Eastern Orthodoxy

in a Global AgeTradition Faces

the Twenty-first Century

Edited by

V i c t o r R o u d o m e to f

A le x a n d e r A g a d ja n ia n

a n d Jerry P a n k h u rst

yVLTAMHAP R E S S

A Division o f

ROW.MAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS* INC.W a ln u t C re e k * L a n h a tn N ew Y ork * T o ro n to * O x fo rd

AltaMira PressA division of Rowman & UttlefieJd Publishers, Inc.1630 North Main Street, #367 Walnut Creek, CA 94596 www.altamirapress.com

Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield PtibUshtng Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lttnham, MU 20706

PO Box 317 Oxford 0X2 m i , UK

Copyright 2005 by AltaMira Press

Ail rights reserved. No part o f this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in any form or by any mean*,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other wise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

library of Congress Cataioglng-in-Publicatio n Data

Eastern Orthodoxy in a global age: tradition faces the twenty-first century / edited by Victor Roudometof, Alexander Agadjanian, and Jerry Pankhurst.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN *rx-u.',59MS.fo*2I.Orthodox Eastern Church, I.Roudometof,Victor, 1964- ILAgadjanian,

Alexander, 1958- ill. Pankhurst, ferry 1947- HX323..E27 2005281.9W 051 dc22 2004026329

Printed in the United States o f America

@ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence o f Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSIf NISO Z39.48-1992.

7Orthodox Christianity,Rationalization,Modernization:A ReassessmentVasilios N. Makrides

i

T h e re la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n re lig io n a n d r a t io n a l iz a t io n as w ell as so c ie ta l m o d e rn iz a t io n b e lo n g s to th e m o s t d isc u sse d issues in social as w ell as in h is to ric a l sc iences. T h e ro le o f th e re lig io u s fa c to r in fo s te rin g , in h ib itin g , a n d generally speak ing influencing , in o p en a n d p a te n t fo rm s alike, such changes rem a in s a very in tr ig u in g b u t equa lly con troversia l area o f research. D esp ite th is suggested im p a c t, th e overa ll re la tio n sh ip o f re lig ion to m o d e rn ity is m u c h m o re com plicated . A t tim es, th e ir com ple te in co m p atib ility an d th e progressive w ith e rin g aw ay o f re lig io n h a d b ee n p o s tu la te d , w hile som e h a d also p o in te d to th e ir p e rsis tin g in te ra c tio n , even th ro u g h severe ten sion (C am p ich e 1985). Yet in o u r so -ca lled p o s t-m o d e rn e ra th e in c o m p atib ility a ssu m p tio n h as b een basically rev isited . T h e o ld e r view th a t m o d e rn ity leads to th e p r iv a t iz a t io n o f re lig io n h a s b e e n s e r io u s ly c h a lle n g e d in re c e n t d e c a d e s fo r in s ta n c e , b y th e s t r o n g re e m e rg e n c e o f p u b lic re lig io n s (C a s a n o v a 199 4 ). F ro m a h is to r ic a l p o in t o f v iew , h o w ev er, a ll ra d ic a l

l8o V a silio s N. M a k r id e s

changes connected w ith m o d e rn i ty h av e b e e n c lo sely a s so c ia te d w ith th e amazing rise o f th e W est a n d its c iv iliza tio n , a t least s ince th e R enaissance. W estern c iv iliza tion a c q u ire d la te r u n iv e rs a l s ig n if ic a n c e in th e w ak e o f Western expansion a n d c o lo n ia lism a n d b e c a m e a c o n tro v e rs ia l re fe ren ce point for nu m ero u s o th e r c u l tu ra l com plexes w o rld w id e . I t is n o t a c c id en tal that for a long tim e m o d e rn iz a tio n w as eq u a ted w ith W estern iza tion , th a t is, with the wholesale accep tance o f th e W estern m o d e l o f d ev e lo p m e n t a n d societal organization , a fee t th a t h a s ca u se d d ee p cleavages a n d r if ts w ith in non-W estern cultures (H u n tin g to n 1996, p p . 7278). As a w ho le , th e process o f m odern ization can b e v ie w e d as th e p ro ce ss o f ra tio n a liz a tio n o f soc ia l and individual s tru c tu res . O n e o f th e m a in co n seq u en ces o f ra tio n a liz a tio n at the cognitive level has b ee n secu la riza tio n , w h ich w as su p p o se d to in d u c e a gradual d isen ch an tm en t o f th e w o rld .

In exam ining th ese p h e n o m e n a o f e c o n o m ic , p o lit ic a l, a n d so c io c u ltu ral tran sfo rm atio n s , i t is in te re s tin g to lo o k a t th e p o te n tia l ro le p lay ed by religion and specifically b y W e ste rn C h r is t ia n ity o f co u rse , n o t exc lu sively, b u t always w ith in th e w id e r f ra m e o f m a n y o th e r c ru c ia l fac to rs . O f critical significance has b ee n th e idea , f irs t suggested in a p a ra d ig m a tic w ay by M ax W eber in h is c lassic s tu d y T h e P ro te s ta n t E th ic a n d th e S p ir i t o f Capitalism, a b o u t th e p a te n t, u n in te n d e d , a n d th e re fo re u n fo re se e n in f lu ence o f ascetic tren d s o f P ro te s ta n tism u p o n th e p ro ce ss o f ra tio n a liz a tio n and m odern ization . I t is w o r th m e n tio n in g th a t su b se q u e n t s tu d ie s in th is dom ain d id n o t re m a in re s tr ic te d to W e ste rn E u ro p e a lo n e a n d to its fo r m ative w orldw ide im p a c t , b u t a t te m p te d to e x a m in e th e r e la t io n s h ip between religion a n d d e v e lo p m e n t in q u ite d iffe rin g so c io c u ltu ra l co n tex ts reaching Japan a n d th e F a r E as t (W e i-M in g 1996; T ak ay am a 1998) a n d to look fo r th e p o te n tia l ( re l ig io u s ) r o o ts o f n o n -W e s te rn m o d e rn i t ie s (Benavides 1998, p p . 1 9 3 -9 6 ). A ll these a tte s t to th e im p o r ta n c e a tta c h e d to religion in th is process, d e sp ite th e fac t th a t th e co n seq u e n ces o f m o d e rn ization up o n re lig io n a n d u p o n h u m a n c o n sc io u sn e ss in g e n e ra l w ere in many respects p rob lem atic (Berger, Berger, a n d K ellner 1974). G iven th e a im o f the present chapter, it is n ecessary to n o te f ro m th e o u tse t th a t th e m a in Christian C hurches have b e e n d iffe ren tly re la ted to th e p ro cess o f ra t io n a lization and m o d ern iza tio n .

First, according to th e classic W eberian schem e, w hich h as b een follow ed and expanded b y m an y sch o lars a f te rw a rd ( fro m E rn s t T roe ltsch to R o b e rt M erton), the rise o f P ro te s ta n tism in W este rn E u ro p e h as b ee n in s t ru m e n tal to such a societal ev o lu tio n , w h ich a m o u n te d to W est E u ro p e an u n iq u e ness. W estern c iv iliz a tio n c a m e f in a lly to b e c h a ra c te r iz e d b y a r a t io n a l

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 1 8 1

sy s tem a tiza tio n , w h ich h a d n o p e n d a n t a t all in o th e r cu ltu res . F reed fro m in s t i tu tio n a l ecc lesiastica l d o m in a t io n , th e P ro te s ta n t b e liev e r d ev e lo p e d novel a n d q u ite ra tio n a l w ays o f ca lcu la tio n a n d p la n n in g to c o n tro l rea lity a n d to a p p re h e n d i ts in tr in s ic m e a n in g in o r d e r to a t ta in f in a l sa lv a tio n w h ile d isco v erin g th e e a rly s igns o f th e la t te r a lre ad y in th e e a r th ly w o rld . T h is n o t o n ly gave rise to re lig io u s in d iv id u a lism , to in n o v a tio n , a n d to a q u e s t io n in g o f e s ta b l is h e d a u th o r i t ie s , b u t a lso le d to th e fo rm a tio n o f u n iq u e m e n ta litie s a n d w ays o f life d r iv e n b y th e n ee d to co n sc io u sly a n d d eliberate ly m a s te r th e social e n v iro n m e n t (as expressed by th e m ean s-en d s ra tio n a lity ) . T h e su b se q u e n t se c u la riz a tio n o f these o rig in a lly d eep ly re lig io u s a t t i tu d e s h a s b e e n v ita l fo r th e o v era ll e v o lu tio n o f W e ste rn E u ro p e a n d its specific ro ad to m o d ern ity , w hich becam e p arad igm atic fo r th e rest o f th e w o rld (S ch lu ch te r 1998).

Second, several scholars inc lud ing W eber h im se lf have expanded th e p re v io u s p o in t b y in c lu d in g R o m an C a th o lic ism in th e en tire p rocess (N elson 1981; C ollins 1983; Schluchter 1988). T h e above changes d id n o t follow alone th e em ergence o f P ro testan tism in the six teen th cen tu ry b u t h a d th e ir roo ts inth e specific early d ev e lo p m en t o f R o m an C atholic C h ris tian ity in th e W est__fo r instance, in th e m ed ieval relig ious m o v em en ts (K aelber 1998). T h is to o k place even before th e final sch ism b etw een E astern a n d W estern C h ris tian ity in 1054. S igns o f ra tio n a l a s well as se lf-critica l th eo lo g y can b e trac ed early e n o u g h in th e w orks o f A ugustine (in h is Retractationes) a n d in th e influence o f R o m an law u p o n ce rta in W estern C h u rch w rite rs (T ertu llian ). T h e rise o f sc h o la s tic ism in th e M id d le A ges (e .g ., th e r a t io n a l th e o lo g ic a l sy stem by T h o m a s A quinas) as w ell as th e in s titu tio n a l p o s itio n o f th eo lo g y as a sacra sc ien tia in m e d ie v a l u n iv e rs i tie s a re f u r th e r s e m in a l a sp e c ts o f th is lo n g process. T h e crucial ro le o f p h ilo so p h y in W estern theo log ical reasoning in c o n tra s t to th e E ast h as b e e n a m a in fa c to r h e re (P o d sk a lsk y 2002). T h e ra t io n a l-b u re a u c ra tic c h a ra c te r o f th e R o m a n C a th o lic C h u rc h is a n o th e r case in p o in t (Benavides 1998, p . 191). T h e W estern Inqu isition has been th u s co n s id ered in th e co n tex t o f d iffe ren t ra tio n a liz a tio n processes, as ecclesias- tical o rgan ization , relig ious conflicts, a n d legal-theological d iscourses reacted , a n d s tim u la te d each o th e r; in th is way, th e y c o n tr ib u te d to a g rea te r r a t io na liza tio n o f each sphere (N ielsen 1990). T h e above observa tions shou ld no t, how ever, o b fu sca te th e fact th a t m o d e rn i ty h a s c a u se d se rio u s tro u b le s to W estern C h ris tian ity itself, even i f th e la tte r u n in te n tio n a lly h a d co n trib u ted to its in itia l rise. T h e ap p earan ce o f th e m o v e m en t o f m o d e rn ism w ith in the R o m an C a th o lic C h u rc h a t th e tu r n o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry a n d th e ch a llenges th a t it p u t to p ap a l a u th o r i ty suffice to ac co u n t fo r th is (R atte 1973).

l 82 Vasilios N. M a k rid e s

It is characteristic, however, that, aside from (liberal) P ro testan tism , even a generally conservative religious system like R om an C atho lic ism has finally managed through various ferm entations to com e to te rm s in its o w n w ay with modernity and to accept the legitimacy o f the m odern age. T h e aggior- mmento and the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s clearly d o cu m en t th istransition (Casanova 1994, p. 9).

