry. Electricity is most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.

History

Main article: Electrification

Central power stations became economically practical with the development of alternating current power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage and with low loss. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1882. The first power plants were run on water power[2] or coal,[3] and today we rely mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, wind generators, and petroleum, with a small amount from solar energy, tidal power, and geothermal sources. The use of power-lines and power-poles have been significantly important in the distribution of electricity.

Diagram of an electric powersystem, generation system in black

Methods of generating electricity

There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of energy into electrical energy:

Static electricity, from the physical separation and transport of charge (examples: triboelectric effect and lightning)

Electromagnetic induction, where an electrical generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy (energy of motion) into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faraday's law. It can be experimented by simply rotating a magnet within closed loops of a conducting material (e.g. copper wire)

Electrochemistry, the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse

Photovoltaic effect, the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells

Thermoelectric effect, the direct conversion of temperature differences to electricity, as in thermocouples, thermopiles, and thermionic converters.

Piezoelectric effect, from the mechanical strain of electrically anisotropic molecules or crystals. Researchers at the US Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have developed a piezoelectric generator sufficient to operate a liquid crystal display using thin films of M13 bacteriophage.[6]

Nuclear transformation, the creation and acceleration of charged particles (examples: betavoltaics or alpha particle emission)

Static electricity was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic generator is still used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and MHD generators. Charge carriers are separated and physically transported to a position of increased electric potential. Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy forces an electrical generator to rotate. There are many different methods of developing the mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. The direct conversion of nuclear potential energy to electricity by beta decay is used only on a small scale. In a full-size nuclear power plant, the heat of a nuclear reaction is used to run a heat engine. This drives a generator, which converts mechanical energy into electricity by magnetic induction. Most electric generation is driven by heat engines. The combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. The modern steam turbine (invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884) currently generates about 80% of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources.

Sources of electricity in France in 2006;[5] nuclear power was the main source.

Turbines

All turbines are driven by a fluid acting as an intermediate energy carrier. Many of the heat engines just mentioned are turbines. Other types of turbines can be driven by wind or falling water. Sources include:

Steam - Water is boiled by-

Nuclear fission

The burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or petroleum). In hot gas (gas turbine), turbines are driven directly by gases produced by the combustion of natural gas or oil. Combined cycle gas turbine plants are driven by both steam and natural gas. They generate power by burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use residual heat to generate additional electricity from steam. These plants offer efficiency of up to 60%.

Renewables. The steam is generated by:

Biomass

Solar thermal energy (the sun as the heat source): solar parabolic troughs and solar power towers concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is then used to produce steam.

Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges from the ground and drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling liquid to create vapor to drive a turbine.

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC): uses the big difference between cooler deep and warmer surface ocean waters to run a heat engine (usually a turbine).

Other renewable sources:

Large dams such as Hoover Dam can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has 2.07 GW capability.

that is artificially produced inside the chimney by heating it with sunlight, and are more properly seen as forms of solar thermal energy.

Large dams such as Three Gorges Dam in China can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has a 22.5 GW capability

Reciprocating engines

Large dams such as Hoover Dam can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has 2.07 GW capability.

Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel, biogas or natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back up generation, usually at low voltages. However most large power grids also use diesel generators, originally provided as emergency back up for a specific facility such as a hospital, to feed power into the grid during certain circumstances. Biogas is often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or wastewater treatment plant, with a reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a small gas turbine.

A coal-fired power plant in Laughlin, Nevada U.S.A. Owners of this plant ceased operations after declining to invest in pollution control equipment to comply with pollution regulations.[7]

A coal-fired power plant in Laughlin, Nevada U.S.A. Owners of this plant ceased operations after declining to invest in pollution control equipment to comply with pollution regulations.

Photovoltaic panels

Unlike the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity is still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in cost and multijunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now commercially available. Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental systems.[8] Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as a supplemental electricity source for individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns, have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is growing by 40% per year led by increases in Germany, Japan, and the United States.

