CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 RFID

1.1.1RFID System:-

Radio frequency identification (RFID) is one of today's most exciting and fastest growing

technologies for increasing efficiencies and improving profitability. RFID is a

combination of a computer chip and a small radio antenna that allows almost any object

to "self-identify."

Originally developed for use in World War II, the British used it to identify their planes.

The new Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) first appeared in the early 1980s where

it was used for: item tracking and access control applications. These wireless automatic

identification data capture systems allow for non-contact reading or writing of data and

are highly effective in manufacturing and other hostile environments where barcode

labels can not survive. Since the 1980’s, RFID has established itself in a wide range of

markets including livestock, retail sales, wireless transactions, courier and logistics,

publishing, automated vehicle identification systems, etc.

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1.1.2 Components of an RFID system

A standard RFID system consists of four main parts:

•RFID Tags- Applied directly to items. Each RFID tag contains a tiny chip with a

capacity of at least 96 bits. The tags can be permanently activated (programmed during

manufacturing) or, at higher complexity and cost, read-write, both. The tags are

electronically programmed with unique information. The size of the tag depends on the

size of the antenna, which increases with range of tag and decreases with frequency.

• Antenna- also known as sensors, interrogators or readers. A conduit between RFID

tags and the coupler. RFID antennas connected to the reader, emit power and data from

and to the RFIS tags.

• Reader/ Coupler - link between RFID tags and the Server/ PC. The coupler can

send information in two directions: It can read information from a tag and send it to the

Server/ PC (read mode), or it can read information from the Server and send it to an

RFID tag (write mode).

• Server/ PC- link between the coupler and your library automation system. The

Server/ PC is the heart of a comprehensive RFID system. It is the communications

gateway among the various components. It receives the information from the antennae

and exchanges information with the circulation database. The server typically includes a

transaction database so that reports can be produced.

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1.1.3 How it works

Figure 1 : Working of RFID Tags

1.1.4 RFID usage in different sectors

RFID applications are fueling a quiet business revolution that promises to speed up

inventory and payment systems and change our lives. RFID is, in fact, already pervasive

in our lives. Used to track everything from pets to prisoners to products.Booth-Thomas

(2003) states that more than 50 million pets worldwide are tagged with RFID chips. At

least 20 million livestock have RFID tags to follow them before possible

diseasebreakthrough. US military used it in Iraq to electronically search supplied and

keep tabs on hospital patients.

1.1.4.1RFID in courier services

Booth-Thomas (2003) describes that the RFID usage has been implemented to track the

shipments worldwide by different Courier Services like DHL, Fedex Express. In

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Singapore and Helsinki DHL tested it in anticipation of tracking the 160 million packages

it ships annually. DHL Worldwide Express, which handles 160 million packages a year,

plans to go global soon with RFID tracking. The program manager Trevor Peirce of DHL

said “This is amazing technology when you see it working, and it’s all fine-tuned”.

1.1.4.2 RFID in retail sales/ supply chains

Globally, RIFD is being used for a number of commercial applications, and in particular

for grocery stores and retail. The companies most interested in RFID have been drawn to

it by the great potential for supply chain management. RFID technology holds the

promise of substantial improvements in retail store logistics. The item level tagging is the

mounteverest of the RFID industry. Large department stores like Wal-Mart in USA and

Marks & Spencer in the United Kingdom have made aggressive plans for use of RFID in

their management of product inventories and sales. Booth-Thomas (2003) reports that in

1999, the three men with the help of P & G and Gillette, founded the Auto-ID Center at

M.I.T. pursuer RFID uses. Today 103 companies are members, including consumer

giants like Johnson & Johnson, Kimberly-Clark, Kraft Foods and Unilever. In June Wal-

Mart CIO Linda Dillman gave the firm’s 100 top suppliers—which provide half the

goods on its shelves-a veiled ultimatum about the stuff flowing into its 103 U.S.

distribution centers.

1.1.4.3RFID in libraries

RFID is the new technology that revolutionizes library management and practices.

IDTechEX’s report ‘One trillion tags in 2015’ illustrate that 70 million library books

have been tagged. Ulfelder (2003) provide details about Singapore Libraries that are

using RFID technology with remarkable results. Under the leadership of the National

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Library Board, Libraries in Singapore aggressively implemented RFID technology in

their libraries. In Singapore’s library system, all 9 million books, videos and DVDs are

embedded with antitheft chips, allowing self-checkout. These libraries offer excellent

user friendly environment with self service desk for check-out and check-in. Libraries in

the United States and United Kingdom are also deploying RFID technology. (Artz, 2003;

Harris, 2003; Timothy, 2003). Examples of the use of RFID technology in USA can be

found in both public and academic libraries. New Hanover County Public Library in

North Carolina and City Library at Santa Clara California were among the very early

implementers of RFID technology. Others like Sarasota County in Florida are sufficiently

pleased with their pilot projects that they are expanding the program to cover all libraries.