Third, contrary to the above evaluations o f b o th P ro te s ta n tism a n d Roman Catholicism, many scholars, past and c o n tem p o ra ry alike, d rew a demarcation line with regard to the respective s itu a tio n in E as te rn a n d Southeastern Europe (Russia and Balkans), w here O rth o d o x C h ris tia n ity has traditionally been the dom inant relig ion. It is b e y o n d q u e s tio n th a t Eastern Orthodox Christianity exhibits some characteristics th a t set it a p a r t from Western Christianity. Even Weber (1988, pp. 466-67) h im self, w ith o u t finishing a systematic examination o f O rthodox C h ris tian ity b u t k n o w in g pretty welt Russian culture, did consider it too mystical an d o therw orld ly to motivate social changes, as Protestantism did. W ith regard to the issue u n d e r examination, the Orthodox C hristian system is c o n s id e red less ra t io n a l because it lacks or puts little emphasis upon the n o tio n s o f law a n d o rd e r (Lipowatz 1998). This contributes to its non-system atic, less clear, less a r tic ulated, and subsequently less rational nature (M appa 1997). T h is is ev id en t in the Orthodox doctrine of God as well as in th e overall a r t ic u la tio n o f Orthodox theology, which in Byzantium never developed in th e W este rn rational sense, but was closely associated w ith m ystical, e x p e rien tia l, a n d ascetic phenomena. An example that provides testim ony for th is is the clash between the Palamite-hesychastic and scholastic th eo lo g y in fo u r te e n th - century Byzantium (Podskalsky 1977). In ad d itio n , th e re lig io sity o f th e Orthodox East as a whole has been considered m ore sen tim en tal, a ffec tion ate, and thus less rational than the Western one (Savramis 1963, p. 344). T h is should not be necessarily seen as a disadvantage, because it was co n sid ered to be a reason for the survival o f O rthodox C hristianity in the Soviet U n ion , despite the extensive rational criticism o f it and the system atic a tte m p ts to eradicate it from the population (Lane 1978, p. 78 -79). Yet it p o in ts clearly to a characteristic differentiating the East from the West, w hich has had specific consequences in history. For example, Eastern O rth o d o x C h ris tian ity did not give rise to a scientific revolution , w h ich has b ee n c o n s id e re d among other thingsto be the outcome o f W estern C hristian influence. T he Eastern Orthodox worldview was considered u n d er th e con tro l o f in te rv en ing supernatural powers, while God was seen as a being b eyond any h u m a n rational grasping. Such a religious-cultural m ilieu was th u s n o t in c lin ed to

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 1 8 3

g e n e ra te a sc ie n tific r e v o lu t io n , as th is h a s h a p p e n e d in th e W est (C h a n t 1991, p p . 3 5 5 -5 8 ).

F u rth e rm o re , th e s u p e rn a tu ra l a n d its c o n s ta n t in te rv e n tio n in h u m a n affa irs o r th e d isp la c e m e n t o f in te rn a l d is tre sses a n d p ro b le m s to ex terna l, n o n -ra tio n a l causes a p p e a r to p lay a g rea te r ro le in th e East th a n in the W est (S k in n e r 1966; S tew art 1989). C o n te m p o ra ry soc iopo litica l crises have been a lso c o n s id e re d as in s t r u m e n ta l fo r a re e m e rg e n c e o f v a r io u s fo rm s o f O rth o d o x irra tio n a lism , as m an ifested in th e G reek n e o -O rth o d o x c u rre n t in th e 1980s (E p istim o n ik i Skepsi 1983). All in all, K risteva (1999) m ade th is fu n d am e n ta l c o n tra s t b etw een East a n d W est q u ite clear w hen she com pared th e ir p a ra lle l tra je c to r ie s a r o u n d th e e n d o f th e e ig h te e n th cen tu ry . W h ile th e W est was experienc ing the F rench R evolu tion a n d the rise o f K an ts ra tio n a lism , th e E ast w as e x p e r ie n c in g a n asce tic -m y stica l rev iva l c e n te re d o n O r th o d o x s p ir i tu a li ty a n d re la te d l i te r a tu re ( th e P hiloca lia ), w h ich in f lu en c ed s tro n g ly th e Slavic O rth o d o x w o rld th ro u g h th e p e rso n a lity o f Paisij Velichkovskij a n d w as certa in ly a t o d d s w ith W estern ra tionalism o f the tim e.

T h e above ch a rac teris tics a re also co n s id ered to im p in g e u p o n th e re la tio n s betw een O rth o d o x C h ris tian ity a n d m o d ern iza tio n . T h e fo rm er is c o n s id e re d m u c h m o re t r a d i t io n a l (o r, b e tte r , t r a d i t io n a l is t ic ) th a n W este rn C hristian ity , a n d th e re fo re it has resisted stead ily th e cu rre n ts o f change an d th e re v o lu tio n a ry s p ir i t o f m o d e rn tim es . I t is n o t o n ly m o re se n tim e n ta l, m ystica l, a n d asce tic , b u t a lso m o re c o m m u n ita r ia n , socially conservative , an ti-m aterialistic , a n d o therw orld ly o rien ted (R ozanov 1994, pp. 9 ,1 1 -1 2 ,1 5 ). T h u s , it h as b ee n less active in th is w o rld a n d d id n o t in te n d to m a ste r an d c o n q u e r it, as W este rn C h ris tia n ity d id . D. S avram is (1963), a soc io log ist o f relig ion w ho app lied W ebers concep tual too ls to O rth o d o x C hristianity , co n s id e red th e p re d o m in a n t o th e rw o rld ly re tre a t o f th e la tte r as a basic d iffe ren c e f ro m th e P ro te s ta n t o r ie n ta t io n . In th e c o u rse o f h is to ry O r th o d o x C h ris tian ity p laced m o re a n d m o re value o n passive instead o f active h u m a n v ir tu e s a n d w as th u s fu lly c o n q u e re d b y a n asocia l, as well as o therw orld ly , sp ir it a n d show ed little in te rest in tra n s fo rm in g th e w orld . T h e lack o f a system atic social e th ic a m o n g O rth o d o x C h ris tian s in clear c o n tra s t to W estern C h r is t ia n s a tte s ts to th is . T h e sam e c o n c lu s io n can b e d ra w n fro m a c o m p a r iso n b e tw een E aste rn a n d W estern m o n a s tic ism . In a d d itio n , O rth o d o x C h ris t ia n ity h as b e e n g en e ra lly co n s id e red less ind iv idualis tic . T h ro u g h its s tro n g c o m m u n ita r ia n sp ir it it d o es n o t su p p o r t logic a n d reason as w ell as th e appearance o f an a u to n o m o u s ind iv idual th a t cou ld m ake decisions freely a n d c r it ic a lly a n d c o u ld ca ll in to q u e s tio n e s ta b lish e d a u th o r i t ie s (P o llis 1993, p p . 3424 4 ). O r th o d o x y n e v e r s u p p o r te d th e e m a n c ip a t io n o f th e

18 4 Vasilios N. M a k r id es

individual, but has continuously fostered the c o m m u n ita rian sp ir it, w h ich has been thus a main hindrance to developm ent (A lexiou 1995).

Given all this, it is no surprise th a t c o u n tr ie s w ith a p r e d o m in a n t Orthodox population have been considered to be ra th e r re lu c tan t to acco m plish their modernization. This can be observed today even in co u n trie s like Greece, a full member of the European (C o m m u n ity ) U n io n s ince 1981, where the postulate o f m odernization is still en vogue a n d w h e re th e Orthodox Church is often seen by many as an an ti-m o d ern force. T h is issue came again into prominence during the strong conflict betw een C h u rch a n d state in 2000 regarding the omission o f data o n religious affilia tion fro m the new identity cards (see chapter 4, this volum e). This is hard ly a recen t issue, for it has been repeatedly argued that Greek O rthodoxy tries to resist m o d ernizing and secularizing influences by adhering to an ea rlie r co d e o f re ligious discipline and dogma (K ourvetaris an d D o b ra tz 1987, p. 164). Consequently, it has been seen as a serious im ped im en t to w ard m o d e rn iz a tion (McNall 1974a, pp. 54-55 ,1974b, 1976).

Interestingly enough, this very argum en t has b ee n p u t fo rw a rd q u ite often in recent years with regard to ex-com m unist coun tries w ith a p re d o m inant Orthodox tradition. Ironically, the sam e criticism h ad b e e n exercised there during the communist period when O rthodoxy an d relig ion in general were seen for ideological reasons as a clear h indrance to m o d e rn iz a tio n an d progress. To be more specific, many articles p e rta in in g to th e p ro b le m a tic role of Russian Orthodoxy for societal development can be fo u n d in th e yearbook EzhegodmkMuzeya Istorii Religii i Ateisma (1 [1958]: 137-182; 4 [I960]: 3-262;6 [1962]: 60-141; 7 [1963]: 107-12,122-68). However, th e m ain p ro b lem in the 1990s has been the smooth transition o f such co u n tries to d e m o c ratization, market economy, and m odernization in general, w h ich ap p eared to be difficult to accomplish for a variety o f reasons. M any a rg u ed th a t th e re are deep-rooted obstacles, including cu ltu ral-re lig ious o n es in f lu e n c e d by Orthodoxys conservatism and nationalism, th a t inh ib it the es tab lish m en t o f a market economy and the path toward m odern ization (Ivanov 1995, p. 35; Granin 1995, pp. 68-73; Shaburov 1998-1999; Pavlov 2 0 0 0-2001). T h is w as combined with lively discussions about the com patibility betw een O rth o d o x y and Western understandings o f democracy (C hurch-sta te sep ara tio n , m u lti- culturalism, religious pluralism). This was th o u g h t to be th e o u tc o m e o f Orthodoxys imperial Byzantine past and its pred ilection fo r a u th o r i ta r ia n ism in every conceivable form (for some examples, see Taivans 2001, pp . 1-2; Papanikolaou 2003, pp. 75-77). After all, it is n o t accidental th a t H u n tin g to n (1996, pp. 157-63) in his notorious theory ab o u t the co m in g clash o f civ i

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 1 8 5

liz a tio n s d re w su c h a d e m a rc a tio n lin e b e tw e en E ast a n d W est a n d p laced O rth o d o x coun tries o n a m o d e rn n o n -m o d e rn fau lt line n o t lastly because o f th e ir p a r t ic u la r re lig io u s t ra d i t io n . T h e co n vergence b e tw e en so c io eco n o m ic in eq u a lity a n d relig ious affilia tion led th u s o ften to th e iden tifica tion o f E urope w ith th e m o re developed R om an C atholic an d P ro testan t W est (for som e exam ples, see R o u d o m e to f 2001, p. 209). Such a n d sim ila r v iew s w ere m irro re d by th e d iscussions a b o u t th e fu tu re o f Yugoslavia d u r in g an d in the a f te rm a th o f th e c o n s e c u tiv e w ars th e re d u r in g th e 1990s. T h e R o m an C atholic n o r th (Slovenia a n d C roatia) w as considered to b e m o re developed, c iv ilized , a n d m o d e rn th a n th e O r th o d o x s o u th (S e rb ia , M o n te n e g ro , M acedon ia), w h ich w as p o rtray ed as an alien, dan g ero u s to th e W est, c u ltu rally u n d er-d ev e lo p ed a n d incapab le o f ac co m p lish in g easily a m o d e rn iz in g b re a k th ro u g h (fo r so m e exam ples, see P ro d ro m o u 1996, pp . 12831). Even a Serb h im se lf sta ted th a t th e O rth o d o x C h u rch loses by every inch o f w este rn progress telephones, roads, th e In terne t, w hatever (cited in C lark 2000, p. 59), th u s p o in tin g clearly to th e ex isting clash in th is d o m ain . Such classif ic a tio n s have b ee n o f te n tr a n s fo r m e d in to s im p lis tic s te re o ty p e s a b o u t E astern O rth o d o x E u ro p e th a t have b ee n d issem in a te d w idely by th e m ass m e d ia , th u s reg io n a liz in g th e E u ro p e an c o n t in e n t a lo n g re lig io u s lines. In m o re ex trem e cases, O rth o d o x C h ris tian ity w as considered to b e in h e ren tly a n d in trin sica lly (i.e., o n in n e r theo log ical g ro u n d s a n d n o t alone d u e to the so c io -h is to rica l c irc u m sta n ce s) ag a in s t ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iza tio n .