Other generation methods

Various other technologies have been studied and developed for power generation. Solid-state generation (without moving parts) is of particular interest in portable applications. This area is largely dominated by thermoelectric (TE) devices, though thermionic (TI) and thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems have been developed as well. Typically, TE devices are used at lower temperatures than TI and TPV systems. Piezoelectric devices are used for power generation from mechanical strain, particularly in power harvesting. Betavoltaics are another type of solid-state power generator which produces electricity from radioactive decay. Fluid-based magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation has been studied as a method for extracting electrical power from nuclear reactors and also from more conventional fuel combustion systems. Osmotic power finally is another possibility at places where salt and fresh water merges (e.g. deltas, ...) Electrochemical electricity generation is also important in portable and mobile applications. Currently, most electrochemical power comes from closed electrochemical cells ("batteries"),[9] which are arguably utilized more as storage systems than generation systems; but open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, have been undergoing a great deal of research and development in the last few years. Fuel cells can be used to extract power either from natural fuels or from synthesized fuels (mainly electrolytic hydrogen) and so can be viewed as either generation systems or storage systems depending on their use.

Wind turbines usually provide electrical generation in conjunction with other methods of producing power.

Economics of generation and production of electricityThe selection of electricity production modes and their economic viability varies in accordance with demand and region. The economics vary considerably around the world, resulting in widespread selling prices, e.g. the price in Venezuela is 3 cents per kWh while in Denmark it is 40 cents per kWh. Hydroelectric plants, nuclear power plants, thermal power plants and renewable sources have their own pros and cons, and selection is based upon the local power requirement and the fluctuations in demand. All power grids have varying loads on them but the daily minimum is the base load, supplied by plants which run continuously. Nuclear, coal, oil and gas plants can supply base load.

Thermal energy is economical in areas of high industrial density, as the high demand cannot be met by renewable sources. The effect of localized pollution is also minimized as industries are usually located away from residential areas. These plants can also withstand variation in load and consumption by adding more units or temporarily decreasing the production of some units. Nuclear power plants can produce a huge amount of power from a single unit. However, recent disasters in Japan have raised concerns over the safety of nuclear power, and the capital cost of nuclear plants is very high. Hydroelectric power plants are located in areas where the potential energy from falling water can be harnessed for moving turbines and the generation of power. It is not an economically viable source of production where the load varies too much during the annual production cycle and the ability to store the flow of water is limited.

Renewable sources other than hydroelectricity (solar power, wind energy, tidal power, etc.) due to advancements in technology, and with mass production, their cost of production has come down and the energy is now in many cases cost-comparative with fossil fuels. Many governments around the world provide subsidies to offset the higher cost of any new power production, and to make the installation of renewable energy systems economically feasible. However, their use is frequently limited by their intermittent nature. If natural gas prices are below $3 per million British thermal units, generating electricity from natural gas is cheaper than generating power by burning coal

Production

The production of electricity in 2009 was 20,053TWh. Sources of electricity were fossil fuels 67%, renewable energy 16% (mainly hydroelectric, wind, solar and biomass), and nuclear power 13%, and other sources were 3%. The majority of fossil fuel usage for the generation of electricity was coal and gas. Oil was 5.5%, as it is the most expensive common commodity used to produce electrical energy. Ninety-two percent of renewable energy was hydroelectric followed by wind at 6% and geothermal at 1.8%. Solar photovoltaic was 0.06%, and solar thermal was 0.004%. Data are from OECD 2011-12 Factbook (2009 data)

Source of Electricity (World total year 2008)- Coal Oil NaturalGasNuclear Renewables other TOTAL

Average electric power (TWh/year) 8,263 1,111 4,301 2,731 3,288 568 20,261

Average electric power (GW) 942.6 126.7 490.7 311.6 375.1 64.8 2311.4

Proportion 41% 5% 21% 13% 16% 3% 100%

Total energy consumed at all power plants for the generation of electricity was 4,398,768 ktoe (kilo ton of oil equivalent) which was 36% of the total for primary energy sources (TPES) of 2008.