N eedless to say, m a n y O rth o d o x th in k e rs have repeated ly challenged the ab o v e c a te g o r iz a t io n s , in th e p a s t a n d a t p re s e n t a lik e , as o n e -s id e d , u n fo u n d e d , a n d b iased . F irs t, th e re ex ists an O rth o d o x c ritiq u e o f W estern m o d ern ity , w h ich p o in ts to th e overall negative con seq u en ces o f th is develo p m e n t (se c u la r iz a tio n , d e -C h r is t ia n iz a tio n , e tc .) a n d tr ie s to solve these W e s te rn d e a d lo c k s b y re fe re n c e to th e r ic h O r th o d o x h e r ita g e . W e s te rn C h ris tian ity is seen as th e m a in cause fo r th is p ro b lem atic s itu a tio n because it h a d a b a n d o n e d th e a u th e n tic C h r is t ia n ro o ts , w h ile O r th o d o x y is p o r tray ed as th e p o te n tia l sav io r o f th e fallen W est. In th is co n tex t, th e re is also th e a t te m p t to p re se n t O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity as to ta lly d is tan ced fro m the rise o f W estern m o d e rn ity a n d th u s basically u n affec ted by its grave co n sequences fo r W estern C h ris tian ity (V lachos 1992). Second, th e re exists a m ore so p h is tica ted O rth o d o x c r it iq u e o f W este rn m o d e rn ity . T h is is ev id en t, fo r exam ple , in n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry R ussia a m o n g m a n y re lig ious p h ilo so p h ers in c lu d in g th e S lavophiles (van d en B ercken 1999, p p . 20514), w h ile s im ila r p h e n o m e n a can b e ob se rv ed u n til today , as in th e an ti-W este rn views o f A. Solzhenitsyn (K nigge 2001). T h u s, I. K ireevskij (1861 II, pp . 245, 251, 285,

18 6 Va sil io s N . M a k r i d e s

300), a Slavophile, exercised s t r o n g c r it ic is m o f th e r a t io n a l is m o f th e Scholastics and o f the ir useless th e o lo g ic a l d eb a te s , w h ich in fac t s ign ified the real separation betw een E ast a n d W est. In ad d itio n , W estern ra tio n a lism was portrayed as unable to d ec ip h e r a n d g rasp th e m ysteries o f E astern reality. The nineteenth-century S lavophile p o e t F. T yutchev c la im ed th a t Russia cannot be grasped by reason , b u t m u s t b e o n ly believed in (c ite d in V arga 1994, p. 146). Similar in m any p o in ts , an ti-W estern c ritiq u e has been exerted by Vladimir Solovev, w h o in h is K riz is za p a d n o j filo so fii (T h e C ris is o f Western Philosophy, 1874) c r it ic iz e d th e tw o m a jo r d ir e c t io n s o f W est European philosophy, nam ely em p iric ism a n d ra tio n a lism . In h is Filosofskie nachala tselnogo znaniya (The P hilosophical Principles o f Integral Knowledge, 1877) he tried to move b e y o n d W este rn b ip o la r itie s (e.g ., fa ith vs. rea so n ) by creating his ow n holistic system , as ex p ressed in th e fu n d a m e n ta l c a te gory of vseedinstvo (all-unity , p a n -u n ity ) (S u tto n 1988).

The dichotom ization a n d f ra g m e n ta tio n o f h u m a n ex istence, in d u c ed by Western m odernity , has b e e n a u su a l p o in t o f c r it ic is m o n th e p a r t o f many Orthodox, w ho always c o u n te r -p ro p o s e d m o re h o lis tic a lte rn a tiv es and exhibited clear an ti-d u alis tic o r ie n ta tio n s . A cco rd ing to c o n te m p o ra ry Greek theologian and ph ilosopher, C . Y annaras (1991, pp . 14 9 -6 4 ), w h a t the world has experienced in m o d e rn tim es is th e rise o f a o n e-s id ed , abso lu tis t, and all-pervasive rationality, w h ich h a d its o rig in s in W estern th eo lo g y since Augustine and which has c u lm in a te d in th e a p p e a ra n c e o f scho lastic ism in the high Middle Ages. T his k in d o f ra tio n a lity w as, how ever, c o n tra ry to th e rationality developed in th e B yzan tine O rth o d o x East, w h ich h a d its im m e diate roots in ancient Greek th o u g h t an d trad itio n a l praxis. Logos w as u n d e r stood in this context n o t as a n in te llectual en te rp rise o f th e in d iv id u a l alone, namely as ratio, b u t w as b a se d o n a v a r ie ty o f fac to rs a im e d a t p ro v id in g a more holistic u n d e rs ta n d in g o f re a lity alw ays in a c o m m u n i ta r ia n way. Therefore, it is m istaken to co n s id er O rth o d o x y sim ply as an irra tio n a l, mystical, arbitrary, o r loose system o f th o u g h t a n d ac tio n . T h e m a in p ro b lem for Yannaras, how ever, h as b e e n th a t E a s te rn C h r is t ia n i ty s in c e la te Byzantium has been c o n ta m in a te d in to ta l b y W este rn ra tio n a lity a n d has finally lost touch w ith its ow n a u th e n tic ro o ts , th u s ex p e rien c in g a h a rd an d long identity crisis.

Finally, according to a co n tem porary sociologist o f religion, N . Kokosalakis (1994, pp. 127, 136), O r th o d o x y is p r e - m o d e r n n o t o n ly in a h is to r ic a l sense, but also in the sense th a t it tran sc en d s W este rn ra tio n a lism an d ra tio nalization. . . . In the sense th a t th e O rth o d o x C h u rch d id n o t b eco m e in any way involved in these cu ltu ra l processes a n d p o la ritie s , it h as re m a in e d p re

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 1 8 7

m o d e rn . T h a t m e a n s th a t O r th o d o x y is n o t so m u c h d irec tly a ffec ted by m o d ern ity , b u t p resen ts n ew p o ten tia litie s in th e co n tex t o f p o s t-m o d ern ity . O rth o d o x y is th u s seen p r im a rily as a n o th e rw o rld ly re lig ion tra n sc e n d in g soc ioeconom ic co n d itio n s a n d hav ing n o soc ioeconom ic o r political ethic. In th is way, it h a s so m e th in g tim eless a n d a h is to rica l in its e th o s th a t h e lp s it to su rv iv e th e t r a n s fo rm a t io n s o f th e so c ia l s tru c tu re a n d system s, as th is h a p p e n e d u n d e r c o m m u n is t ru le (K okosalak is 1994, p. 138).

IIA side f ro m these rep re se n ta tiv e v iew s o f th e tw o ca m p s a n d befo re u n d e r ta k in g to c o n s id e r th e w h o le issue a n d p o te n tia lly to rev is it it, it sh o u ld be m a d e c lea r f ro m th e o u ts e t th a t th e v iew s p o s tu la tin g a nega tive re la tio n sh ip b e tw een O rth o d o x C h ris tian ity a n d ra tio n a liz a tio n /m o d e rn iz a tio n are n o t u n fo u n d e d . I t is w ell k n o w n th a t O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity p layed n o ro le in th e p rocesses o f ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n in th e co u rse o f th e em ergence o f th e m o d e rn w orld . T hese w ere th e o u tc o m e o f th e lo n g social, c u l tu ra l , p o lit ic a l, e c o n o m ic , a n d re lig io u s e v o lu tio n o f W e ste rn E u ro p e . W h a t th e E aste rn O r th o d o x w o rld h as ex p e rien c ed is basica lly th e b e la ted im p a c t o f th ese rad ic a l changes , w h ich th ro u g h v a rio u s ch a n n e ls has b een im p o r te d to it in th e w ake o f a W este rn iza tio n p rocess fro m th e e ig h teen th c e n tu ry o n w ard . In o th e r w o rd s , W este rn m o d e rn i ty is basically a n exogen o u s s itu a tio n fo r O r th o d o x societies. I t d id n o t arise o u t o f these societies a n d th e ir ow n needs, b u t w as so m eh o w im p o sed u p o n th e m b y W esternized elites p o litica l, in te llec tu a l, a n d o th e rw ise . As a resu lt, it w as n o t c o n g ru e n t w ith th e in d ig e n o u s tra d i t io n a l idea ls th a t h a d b ee n es tab lish ed in th e O r th o d o x w o rld fo r q u ite so m e ce n tu rie s . T h is exp lains w hy th e O rth o d o x C h u rc h w as n o t a t all e n th u s ia s tic in e n d o rs in g th e fo re ign ideals o f r a tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n .

In a d d i t io n , th e a fo re m e n tio n e d in c o m p a t ib il i ty b e tw e e n O rth o d o x C h r is t ia n i ty a n d r a t io n a liz a t io n /m o d e rn iz a t io n is s tre n g th e n e d i f w e p ay a tten tio n to som e h isto rical characteristics o f th e form er, w hich are strik ingly d iffe ren t fro m th o se o f R o m an C atho lic ism an d especially o f P ro testan tism . F o r ex am p le , O r th o d o x C h ris t ia n ity is m u c h m o re b o u n d to tra d itio n a n d te n d s to idealize th e p as t a n d to view it in m o n o lith ic , ab so lu tis t te rm s, as the g lo ry o f elapsed , go ld en tim es. As a co n seq u en ce , it is less d irec ted tow ard th e fu tu re b u t k eep s ev en to d a y d ra w in g m o d e ls o f th o u g h t a n d a c tio n fro m th e p as t (fro m th e C h u rc h F athers, a n d so o n ). O rth o d o x C h ris tian ity exhibits a long h is to ry o f such an an ti-in n o v a tio n is t sp irit from the Byzantine

188 Vasilio s N . M a k r i d e s

times onward. Such a fundam ental o rien ta tio n fu n c tio n s as a se rious d raw back toward rationalization a n d m o d e rn iz a t io n . C o n s id e r in g th a t th is Orthodox traditionalism has been often tran sfo rm ed h isto rically in to a g en eral social traditionalism influencing m any n o n -re lig io u s spheres (M akrides1995), then the negative im pact th a t th is general o r ie n ta tio n m ig h t have had upon the road of the O rthodox w orld tow ard m o d e rn ity becom es m o re evident. The same was true w hen conservative ideologies in E astern E u rope p re vailed, in which Orthodox traditionalism an d conservatism played a vital role. Such a case can be observed in n in e tee n th -ce n tu ry R ussia w h en th e tr ip ty ch Orthodoxy, Autocracy, N ationality b ecam e th e c o rn e rs to n e o f a R ussian conservative ideology (G rosul 2000). A fter all, it is im p o r ta n t to p o in t o u t that one potential reason for the lack o f a R efo rm ation , th is m o s t cruc ia l factor toward modernity, in th e E astern O r th o d o x w o rld m ig h t b e so u g h t in the established, all-encom passing O rth o d o x fid e lity to w a rd th e in h e r i te d tradition and in the w id esp read re lu c ta n c e to q u e s tio n it in a n y w ay (Makrides 2004a).

The list of such exam ples can be c o n t in u e d , b u t a q u e s tio n m ig h t be posed in this context: Do all these arg u m en ts , exam ples, an d cases signify in fact that Orthodox C hristianity is totally in c o m p a tib le w ith ra tio n a liz a tio n and modernization? Can we fu rth e r claim th a t th e re is a n elective affin ity between Orthodox C hristian ity a n d a n t i- ra t io n a l as w ell as a n t i - m o d e rn trends? To be true, by looking at som e historical periods o n e m ay find n u m e rous elements corroborating to a g reat ex ten t th e above assu m p tio n s . Yet the problem is if one in this way reso rts to sw eep ing g en e ra liza tio n s a b o u t the exact essence of O rthodox Christianity. Such a conc lu sion w o u ld be, how ever, highly problematic, because th is k in d o f essen tialism is ah is to rica l an d misleading and presupposes a static view o f religious phenom ena . O n the co n trary, if we consider how religious dynam ics function w ith in th e overall sociocultural system, we m ight be m o re ab le to d isc e rn n u m e ro u s ch a n g es a n d adjustments in religions over a long p erio d o f tim e. T h is perspective im plies a highly differentiated view o f religious evo lu tion . By lo o k in g b ack a t h is to ry we can thus realize that O rthodox C hristian ity to o d id n o t rem a in im m u tab le and without changes, even if at tim es it has conveyed th e im pression o f m a in taining a more or less perm anen t character. It w o u ld be in te resting to exam ine whether some o f these changes cou ld be classified as m o d ern iz in g . O n the other hand, Orthodox reactions to v arious cu rren ts o f change sh o u ld n o t be a priori classified as an ti-m odern , because th ey h a d always m a n y sources and causes that were not necessarily related to o n e ano ther. These p relim inary thoughts force us to try to examine the entire issue o f the rela tionsh ip betw een

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 1 8 9

O rth o d o x C h r is t ia n i ty a n d r a t io n a l iz a t io n /m o d e rn iz a t io n f ro m a n o th e r b ro a d e r angle b y ta k in g in to c o n s id e ra tio n v a rio u s p ara m ete rs .

Ill

F irst, by lo o k in g a t th e h u g e d iscu ssio n a b o u t ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iz a tio n in E a s te rn a n d S o u th e a s te rn E u ro p e it b e c o m e s c le a r th a t th e se p ro cesses have b ee n c o n s ta n t ly re la te d to m u lt ifo rm re a so n s a n d fac to rs . T h is p e r ta in s basica lly to th e d iscu ss io n o f th e n o to r io u s b ac k w ard n ess o f E astern a n d S o u th easte rn E urope , w h ich has b een trea ted so far from m an y sch o larly perspectives. W ith in th is a m p le c o n g lo m e ra te so m e sch o la rs p ay n o a t te n t io n a t all o r a t least m in im a l a t te n t io n to th e re lig io u s /O rth o d o x fac to r, w h ic h is b y n o m e a n s c o n s id e re d to be th e m a in h in d ra n c e to th e o v e ra ll d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e se c o u n t r ie s (V arg a 1994, p . 144). R a th e r, th e belated process o f m o d e rn iza tio n in th e E u ropean (sem i)p e rip h ery since th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry is a t tr ib u te d to m a n y o th e r fac to rs: la te in d u s tr ia liza tio n ; o liga rch ic p a r lia m e n ta r ism ; class s tru c tu re ; p ro b le m a tic u rb a n iz a tio n ; h ig h rates o f illiteracy; p o p u lism , p o litica l p a tro n a g e , p a r ty sp irit, a n d c lien te lism ; th e e n h a n c e d ro le o f th e p e a sa n try ; lack o f a g r ic u ltu ra l m o d e rn iz a tio n ; th e ro le o f th e a rm y ; b u re a u c ra tic g ig an tism ; fo re ign in te rv e n tio n an d d ependence (see Filias 1974; Legg 1977; M cN eill 1978; G ro th u sen et al. 1980; L am pe an d Jackson 1982; Tsoukalas 1983,1987; S undhaussen 1984; M ouzelis 1978,1986; C h iro t 1989; G eo rg iad o u 1991; H e p p n e r 1995; Palairet 1997; R o u d o m e to f 2001, pp . 158-65; A liv izatos 2001; see also K ovani 1986).

F urthe r, em p h asis is u sua lly p laced u p o n th e soc io -h isto rica l co n d itio n s e x p e rien c ed b y E aste rn a n d S o u th e a s te rn E u ro p e a t a tim e w h en th e W est w as d ev e lo p in g a t a n in c re d ib le pace. O n th e o n e h a n d , th e B alkans h a d a lo n g p e r io d o f O tto m a n d o m in a tio n a n d w ere fo r a lo n g tim e , aside fro m a few excep tions, u n til th e ea rly n in e te e n th c e n tu ry basically secluded from th e tre m e n d o u s W estern d ev e lo p m en ts , given th e fact th a t O tto m a n society w as a v e ry t r a d i t io n a l is t o n e ( in a lc ik 1978). O n th e o th e r h a n d , R ussia , a lth o u g h free from foreign ru le , exh ib ited nonetheless a h uge cu ltu ra l lag an d w as s tru c tu ra lly d iffe ren t fro m W estern societies. Its ow n ro a d to m o d e rn ity h a s b e e n a t te m p te d sy s te m a tic a lly f ro m th e tim e o f T sar P e te r th e G re a t (1 6 8 9 -1 7 2 5 ) o n w ard th ro u g h th e use o f W estern experts , desp ite th e m an y in te rn a l re a c tio n s a n d co n flic ts ( in c lu d in g b u t n o t lim ite d to rea c tio n s by O rth o d o x circles). It is w o rth m e n tio n in g th a t P ro testan tism played a role in th is m o d ern iz in g d ev e lo p m en t to o for exam ple , th ro u g h th e annexation o f L u th e ra n L atv ia to th e R ussian E m p ire in 1721. T h is w as in s tru m e n ta l fo r

1

190 Vasilios N. M a k r id e s

Russias m odernization c o n s id e r in g th e key p o s it io n s h e ld b y G e rm a n Lutherans from Latvia in th e g o v e rn m e n t. M oreover, th e lo n g c o m m u n is t rule over the Soviet U nion a n d m a n y S o u th ea s te rn E u ro p ean c o u n tr ie s has been another key factor in the ir h is to ry th a t has set th e m a p a r t from the ca p italist West. It is true that in this p e rio d o f E ast-W est po litica l a n d ideological opposition communist countries a ttem p ted th e ir ow n w ay o f m o d e rn iza tio n which, however seen fro m to d a y s p e rsp e c tiv e h a s b e e n p ro v e n a chimera. All these make clear the co m p lex in te r-m in g lin g o f n u m e ro u s factors related to the belated m o d ern iza tio n o f th is p a rtic u la r geog raph ica l an d cultural area and its need to catch up. B u t aga in it ce rta in ly w o u ld b e m is taken to attribute this p articu la r a n d co m p lex s itu a tio n exclusively o r p r e dominantly to the alleged a n t i-m o d e rn a t t i tu d e o f O rth o d o x C h ris tian ity .

Furthermore, in sociological s tu d ie s fro m re c e n t d ec ad e s re fe r r in g to the structural changes w ithin co u n tries w ith a p re d o m in a n t O rth o d o x p o p ulation, there is no exp lic it re fe ren c e to th e O r th o d o x C h u rc h o r th e Orthodox belief system as in h ib itin g th e ir overall ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d ernization. To m ention an ex am p le : D in e llo (1 9 9 8 ) e x a m in e d s ix ty -o n e Russian bankers and th e ir p r in c ip a l o r ie n ta t io n s , b e c a u s e in th e t r a d i tional Russian O rthodox th o u g h t a n d c u l tu r a l p ra c tic e m o n e y - le n d in g , profiteering, and utilitarian in d iv id u a lism o f te n have b ee n d e n o u n c e d as morally corrupt (by D ostoevsk ij, T o ls to i, B e rd y aev ). A fter a ll, O r th o d o x Christianity as a specific religious system d id n o t sa n c tio n ra tio n a l m e th o d ical pursuit o f riches by stew ardship in th e w ay W estern C h ris tia n ity d id . In addition, Russia could exhibit a series o f a n t i-m o n e ta ry a n d a n ti-c a p ita lis t idealsnot least under c o m m u n is t ru le . T h e q u e s tio n fo r D in e llo w as to find out whether these new R ussian b a n k e rs a p p ro x im a te d a h o m o ortho - doxus, influenced by the sp ir it a n d th e id e a ls o f R u ss ian O rth o d o x y , o r a homo economicus, influenced by th e W este rn -sty le m o d e rn ity . In te res tin g ly enough, she found that these bankers e m u la te d w ith o u t an y in h ib itio n s th e latter type and that n o th in g in d ic a te d th a t th e y w ere n o t c u l tu ra lly w ell- equipped for market experiences. As a resu lt, th e a n ti-cap ita lis t im pera tives of Orthodoxy did not seem to p lay any ro le in th is co n tex t. T h is re su lt can be used as evidence that the role a ttac h ed to O rth o d o x y in in h ib itin g ra tio nalization and m odernization sh o u ld n o t b e o v erestim a ted .

Similar results can be draw n from a survey o f the In stitu te o f Sociological Analysis in April 1997 am ong 1,593 p e rso n s liv in g in all reg io n s o f R ussia on public attitudes tow ard basic re lig io u s a n d life v a lu es (T a iv an s 2001 , pp. 8-15). The latter had been o p e ra tio n a lize d o n th e basis o f P ro te s ta n t, Orthodox, and secular/cynical value o r ie n ta tio n system s w ith respective

O r t h o p o x C h r . s t . x n . t v , R a t . o n a u z a t . o n , M o m i ! , i i o n , 9 1

o p in io n su rvey d id reveal a d ee , ern izatlon o f Russian society. This

a tten d e es accepted'^P m te sm rn " ef a m p 'e*the Y o f O rth o d o x church

clea r p o p u la r i ty o f P ro te s ta n t vali i n d iscovered was th e n a

w ork , w ealth , a n d freed o m o f an in d iv id u a l T h e s e ^ ^ ' ^ a itUdeS tOWard

req u is ite s fo r th e m o d e rn iz a tio n o f R ussian s o c i e t y A f t h ^ h l S s R ^ ^ p re d ile c tio n fo r P ro te s ta n tism ni u A lth o u g h th is R ussianden, fron, tfu, To.lT T

ence to " G rla 'fn , 1' ha K P stulted (Savramis refer!