Electricity output (gross) was 1,735,579 ktoe (20,185 TWh), efficiency was 39%, and the balance of 61% was generated heat. A small part (145,141 ktoe, which was 3% of the input total) of the heat was utilized at co-generation heat and power plants. The in-house consumption of electricity and power transmission losses were 289,681 ktoe. The amount supplied to the final consumer was 1,445,285 ktoe (16,430 TWh) which was 33% of the total energy consumed at power plants and heat and power co-generation (CHP) plants.

Energy Flow of Power Plant

Historical results of production of electricity

Production by country

Main article: World energy resources and consumption

See also: Electricity consumption

The United States has long been the largest producer and consumer of electricity, with a global share in 2005 of at least 25%, followed by China, Japan, Russia, and India. As of Jan-2010, total electricity generation for the 2 largest generators was as follows: USA: 3992 billion kWh (3992 TWh) and China: 3715 billion kWh (3715 TWh).

List of countries with source of electricity 2008

Data source of values (electric power generated) is IEA/OECD.[13] Listed countries are top 20 by population or top 20 by GDP (PPP) and Saudi Arabia based on CIA World Factbook 2009.[14]

Composition of Electricity by Resource (TWh per year 2008)

Country's electricity sector Fossil Fuel Nuclearrank Renewable Bio

other* total rank

Coal Oil Gas sub

total rank Hydro Geo

Thermal Solar

PV* Solar

Thermal Wind Tide sub

total rank

World total 8,263 1,111 4,301 13,675 - 2,731 - 3,288 65 12 0.9219 0.5 3,584 - 271 20,261 -

Proportion 41% 5.5% 21% 67% - 13% - 16% 0.3% 0.06% 0.004%1.1% 0.003% 18% - 1.3% 100% -

China China 2,733 23 31 2,788 2 68 8 585 - 0.2 -13 - 598 1 2.4 3,457

India India 569 34 82 685 5 15 12 114 - 0.02 -14 - 128.02 6 2.0 830 5

United States USA 2,133 58 1011 3,101 1 838 1 282 17 1.60.88 56 - 357 4 73 4,369 1

Indonesia Indonesia 61 43 25 130 19 - - 12 8.3 -- - - 20 17 - 149 20

Brazil Brazil 13 18 29 59 23 14 13 370 - - -0.6 - 370 3 20 463 9

Pakistan Pakistan 0.1 32 30 62 22 1.6 16 28 - -- - - 28 14 - 92 24

Bangladesh Bangladesh 0.6 1.7 31 33 27 - - 1.5 -- - - - 1.5 29 - 35 27

Nigeria Nigeria - 3.1 12 15 28 - - 5.7 - - -- - 5.7 25 - 21 28

Russia Russia 197 16 495 708 4 163 4 167 0.5 - -0.01 - 167 5 2.5 1,040 4

Japan Japan 288 139 283 711 3 258 3 83 2.8 2.3 -2.6 - 91 7 22 1,082 3

Mexico Mexico 21 49 131 202 13 9.8 14 39 7.1 0.01 -0.3 - 47 12 0.8 259 14

Philippines Philippines 16 4.9 20 40 26 - - 9.8 11 0.001- 0.1 - 21 16 - 61 26

Vietnam Vietnam 15 1.6 30 47 25 - - 26 - -- - - 26 15 - 73 25

Ethiopia Ethiopia - 0.5 - 0.5 29 - - 3.3 0.01 -- - - 3.3 28 - 3.8 30

Egypt Egypt - 26 90 115 20 - - 15 - - -0.9 - 16 20 - 131 22

Germany Germany 291 9.2 88 388 6 148 6 27 0.02 4.4- 41 - 72 9 29 637 7

Turkey Turkey 58 7.5 99 164 16 - - 33 0.16 - -0.85 - 34 13 0.22 198 19

Democratic Republic of the Congo DR Congo - 0.02 0.03 0.05 30 - -7.5 - - - - - 7.5 22 - 7.5 29