S ocio log ica l s tu d ie s a b o u t O r t h l j , ab sf

1 9 2 V a s il io s N . M a k r id e s

o f G reece being clearly lower. Yet, o n th e level o f social m o d e rn iza tio n Greece w as fo u n d a t a h ig h e r leve l th a n th e U n ite d S ta te s , a fa c t in d ic a t in g th e cav ea ts in u s in g th e m o d e rn iz a t io n c o n c e p t in a n o n -d if f e re n t ia te d w ay (cf. a lso R o th 1988 a b o u t S o u th e a s te rn E u ro p e in genera l).

T h e above rem arks b eco m e m o re useful if o n e reflects a little o n the exact role p lay ed b y O r th o d o x C h r is t ia n i ty in c o n te m p o r a r y E a s te rn a n d S ou theaste rn E u ro p ean co u n tries . In to d a y s functionally d iffe ren tia ted socie tie s th e C h u rc h as a n in s t i tu t io n re ta in s so le ly a lim ite d ra n g e o f pow er, th o u g h its overall sp iritua l in fluence is m u c h stronger. T h e in te rn a l o rg an izat io n a n d s tru c tu re o f th e se c o u n tr ie s d o n o t a llow an y fo rm o f th eo cracy , desp ite th e fact th a t m u c h value is co n s titu tio n a lly a ttach ed to th e O rth o d o x tra d itio n . T h u s, th e C h u rc h is h a rd ly the sole a n d th e m o s t in fluen tia l agen t w ith in th is com plex s itu a tio n . As a resu lt, it b ecom es very d ifficu lt now adays to a ttr ib u te certain a n ti-m o d e rn policies to the in fluence o f th e C h u rch alone. T h is is n o t to deny again th a t som e ten e ts o f th e O rth o d o x b e lie f system m ay have h ad o r m ay still have a re ta rd in g im p a c t u p o n th e overall cu ltu re o f a p re d o m in a n tly O r th o d o x c o u n try . Yet th e ir exact loca liza tion in to d a y s increasingly com plex a n d diverse societies rem ains p roblem atic . In earlier periods o f tim e, w hen th e O rth o d o x C h u rch enjoyed a m o re in fluen tial social statu s a n d played a lead in g ro le in th e overall dec ision m ak in g , such as d u r in g th e O tto m a n d o m in a t io n o f th e B a lk an s , th in g s w ere d if fe re n t. In th is respect, th e C h u rc h s p a r t in in h ib itin g so m e m o d e rn iz in g po lic ies (su ch as regarding the renew al o f ed u catio n u n d e r th e influence o f th e E n ligh tenm ent) cou ld be m ore easily located . T h is was th e case, fo r exam ple, in th e G reek area a t th e tu r n o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry w h en p a rts o f th e em erg in g new in te llectual, political, an d com m ercial elite en tered in to conflict w ith th e O rth o d o x C h u rch a n d d e m a n d e d rad ica l changes in m a n y d o m a in s . A m a in p o stu la te w as the lim itin g o f th e w id er social in fluence o f th e C h u rc h a n d its p reo c cu p a tio n basically a n d solely w ith relig ious m a tte rs (M akrides 1997). H owever, th is is h a rd ly th e c o n te m p o ra ry s itu a tio n in w h ic h th e C h u rc h is fro m a le g a l-ad m in istra tiv e p o in t o f v iew a m ere d e p a r tm e n t o f th e sta te a n d its overall role in decision m ak ing is ra th e r lim ited. T his observation does n o t perta in solely to the q u es tio n o f m o d ern iza tio n , b u t to m any o th e r issues as well.

IVSecond, a very im p o r ta n t reason fo r th e h isto rically a n d even co n tem p o rarily observed reluctance o f the O rth o d o x C h u rch to accept m any changes induced by ra tiona liza tion an d m o d e rn iza tio n is th e fact th a t all these processes o rig

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 1 9 3

in a ted m a in ly in th e W est a n d th a t th ey w ere im p o rte d la ter th ro u g h various channels to th e East (e.g., th ro u g h m issionaries in Russia; Santich 1995). T his b r in g s in to p ro m in e n c e a fa c to r th a t h as m o ld e d O rth o d o x co n sc ien ce fo r m a n y cen tu ries u n til today, n am ely O rth o d o x an ti-W estern ism a n d the c o n tin u o u s East-W est rivalry (M akrides an d U ffelm ann 2003). It is ab o u t a m u ltilayered p h e n o m e n o n , w hose rep e rcu ssio n s can b e observed in n o n re lig io u s d o m a in s to o , b ec au se th e in it ia l re lig io u s o p p o s it io n b e tw e e n th e tw o C hurches an d the tw o w orlds has b een la ter tran sfo rm ed an d generalized. T he W est cam e th u s to signify fo r th e O rth o d o x E ast a p lace in w hich dangers fo r th e O rth o d o x h ad o rig ina ted . T h is p ro h ib ite d from th e o u tse t a m o re objective o r neu tra l evaluation o f the overall W estern developm ent. T his explains a lso to a g rea t e x te n t th e c o n s ta n t su sp ic io n a n d th e negative a t t i tu d e w ith w h ic h m a n y O r th o d o x p re la te s v iew ed W e ste rn p ro g ress . N eed less to say, w ith th e passin g o f tim e th is o p p o s it io n b ec am e even stro n g er, p a rticu la rly w hen th e W est s ta rted to becom e a m o d e l fo r im ita tio n in th e East a n d w hen p ro -W estern cu rren ts acqu ired firm foo th o ld s in trad itiona lly O rth o d o x cu ltu res . In o u r case, m o d e rn iz a tio n m e a n t o rig in a lly W este rn iza tio n , n am ely an e m u la tio n o f W este rn p ro to ty p e s c o u p le d w ith a s tro n g social c r it iq u e ag a in s t th e b ack w ard n ess o f th e East. G iven th e fact th a t th is c r itic ism w as d ire c te d a g a in s t th e O r th o d o x C h u rc h to o , ev en in re la tiv e ly m ild fo rm s (M ak rid es 1997), i t b eco m es u n d e rs ta n d a b le w hy th e C h u rc h w as basically ag a in s t th is k in d o f m o d e rn iz a tio n , w h ich m e a n t an a b ru p t riff in th e h is to ric a l c o n tin u ity o f O rth o d o x cu ltu re s (C azacu 2003).

D esp ite th e ea rly o p tim is m o f th e p ro -W e s te rn e rs , th is k in d o f m o d e rn iz a tio n w as far fro m b e in g a pan acea . I ts sy stem atic im p le m e n ta tio n by p o litica l a n d o th e r e lites c re a te d h u g e p ro b le m s in O rth o d o x c o u n tr ie s an d led to m assive p o p u la r reac tio n s because it d ic h o to m iz ed th e consciousness o f th ese p eo p les a n d p re se n te d th e m w ith s tro n g cha llenges (K itro m ilid es 1993). T h e c lash a n d th e r if t b e tw e e n a n t i- a n d p ro -W e s te rn e rs h a s th u s re m a in e d a c o n s ta n t p h e n o m e n o n o f O rth o d o x cu ltu re s u n til today, as re levan t debates a b o u t th e fu tu re o f p o s t-c o m m u n is t E astern an d S ou theastern E u ro p e to d a y c learly d o c u m e n t (U h lig 1998). It is n o t th u s acc id en ta l th a t H u n tin g to n (1996, p p . 138-39) in c lu d ed O rth o d o x co u n tries in th e category o f th e to rn c o u n tr ie s by p u ttin g em p h asis o n th e ir in te rn a l b ip o la ritie s . It is usefu l to re m e m b e r h e re th a t th e O rth o d o x C h u rch h as n o t b een th e sole an ti-W es te rn fac to r in th is en tire p rocess. A n ti-W e ste rn ism is o b v io u s a n d w id esp re ad a m o n g m a n y in te llec tu a ls as w ell as po litic ian s, w h o o ften c r iticize th e ad u lte ra tin g , m o d e rn , W estern in fluences d is to rtin g th e ind igenous tra d i tio n s a n d c re a tin g crises o f iden tity .

194 V a s il io s N. M a k r id e s

A n o th e r p o in t, w h ich sh o u ld b e c o m m e n te d u p o n in th is co n tex t, has to d o w ith th e p ro p o sa ls a n d th e exigencies o f th e p ro -W estern elites reg a rd ing th e ra tio n a liza tio n a n d th e m o d e rn iza tio n o f th e O rth o d o x C h u rch itself. T h ese w ere u su a lly m a d e b y p e o p le w h o o ften a d m ire d W este rn C h ris t ia n p ro to ty p e s an d show ed n o respec t a n d sensitiv ity a t all to th e rich O rth o d o x h e r ita g e a n d its s ig n ifican ce fo r th e O r th o d o x flock as w ell as fo r p o p u la r c u l tu re . T h e ir id e as a n d v iew s o n m o d e rn iz in g th e C h u rc h w ere in c lea r o p p o s it io n to th e ecclesiastical tr a d i tio n a n d w ere o ften fu ll o f b la ta n t m is u n d e rs ta n d in g s . S uch a tte m p ts n a tu ra lly accen tu a ted th e w hole conflic t a n d ren d e re d th e aversion o f th e O rth o d o x C h u rc h to w a rd m o d e rn iz a tio n even stronger. A charac teris tic exam ple o f such a case can be fo u n d in a le tte r th a t a G reek p o litic ian , A n d reas M ic h a lak o p o u lo s (1 8 7 5 -1 9 3 8 ), se n t in 1916 to th e p re s id e n t o f th e counc il, E leffherios V enizelos (1 8 6 4 -1 9 3 6 ), w h o w as the p e rso n b e h in d th e firs t sy stem a tic m o d e rn iz a t io n o f G reece in th e tw e n tie th cen tu ry . In th is lo n g le tte r M ichalakopou los p o in te d o u t to Venizelos th e n ecessity o f a p r o fo u n d re fo rm in th e C h u rc h , w h ic h w as to b e m a d e fo llow ing W estern C h ris tian p ro to ty p e s (ab o litio n o f th e fasts a n d feasts, m o d e rn iz a tio n o f th e d iffe ren t ce rem o n ies a n d litu rg ies, ed u c a tio n o f th e priests, a n t i-m o n a s t ic m e asu res , co n fisc a tio n o f m o n a s tic p ro p e rty , a n d so o n ; see K its ik is 1995, p p . 9 - 1 2 ) . By re a d in g th is le t te r a p e rso n fa m ilia r w ith th e O r th o d o x t r a d i t io n c a n easily rea lize h o w fa r th is p o lit ic ia n in fac t s to o d fro m th e re lig io u s t r a d i t io n o f h is o w n c o u n t ry a n d h o w p ro b le m a tic h is m o d e rn iz in g re fo rm p la n s w ere. T h e re fo re , it co m es as n o su rp rise th a t th e C h u rch always feared a n d reac ted ag a in st such ideas a n d p roposa ls , because it h a d su ffe red in th e p a s t f ro m th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f su c h po lic ies (e.g ., f ro m th e ecclesiastical po licy o f th e O th o n ia n reg im e in n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry G reece). N eedless to say, even today, m a n y sides voice th e p o ten tia l o f ch u rch m o d e rn iz a t io n . M o u ze lis (1996 , p p . 22627), fo r ex am p le , th in k s th a t th e values o f O rth o d o x y co u ld b e in c o rp o ra te d in to th e d iscou rse o f m o d e rn ity w ith o u t p ro b lem s o n th e c o n d itio n th a t th e C h u rc h ceases to p ro m o te an ti- W e s te rn /a n t i -E u ro p e a n s e n t im e n ts a n d to c r it ic iz e th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f W este rn m o d e rn ity . T h is m e an s th a t m a n y sch o lars see n o basic in c o m p a tib ility b e tw een m o d e rn i ty a n d O rth o d o x y , b u t th e y realize th e ex istence o f som e obstacles th a t need to b e overcom e. T h e basic rem a in in g p ro b lem w ith su ch o th e rw ise in te re s tin g p ro p o sa ls is th a t th e y co m e usually fro m o u ts id e o b se rv e rs o f th e w h o le s itu a tio n a n d n o t fro m th e ech elo n s o f th e C h u rc h itself. As a resu lt, th e c r ite r ia u sed b y b o th sides are n o t id en tica l, w h ile th is d issension p e r ta in s also to th e exact issues in th e ecclesiastical o rg an ism th a t s u p p o s e d ly n e e d to b e re fo rm e d . H e re a g a in lies a m a jo r s o u rc e o f d is

O r i h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 1 9 5

ag re em e n t an d m isu n d e rs ta n d in g s , w h ich o ften forces th e C h u rc h to take a defensive a tti tu d e to w ard such re fo rm p ro p o sa ls .

F inally , th e a n t i-W e s te rn c a m p as a w h o le ( in c lu d in g th e O r th o d o x C h u rch ) is shaped by a n o th e r p h e n o m e n o n th a t is also re la ted to th e p resen t issu e a n d m u s t b e m e n tio n e d . I t p e r ta in s to th e c o n s ta n t c o m p a r is o n be tw een E ast a n d W est as en tire c u ltu ra l com plexes a n d th e q u es t fo r su p e r io r i ty o f th e o n e o v er th e o th e r. T h is p h e n o m e n o n can b e o b se rv ed fro m th e la te B y zan tiu m o n w a rd in a v a rie ty o f fo rm s (M ak rid es 2004b). In o u r case, th is co m p a riso n p rocess has to d o w ith a p a r tia l o r co m p le te n eg a tio n by th e an ti-W este rn ers o f th e ra tio n a liz a tio n /m o d e rn iz a tio n p lan s im posed u p o n E aste rn a n d S o u th e a s te rn E u ro p e a n d w ith th e a t te m p t to p ro p o se a l te rn a t iv e m o d e ls o f r a t io n a l iz a t io n /m o d e rn iz a t io n o n th e b as is o f th e ind ig en o u s trad itio n (D askalov 1997), in c lu d in g in som e cases th e O rth o d o x heritag e . T h is has b ee n cau sed to a g rea t e x ten t by th e p ro b lem s c o n c o m ita n t to W estern -sty le m o d e rn iz a tio n (e.g., d ec line o f village, p a tria rch a l life, a n d local h a n d ic ra f t in d u s tr ie s ) . T h is d is i llu s io n m e n t led m a n y in te lle c tu als a n d o th e rs to lo o k a t th e i r o w n c u l tu ra l h e r ita g e fo r an sw e rs to th ese p ro b lem s a n d to f in d in d ig e n o u s so lu tio n s in stead o f u ncritica lly ap ing fo reign p ro to ty p e s . T h is w as in te n d e d n o t o n ly as c o m p en sa tio n fo r th e in flux o r W estern m odels, b u t also as a w ay o f show ing an E astern su p e rio rity over th e W est. T h is q u e s t has b ee n u su a lly c o n n e c te d w ith a re tu rn to p rev io u s Eastern in stitu tio n s, w hose rev ita lization w as conceived as a so lu tio n to c o n te m p o ra ry p ro b lem s. A f re q u e n t m o d e l o f such an a lte rn a tiv e w as th e ideal o f c o m m u n ity , w h ich w as p re se n ted in a n idyllic w ay as ru le d b y th e ju stice a n d e q u a lity o f its m e m b e rs (Je lav ich 1983, p p . 4 9 -5 0 ) a n d w as d ire c te d against th e o nslaugh t o f W estern ind iv idualism . In an o th e r case, fo r Yannaras (1 9 9 5 ) th e m o d e rn iz a t io n o f G reece m u s t b e c o te r m in o u s w ith its H ellen iza tion , n am ely th e red iscovery o f th e a u th e n tic H ellen ic iden tity , the tru e a p p ro p r ia t io n o f th e a n c ie n t G reek as w ell as th e C h ris tia n O rth o d o x ideals a n d p rio ritie s in life. Such a n d s im ila r ideas can b e fo u n d from Russia u p to th e B a lk a n s f ro m th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y o n w a rd . H o w ev er, th e ir m a te r ia l iz a t io n h as p ro v e n r a th e r d if f ic u lt , fo r th e y re p re s e n te d m o s tly ro m a n tic , ah is to r ic a l, a n d u to p ia n re g re ss io n s in to th e p a s t. A fte r all, th e co n tem p o ra ry global en v iro n m en t has ren d e red th e consequences o f m o d e rn ity n o t p articu la rly grave as in th e past, a n d it considerab ly m itigates them . Yet, seen in th is lig h t, th e a fo re m e n tio n e d rea c tio n s o f O rth o d o x societies a n d c u ltu re s a c q u ire n ew c re d ib ility a n d can b e u n d e r s to o d in th e w id e r co n tex t o f th e id e n tity crisis th a t th e y have experienced th ro u g h o u t the last c e n tu r ie s d u e to th e i r m u lt ip le c o n ta c ts w ith th e W est. T h u s , i t is n o t so

1 9 6 V a s il io s N . M a k r id e s

m u c h a b o u t O r th o d o x ir ra tio n a l a n d b ia sed rea c tio n s ag a in s t th e ligh ts o f ra tio n a liza tio n a n d m o d e rn iza tio n , b u t a b o u t u n d e rs ta n d ab le defensive a t titu d e s a g a in s t specific W e ste rn in flu e n ces , w h ich have a lte re d rad ica lly th e im age a n d th e fu tu re o f th e soc ie ties u n d e r d iscussion .

VT h ird , i f w e lo o k b a c k a t O r th o d o x h is to ry in its d iffe ren t local v a r ia tio n s , w e ca n fin d m a n y in s tan c es in w h ich O rth o d o x C h ris tia n ity favored in o n e w ay o r a n o th e r ce rta in changes, ex h ib ited m o d e rn iz in g ten d en c ies , a n d at least a p p e a red a p t in e n d o rs in g novelties, even if in its ow n specific m a n n e r (K okosalakis 1987, 1995). To avoid m isu n d e rs ta n d in g s , th is does n o t signify th e c o m p le te a b a n d o n m e n t o f O r t h o d o x t r a d i t io n a l i s m a n d c o n s e r v a t is m ; n e i th e r d o e s th is a m o u n t to a w h o le sa le a c c e p ta n c e o f W e s te rn m o d e rn ity in th e ways th a t W estern C h u rch es d ea lt w ith it. B u t i t still show s th a t O r th o d o x C h r is t ia n i ty is n o t a s ta tic a n d ch an g eless sy stem , as m a n y O rth o d o x like to p re se n t it. I t ca n very w ell e n d o rse a n d p ro m o te v a rio u s changes , d e sp ite in te rn a l c r itic ism a n d re a c tio n s . C erta in ly , if o n e looks a t O rth o d o x rig o rism , b o th in its p as t as w ell as in its c o n te m p o ra ry m a n ife sta tio n s , o n e fin d s m e n ta litie s a n d a t titu d e s (a n ti-ra tio n a lism , an ti- in te llec - tu a l is m , a n d so o n ) th a t a re a t o d d s w ith th e p o s tu la te s o f m o d e rn i ty (M ak rid es 1991). Yet, a t th e sam e tim e , o n e c a n n o t b u t be im p ressed by th e fac t th a t th e se v e ry h a rd lin e r s m a k e a m p le u se o f m o d e rn te c h n o lo g y in n u m e ro u s ap p lic a tio n s . T h e sam e is in fac t t r u e w ith resp ec t to P ro te s ta n t fu n d am e n ta lis ts . T h is exam ple illu stra te s th a t th e re la tio n s o f a ce rta in re lig ious g ro u p to m o d e rn ity are always m u lti-face ted , th u s th ey m u s t b e ex am in e d a t v a r io u s levels. By c o n c e n tra tin g solely o n re a c tio n a ry a tti tu d e s o n e m ig h t th u s m iss th e w h o le p ic tu re , w h ich is in fac t m u c h m o re diverse.

T h e sam e perta in s , fo r instance, to M o u n t A thos, th is o ld m onastic c o m m u n ity , w h ic h has b ee n tra d i t io n a l ly th e h e a r t o f th e O r th o d o x fa ith a n d has exhib ited historically anti-W estern an d an ti-m o d ern tren d s p a r excellence. H ow ever, th is very c o m m u n ity h as b een hugely subsid ized in recen t years by th e E u ro p e a n U n io n w ith th e p u r p o s e o f r e n o v a tin g its t im e - h o n o re d m o n a s tic com plexes. To b e tru e , th is w as a c lea r m o d e rn iz a tio n process. In a place w h ere ea rlie r even e lec tric lig h t w as n o t fo u n d everyw here , n o w o n e can w atch m o n k s u s in g m o b ile p h o n e s a n d In te rn e t facilities. As expected , th e re w ere so m e re a c tio n s a g a in s t th is o n s la u g h t o f m o d e rn ity , a n d th e re h ave b e e n d isc u ss io n s w h e th e r th is p ro cess w ill a lte r irrev ersib ly th e c h a r a c te r o f M o u n t A th o s (N ik o lao s 1999, p p . 1 2 5 -3 9 ) . Yet o n e c a n n o t avo id

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n i t y , R a t io n a liz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 197

re a liz in g th a t h e re i t is a b o u t th e m o d e rn iz a t io n o f th e v e ry c ra d le o f O rth o d o x C hris tian ity , w h ich w o u ld have b een u n im a g in a b le a few decades ago. In th is way, b y lo o k in g a t all th e se facets o f O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity a n d th e ir o ften a n t in o m ia n a p p e a ran c es , it b eco m es d ifficu lt to a rg u e th a t th is re lig ious system is a l to g e th e r a n ti- ra tio n a l a n d a n ti-m o d e rn .