Iran Iran 0.4 36 173 209 11 - - 5.0 - - -0.20 - 5.2 26 - 215 17

Thailand Thailand 32 1.7 102 135 18 - - 7.1 0.002 0.003- - - 7.1 23 4.8 147 21

France France 27 5.8 22 55 24 439 2 68 - 0.04 -5.7 0.51 75 8 5.9 575 8

United Kingdom UK 127 6.1 177 310 7 52 10 9.3 - 0.02- 7.1 - 16 18 11 389 11

Italy Italy 49 31 173 253 9 - - 47 5.5 0.2 -4.9 - 58 11 8.6 319 12

South Korea South Korea 192 15 81 288 8 151 5 5.6 -0.3 - 0.4 - 6.3 24 0.7 446 10

Spain Spain 50 18 122 190 14 59 9 26 - 2.6 0.0232 - 61 10 4.3 314 13

Canada Canada112 9.8 41 162 17 94 7 383 - 0.03 -3.8 0.03 386 2 8.5 651 6

Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia - 116 88 204 12 - - - -- - - - - - - 204 18

Taiwan Taiwan 125 14 46 186 15 41 11 7.8 - 0.004 -0.6 - 8.4 21 3.5 238 16

Australia Australia 198 2.8 39 239 10 - - 12 - 0.20.004 3.9 - 16 19 2.2 257 15

Netherlands Netherlands 27 2.1 63 92 21 4.2 15 0.1 -0.04 - 4.3 - 4.4 27 6.8 108 23

CountryCoal Oil Gas sub

total rank Nuclearrank Hydro Geo

Thermal Solar

PV Solar

Thermal Wind Tide sub

total rank Bio

other Total rank

Cogeneration

Co-generation is the practice of using exhaust or extracted steam from a turbine for heating purposes, such as drying paper, distilling petroleum in a refinery or for building heat. Before central power stations were widely introduced it was common for industries, large hotels and commercial buildings to generate their own power and use low pressure exhaust steam for heating.[15] This practice carried on for many years after central stations became common and is still in use in many industries.

Environmental concerns

Variations between countries generating electrical power affect concerns about the environment. In France only 10% of electricity is generated from fossil fuels, the US is higher at 70% and China is at 80%.[13] The cleanliness of electricity depends on its source. Most scientists agree that emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases from fossil fuel-based electricity generation account for a significant portion of world greenhouse gas emissions; in the United States, electricity generation accounts for nearly 40% of emissions, the largest of any source. Transportation emissions are close behind, contributing about one-third of U.S. production of carbon dioxide.[16] In the United States, fossil fuel combustion for electric power generation is responsible for 65% of all emissions of sulfur dioxide, the main component of acid rain.[17] Electricity generation is the fourth highest combined source of NOx, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter in the US.[18] In July 2011, the UK parliament tabled a motion that "levels of (carbon) emissions from nuclear power were approximately three times lower per kilowatt hour than those of solar, four times lower than clean coal and 36 times lower than conventional coal".[19]

Main article: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources

Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by electricity source.

Technology Description 50th percentile

(g CO2/kWhe)

Hydroelectric reservoir 4

Wind onshore 12

Nuclearvarious generation II reactor types 16

Biomass various 18

Solar thermal parabolic trough 22

Geothermal hot dry rock 45

Solar PV Polycrystaline silicon 46

Natural gas various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing 469

Coal various generator types without scrubbing 1001

Water consumptionMost large scale thermoelectric power stations consume considerable amounts of water for cooling purposes and boiler water make up - 1 L/kWh for once through (e.g. river cooling), and 1.7 L/kWh for cooling tower cooling.[21] Water abstraction for cooling water accounts for about 40% of European total water abstraction, although most of this water is returned to its source, albeit slightly warmer. Different cooling systems have different consumption vs. abstraction characteristics. Cooling towers withdraw a small amount of water from the environment and evaporate most of it. Once-through systems withdraw a large amount but return it to the environment immediately, at a higher temperature.