In a d d i t io n , th e h is to ry o f th e O r th o d o x C h u rc h ca n e x h ib it m a n y refo rm ers, w h o have accom plished m in o r o r m a jo r re fo rm s w ith in accepted b o u n d s (nam ely , w ith o u t b ec o m in g rad ica l re fo rm ers , as w as th e case w ith M a r tin L u th e r) . T h is ca n b e o b se rv e d , fo r e x a m p le , in th e re fo rm s o f th e a rc h b ish o p o f N o v g o ro d , Feofan P ro k o p o v ic h (1 6 8 1 -1 7 3 6 ). S om e o f these re fo rm s d id b e c o m e g en e ra lly ac ce p te d , d e sp ite th e fac t th e re w ere s tro n g re a c tio n s a n d even in te rn a l sch ism s. T h e la tte r w as o b se rv e d w ith th e ca le n d a r r e fo rm in th e e a r ly tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . S o m e O r th o d o x C h u rc h e s (P a tr ia rc h a te o f C o n s ta n t in o p le , C h u rc h o f G reece) ch o se s in c e 1923 to en d o rse th e co rrec ted G reg o rian ca len d ar, w h ile still ca lcu la tin g th e a n n u a l d a te o f E aster ac co rd in g to th e o ld Ju lian ca le n d ar. S o m e o th e r O rth o d o x C h u rch es (P a tria rch a te o f M oscow , P a tria rch a te o f Serbia) co n tin u e d to follow fully th e o ld Ju lian ca lendar, w h ile th e O rth o d o x C h u rch o f F in lan d has e n d o rse d fu lly th e n e w c a le n d a r (even fo r th e ce le b ra tio n o f E aster). T h e accep tance o f th e n ew ca le n d a r h as c re a te d se rio u s in te rn a l sch ism s, w h ich still exist to d a y in so m e O rth o d o x C h u rch e s (in G reece, R om an ia , B ulgaria, C y p ru s ) . N o n e th e le ss , fo r o u r p u rp o s e , th e w h o le p ro ce ss o f th e ca le n d a r re fo rm c a n n o t ju s t ify th e v ie w o f th e a lleg e d in h e re n t a n t i -m o d e r n is m o f O r th o d o x C h r is t ia n i ty . A fte r a ll, th e re is n o t a so le u n d if fe re n tia te d O r th o d o x y ev e ry w h e re , b u t m a n y lo c a l v a r ia t io n s a n d a t t i tu d e s to w a rd changes . O n th e o th e r h a n d , m a n y o f th e rea so n s th a t led so m e O rth o d o x to d en y th e ca le n d a r re fo rm are aga in u n d e rs ta n d a b le a n d have to d o w ith th e W estern p ro v en an ce o f th e n ew ca le n d a r (K itsik is 1995, pp . 13 -14 ). I t is usefu l to rem e m b er h ere th a t it to o k so m e tim e fo r th e R eform ed C hurches, w h ich afte r all a re c o n s id e red to have b ee n th e lo co m o tiv es fo r m o d ern ity ,to accept th e G regorian ca len d ar a fte r its first im p lem e n ta tio n in 1582 n o tlastly because o f th e in te r-C h ris tia n d isp u te s o f th e day.

To tu rn o u r a tte n tio n n o w to so m e o th e r cases: O rth o d o x C h ris tian ity h as n o t b een a necessarily a n d ab so lu te ly negative fac to r to w ard eco n o m ic d ev e lo p m e n t (P apaderos 1975), as th is has b een arg u ed in th e p as t (M uller- A rm ac k 1968, pp . 3 2 8 -7 0 ). A lth o u g h n o t id en tified w ith th e C alv in ist eth ic a n d its in n e r-w o rld ly asceticism , so m e scho lars have ta lked a b o u t a co rre sp o n d in g O rth o d o x eth ic , u sing as ev idence th e co n q u e r in g B alkan m e rch a n ts in th e e ig h tee n th a n d early n in e te e n th cen tu ries a n d th e ir econom ic

1 9 8 V a s il io s N . M a k r id e s

ach iev em en ts (S to ia n o v ic h 1960, p . 2 9 4 ). E ven to d a y th e O r th o d o x w o rld does n o t la ck a t te m p ts to a r t ic u la te a n O r th o d o x e c o n o m ic e th ic (A rin in e t al. 2001). T h e in te rfe re n ce o f h a rd O rth o d o x co n v ic tio n s a n d soc ia l m a r- g in a lity h a s a lso le d in so m e cases to w o rth w h ile e c o n o m ic ac h ie v em e n ts . Such an ex am p le is th e sc h ism a tic R ussian O ld Believers, w h o in th e n in e te en th c e n tu ry p ro v ed to b e v e ry a p t to w ard m o d e rn iz a tio n , d ev e lo p m e n t, an d ec o n o m ic ra tio n a lism (B uss 1989, p p . 5 2 -7 0 ; R o sh ch in 1995). Last, b u t n o t least, p e rh a p s th e m o s t in d ica tiv e exam ple o f O rth o d o x y s p o te n tia l fo r change ca n b e o b se rv e d in its c o n te m p o ra ry c losest p o ssib le c o n n e c tio n to n a tio n a lism . T h e n a t io n a l iz a tio n o f O r th o d o x y is a re la tiv e ly re c e n t p h e n o m e n o n , a c c e n tu a te d espec ia lly f ro m th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry u n t i l to d a y w ith th e ad v e n t o f th e n a t io n -s ta te , w h ich h as h a d m a n y rep e rc u ss io n s fo r m a in ta in in g p a n -O rth o d o x un ity . Yet th is novel p h e n o m e n o n is h a rd ly co n g ru e n t w ith th e O r th o d o x u n iv e rsa lis tic t r a d i t io n o f th e B y z a n tin e p a s t, w h en O r th o d o x C h r is t ia n i ty t r ie d to p re se rv e a s u p ra -n a t io n a l c h a ra c te r (K itro m ilid es 1996). T h e ch a n g es th a t have o c c u rre d in th is d o m a in have, however, a lte red so deep ly O rth o d o x consciousness th a t th e v ario u s n a tio n a l O rth o d o x C h u rch e s w o rld w id e are h a iled to d a y as p ro te c to rs o f th e resp ective n a t io n a l id e n titie s a n d c o lla b o ra te c lo sely w ith th e resp ec tiv e n a t io n states! H ere w e can clearly o b serv e h o w O rth o d o x C h ris tia n ity h a s acq u ired a c h a ra c te r is t ic th a t is c e r ta in ly a t o d d s w ith its o w n h is to r ic a l h e r ita g e . G iven th e fac t a lso th a t n a t io n a l is m h a s b ee n a n ex p re ss io n o f th e B alkan n a tio n s c la im to m o d e rn iz a t io n (R o u d o m e to f 2001, p . 239; cf. G ro th u se n 1984), th e O r th o d o x C h u rc h , w h ic h s t ro n g ly s u p p o r te d th is c la im , ca n h ard ly b e c o n s id e red as in h e re n tly a n t i-m o d e rn .

VIF o u rth , a n o th e r fac to r th a t m ig h t sh e d n e w lig h t o n o u r to p ic is re la ted to a new u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e c o n c ep ts o f ra tio n a liz a tio n a n d m o d e rn iz a tion, developed m o re system atically in th e last decades. P u t shortly , th is ra d ical c h a n g e h a d to d o w ith a re a s s e s s m e n t o f W e s te rn a n d E u ro c e n tr ic nu an ces o f th ese n o tio n s , w h ich w ere ex te n d e d u n c ritica lly ov er o th e r c u ltu ra l com plexes, a n d a re je c tio n o f o ld e r ideas o f W este rn c u ltu ra l s u p e r io rity . B e g in n in g w ith th e f irs t c o n c e p t , i t h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t b y m a n y sc h o la rs (C . L 6 v i-S tra u ss , R . H o r to n , a n d o th e r s ) th a t th e re e x is t o th e r m o d es o f ra tio n a lity to o besides th e W estern o n e , even a m o n g th e so-called prim itives. A ny d ev ia tio n fro m th e W este rn E u ro p e an p a t te rn w as ea rlie r th o u g h t w ro n g ly to b e a sign o f ir ra tio n a l a t titu d e s . S ince th is fu n d a m e n ta l

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l i z a t i o n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 1 9 9

re v is io n o f o ld e r th e o r ie s , th e re h a v e b e e n m a n y a t te m p ts to d isc e rn th e d iv e rs ity o f c u l tu re s a n d so c ie ties a n d lo o k fo r w ays to w a rd th e ir m u tu a l t r a n s la t io n a n d c o m m e n s u ra b il i ty . T h e s a m e p e r ta in e d g e n e ra lly to th e d o m a in o f re lig ion , especially w ith reg a rd to its alleged p e rm a n e n t con flic t w ith science (T am b iah 1990; S to ller 1998; S tark 2000). T h is reversal o f p e r spectives ca n also b e seen b y th e fac t th a t , a c co rd in g to n ew th e o rie s (e.g ., th e ra tio n a l ch o ice th e o ry ), re lig io n s a re n o t seen an y m o re as d e p o s ito rie s o f ir ra t io n a li ty b u t as sy stem s o f th o u g h t a n d p ra c tic e b ased o n s tr ic t r a t io n a l o p t io n s a n d ch o ice s (Y o u n g 1997 ). S een f ro m th is b r o a d e r p e r spective, i t is certa in ly one-sided to claim th a t O rth o d o x C hristian ity is solely a re lig ion o f se n tim e n t a n d th a t it likely fo ste rs ir ra tio n a l a ttitu d e s . O n e can a rg u e h e re o n th e basis o f v a rio u s m o d e s a n d levels o f ra tio n a lity th a t exist in d if fe re n t c u ltu re s , an a rg u m e n t in fac t p u t fo rw a rd b y so m e O rth o d o x th in k e rs . F o r Y annaras (1984) O rth o d o x ra tio n a lity is n o t c o te rm in o u s w ith W este rn in te llec tu a lism , b u t it is a p h e n o m e n o n w ith an an c ie n t G reek a n d B yzan tine b a c k g ro u n d ; h a s its o w n logic, c r ite r ia , a n d p rio ritie s ; a n d has h a d q u ite d iffe ren t social co n seq u en ces th a n W estern ra tionality .

A sim ila r d ev e lo p m e n t has also ex p e rien c ed th e n o tio n o f m o d e rn iz a tio n , w h ich , aside fro m its m a n y c ritic s (W allerste in 1979, pp . 1 3 2 -3 7 ), has ceased a m o n g o th e r th in g s to b e eq u a te d w ith W este rn iza tion a lone an d to b e u n d e rs to o d in a lin e a r w ay b ased o n W estern p re te n s io n s o f soc iocu ltu ra l su p e rio r ity a n d p o s tu la tio n s th a t soc ieties w o rld w id e w o u ld be develo p e d in th e sa m e w ay. O th e r m o d e ls o f sy n c re tic m o d e rn iz a t io n , w h ich em phasize th e id iosyncrasies o f local cu ltu res o n th e ir w ay to m o d ern ity , are m o re en vogue today. T h is reassessm en t w e n t h a n d in h a n d w ith a q u e s tio n in g o f W estern heg em o n y a n d th e p o w er s tru c tu re s th a t h a d in fact given rise to specific ideologies (e.g., O rien ta lism a n d B alkanism ) in v iew ing a n d evalu a tin g th e n o n -W e ste rn o th e rs . M o d e rn iz a tio n is th e n seen to d a y n o t as a o n e -s id e d , linear, a n d fixed p h e n o m e n o n , b u t ra th e r as a d ia lectical process, w h ich p resen ts b o th advances a n d pa tho log ies a n d w hose local v aria tions are p e rh a p s equal to th e n u m b e r o f c o u n tr ie s th a t a t te m p t to m o d e rn ize th e m selves (E isenstad t 1987a, 1987b). T h e re exists u n d o u b te d ly a W estern specific ity in m o d ern ity , b u t th is is fa r f ro m b e in g th e sole a n d exclusive p a th to m o d ern ity . In th is way, it is m o re c o rrec t to speak a b o u t m u ltip le m o d e rn ities (B enavides 1998, p p . 1 8 8 -8 9 ,1 9 2 -9 3 ; cf. a n issue o f D aedalus 129, no. 1 [W in ter 2000], devoted to m u ltip le m o d ern ities) o r even o f global m o d ern itie s (F eatherstone, Lash, a n d R o b e rtso n 1995), co n sid erin g th e im p a c t o f g loba liza tion u p o n th is process. I t h as also b ee n a rg u ed th a t the m o d e rn iza t io n p a ra d ig m sh o u ld b e se p a ra te d f ro m th e g lo b a liz a tio n d isc o u rse a n d

2 ,0 0 V a s il io s N . M a k r id e s

sh o u ld n o t b e u sed an y m o re as a m a ste r n a rra tiv e in soc io logy because o f th e defic its i t h as in h e rite d fro m th e p as t (e.g., th e a s su m p tio n s o f social a n d cu ltu ra l su p e rio rity o f th e W est vs. T h ird W orld c o u n trie s) , w h ich have been re n d e re d o b so le te u n d e r th e in f lu e n c e o f c o n te m p o ra ry g lo b a l ec o n o m ic , p o litica l, a n d c u l tu ra l fo rces (R o u d o m e to f 1994, 1997). T h is se m an tic ev o lu tio n o f th e te rm aga in m akes c lear th a t it is n o t p e r tin e n t to p u t O rth o d o x C hristian ity generally in th e a n ti-m o d e rn cam p, b u t th a t it is b e tte r to explore w h e th e r O r th o d o x soc ie ties a re th em se lv es (o r if th ey can b e) co n n e c te d to a k in d o f m o d e rn i ty su i g en e ris in th e p re se n t g lobal era .

T h e se m an tic ev o lu tio n o f th is te rm a n d its consequences b eco m e m o re ev iden t if w e consider, fo r instance, th e d is tin c tio n m ade betw een m o d ern ism a n d m o d e rn i ty (L aw ren ce 1989, p p . 1 -3 ) . T h is d isc re p a n c y s ig n ifie s th a t m o d e rn ity sh o u ld n o t b e co n fu se d w ith in te llec tua l m o d e rn ism . M o d e rn ity as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f m o d e rn iz a t io n is c o n n e c te d w ith th e p h e n o m e n a o f u rb an iz a tio n , cap ita lism , techno log ica l progress, a n d th e like. Yet m o d e rn ism in d ic a tes in c o n n e c t io n to th e E n lig h te n m e n t t r a d i t io n a c o n c o m ita n t o p tim is tic b e lie f in p ro g re ss a n d in h u m a n capac ities, w h ich h as led to the c re a tio n o f a u n iq u e co n sc io u sn e ss a n d p ersp ec tiv e o n life in te n s io n w ith th e tra d itio n a l re lig ious w orldview s. M o d e rn ism is th u s an exercise in reflex- ivity, w hile m o d e rn iza tio n is th e capacity to exercise pow er. T h e consequences o f th is difference p e rta in to relig ions too . I t has b een arg u ed th a t relig ions are n o t a n ti-m o d e m in th e sense o f deny ing m odern ity . T h e use o f m o d e rn tech n o lo g y b y fu n d a m e n ta lis ts a c c o u n ts fo r th is . O n th e c o n tra ry , re lig io n s are basica lly ag a in s t th e s p ir it o f m o d e rn ism , w h ich calls ev e ry th in g in to q u estio n an d relativizes claim s o f tru th . T hese d is tin c tio n s can b e app lied m u ta tis m u ta n d is to O rth o d o x C h ris tian ity a n d can show how m islead ing som e c a teg o riz a tio n s o f it as a l to g e th e r a n t i -m o d e rn are.

VIIL ast b u t n o t least, a n o th e r fa c to r fo rc in g a se r io u s re c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e w h o le m a tte r is th e im p a c t o f th e o n g o in g tra n s -n a tio n a l p rocess o f g lo b a liz a tio n w ith its m u lti- fa c e te d e c o n o m ic , p o litica l, a n d c u ltu ra l t r a n s fo r m a tio n s u p o n O r th o d o x C h ris tian ity . R elig ions have b ec o m e to d a y p a r t o f a g lo b a liz in g soc ia l rea lity a n d have b e e n ex p o sed to n ew cha llenges in th e w ak e o f m o d e r n c o m m u n ic a t io n te c h n o lo g ie s . B e in g in r e g u la r a n d u n av o id ab le c o n ta c t w ith o n e a n o th e r , p eo p le , cu ltu re s , soc ie ties, c iv ilizatio n s , a n d n o t least re lig io n s ex p e rien c e th e g lo b a l n e tw o rk in a v a r ie ty o f w ays ra n g in g f ro m c o n f lic t to a n a t te n u a t io n o f in te r -c u ltu ra l a n d in te r

O r t h o d o x C h r is t ia n it y , R a t io n a l iz a t io n , M o d e r n iz a t io n 2 0 1

re lig ious d ifferences. In o th e r w ords, o n e o p tio n is ce rta in ly a rea d ju s tm e n t o f re lig ions to an sw er th e n ew challenges a n d a c o n c o m ita n t re fo rm u la tio n o f th e basic te n e ts o f th e ir tra d itio n . T h is exp lain s also w hy th e issue o f the re la tio n s b e tw een g lo b a liz a tio n a n d re lig io n in all its aspec ts is a m o n g th e m o st fash io n ab le now adays (Beyer 1994).

N atu ra lly , O r th o d o x C h ris tia n ity co u ld n o t b e left u n affec ted b y these rad ical d ev e lo p m en ts . In fact, m an y O rth o d o x C h u rch es have tr ie d to voice th e ir p o s it io n o n issu es p e r ta in in g to th e g lo b e , as h as b e c o m e e v id e n t rec en tly b y th e R ussian O r th o d o x C h u rc h in its p ro m u lg a tio n o f a social d o c u m e n t in 2000: O stiovy sotsialnoj kontseptsii Russkoj Pravoslavnoj Tserkvi (Fundam entals/B ases o f the Social C oncep t o f the Russian O rth o d o x C hurch) (T h esin g a n d U e rtz 2001; see also ch a p te r 2 in th is v o lu m e). T h is sh o u ld be view ed as an im p o r ta n t step tow ard en te r in g in to d ia logue w ith th e c o n tem p o ra ry cu ltu re , fo r O rth o d o x C hurches usually d id n o t p ro d u ce such official a n d all-encom passing d o cu m en ts in th e past. To be sure, th is h ard ly signifies a w h o lesa le e n d o rs e m e n t o f all o n g o in g ch an g es o n a g lobal scale. Several issues a re still tre a te d in a very tra d itio n a l w ay in th is d o c u m e n t too , w hile c r itic ism ag a in st v a rio u s aspec ts o f g lo b a liza tio n is also expressed (T hesing a n d U ertz 2001, pp . 123 -31 ). Yet, it is still im p o r ta n t th a t O rth o d o x y in th is w ay s ta rted a d ia logue w ith to d a y s g lobal cu ltu re in stead o f b o as tin g a b o u t its p as t glory. All these m u lti- fo rm fe rm en ta tio n s co n trib u te to a refash ion- ing o f O rth o d o x y a n d , to a ce rta in degree, g rea te r o r lesser rea d ju s tm e n t to th e exigencies o f g lobal reality. T h is b ecom es obv ious, fo r exam ple , by lo o k in g a t th e w ays in w h ic h m a n y O r th o d o x C h u rc h e s ad d re ss in in n o v a tiv e ways th e crucial issues o f b ioethics, w hich are o f w orldw ide significance today, w ith o u t using th e C h u rch Fathers as abso lu te guidelines (H atzin iko laou 2002, p p . 6 -1 7 ) . T h is is a tre m e n d o u s step fo rw ard co n sid erin g th e b in d in g force o f t r a d i t io n in O r th o d o x C h r is t ia n ity . M an y o f th e se d isc u ss io n s a re , o f course , easier in m o re p lu ralistic m ilieus such as in the U nited States (H opko1996). Yet, th is is n o t th e sole p lace th a t th is h ap p en s. A lbeit m odestly , there are several c u rre n ts even w ith in th e O rth o d o x C h u rch es in E u ro p e th a t are fo rm e d u n d e r th e in flu en ce o f a g lobal civil re lig ion (cf. D avie 2001).

To again avo id m isu n d e rs ta n d in g s: T h is novel s itu a tio n does n o t m ean th a t th e O rth o d o x C h u rch e s have a b a n d o n e d th e ir u sua l conservatism an d trad itio n -b o u n d ed n e ss , w h ich is seen by th e m as an au th en tic criterion an d a tim eless m odel o f o rien ta tio n . It m ean s th a t th ey develop to o in th e course o f h is to ry a n d th a t th e y ac tua lly re fo rm u la te th e ir d o c trin e w ith regard to new deve lopm en ts, desp ite the fact th a t th e y o ften p ro m u lg a te officially a sup ra- h isto rical view o f th e ir o w n id en tity as an im m u tab le entity. C onsequently , it

202 V a s il io s N . M a k r id e s

is v ita l to d iscern th e ro le o f re lig ious dyn am ics in th is co n tex t th a t p ro h ib its re lig io n s to re m a in s ta tic essences. T h e c o n te m p o ra ry g lo b a l e n v iro n m e n t m akes re lig ions, in c lu d in g O r th o d o x C h ris tian ity , m u c h m o re o p e n to n ew a d a p ta tio n s a n d a d ju s tm e n ts th a n in p rev io u s cen tu ries . By develop ing , first, a n o tio n o f h is to ric ity in th e a rea o f O rth o d o x C h ris tian ity , o n e ca n th u s d iscern m o re easily th e v a rio u s h is to rica l phases o f its d ev e lo p m e n t a n d th e c o n c o m ita n t c h a n g es . T h is is b e c a u se o n e c a n n o t id e n tify th e O r th o d o x C h u rc h o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry w ith th e o n e a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e tw e n ty -f ir s t c e n tu ry . F ro m th is a n g le , i t ag a in b e c o m e s d if f ic u lt to m a k e sw e e p in g c h a r a c te r iz a t io n s o f O r th o d o x C h r is t ia n i ty as a n t i - m o d e r n th ro u g h o u t h isto ry . S econd , b y p ay in g a t te n tio n to th e n o tio n s o f loca lity a n d d e -lo c a liza tio n w ith in th e p re se n t g lobal con tex t, o n e can b e tte r g rasp th e id io sy n crasy o f th e v a r io u s n a tio n a l O r th o d o x C h u rch e s a n d especially th e d is tin c t features o f th e n u m e ro u s O rth o d o x d iasp o ras a ro u n d th e globe. T hese e thno-re lig ious d iaspo ras (especially in th e U nited States, A ustralia, an d W este rn E u ro p e ) d o n o t a p p e a r in m a n y cases to b e re lu c ta n t to w ard m a n y aspects o f m o d e rn iz a tio n , a n d th e y t r y to re fo rm u la te th e ir tra d itio n w ith in a m o re global sym bolic un iverse , a fact th a t has o ften c o n tr ib u te d to tension w ith th e ir respective m o th e r C hurches. F or exam ple, G reek O rth o d o x rigorists have accused th e G reek A rc h b ish o p o f A u stra lia S ty lianos (H a rk ian a k is) o f e n d o rsin g a n an ti-C h ris tian theory , nam ely th e th e o ry o f evo lu tion (M akrides 1998, p. 204). T h is is again a clear sign o f p rogress an d n o t o f a s tu b b o rn reactio n o n th e p a r t o f a n O rth o d o x p re la te v is -a -v is a sc ien tific p a ra d ig m th a t is w idely accepted today. G iven th e fact th a t such O rth o d o x d iaspo ras te n d to m o v e to w ard g rea te r in d e p e n d e n c e f ro m th e ir o rig in a l h o m e la n d s , o n e can th u s im a g in e th e p ro sp ec tiv e co n seq u e n ces o f th is o n g o in g d if fe re n tia tio n o f th e O r th o d o x c h u rc h b od y . T h is em p h asizes o n ce m o re th e n ecessity to ap p ro a ch O rth o d o x rea lity w ith b ro a d a n d flexible co n cep tu a l to o ls th a t