RFID tags are already being used on individual books in pilot programs in libraries in the

U.S. and Canada. In these cases, grants are covering the cost of implementation

bycompanies like VTL. The fact that books circulate drops the cost per book per use to a

reasonable level. Once a person is identified as a library patron, check-out is easy. The

patron walks past the check-out reader station, and without stopping the books are

recorded as checked out. Similarly, a patron can check in any time just by dumping the

books down the return chute, where a reader automatically records their return. A special

wand that reads every chip on every book on the shelf allows librarians to know instantly

which books are in or out or improperly shelved.

1.1.5 RFID SYSTEM LAYOUT:

1. Tag.

2. Reader.

3. Reader antenna.

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4. Controller.

5. Host and software system.

6. Communication infrastructure.

Figure 2: Layout

1.2 COURIER SORTING TECHNIQUE

Though the percentage of mail delivery errors in postal services is relatively small, most

of us have encountered them now and then. Mail arrives late, to the wrong address or

does not show up at all. The Finnish national post office "Itella" reports that their delivery

error rate is about 1%. Customers make about 18,000 missing item inquires annually of

which about half can be solved.  What if the other half could be resolved with the help of

RFID?

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1.2.1 POSTAL DELIVERY VALUE CHAIN

The postal systems vary a lot from country to country, but we can roughly say that

private consumers bring their outgoing mail to local postal offices, APCs (automatic

postal centers) or to traditional drop mail boxes. Companies usually get their mail

collected by a carrier service truck once a day. After this the mail is transported to postal

sorting and distribution centers from where they are sent to local postal offices and

thereafter delivered to their final destination. RFID can be helpful in many different ways

during the stages of this process.

1.2.2 TAG & SORT

1.2.2.1 "TAGGED-AT-ARRIVAL"

Many national post companies have so called APCs (automatic postal centers). They can

be placed either in a post office or separately much like an ATM. Customers can

conveniently buy stamps and see to that the mail gets sent off correctly. It would be fairly

easy to add an RFID application to this system, where the consumers are in charge of

tagging their own mail with RFID tags and adding the delivery information to a data base

where each mail item receives its own traceable ID. For those who prefer being served by

a real person the same action could be performed at regular post offices. With this system

stamps would possibly be redundant on "tagged-at-arrival" mail since the tag contains all

the payment information.

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"Tagged-at-arrival" mail deliveries would be less prompt to human error and demand less

working hours. Still, human errors can appear here as well. Consumers do not always

necessarily have the right address or the address might be miscopied into the system.

2.2.2 "TAGGED-AT-SORTING"

Traditional drop mail boxes, on the other hand, would probably not enable tagging mail

at arrival, so here we need another system - "tagged-at-sorting". Untagged mail arrives at

the mail sorting centers where the first step would be to let a hand writing and letter

recognizer scan and copy the delivery information to the data base. This procedure would

have to be supervised and double-checked by the staff. The easily recognized addresses

would get tagged and join the "tagged-at-arrival" mail, but the problematic or incorrect

addresses would be sorted the traditional way - that is manually - but still be tagged. The

tag would contain the information that could be retrieved (if any) but also an "incomplete

address information alert".  This way the problematic addresses will be recognized at the

local postal offices as they are scanned at arrival. Local workers are more likely to be

able to figure out what the sender means since they know the area.

With all mail made traceable with RFID it is easy to make sure that the right mail is

going to the right zip code with automatic sorting without manual work and human

errors. All stops and vehicles on the mail's journey are equipped with RFID readers that

make sure that all the right, and only the right, mail is passing through. The database is

constantly aware of the exact status and location of all mail items. Off they go, tagged,

registered and tracked in real-time.

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1.2.3 DELIVERY - TO THE RIGHT ADDRESS

Once all letters and packages are tagged, sorted and loaded into delivery vehicles

correctly, it's time to deliver them to their final destination. The tags contain all the

information needed for sorting the mail in the exact right order according to the optimal

route of delivery. When the postman starts his car, he is immediately informed where the

first mail box is. If a letter or package is forgotten at a stop, the RFID reader in the

vehicle will sense it and alert the postman that "There is one more letter in the car for Mr.

Johnson" before he leaves.

The delivery vehicle as well as the RFID readers in use are all equipped with GPS which

makes it possible to follow a tag like a moving dot on a map. The post database

constantly knows in which vehicle the mail item is travelling - even if it is not supposed

to be in that particular vehicle - making it almost impossible to lose track of mail.

1.2.4 RFID IMPLEMENTED IN POST SERVICES WORLD-WIDE

RFID has been active in the postal business area for a long time, though rather in truck,

box and pallet tracking than item-level tracking. It all started with tests that were aimed to

pointing out inefficiencies in the value chain. Letters and packages were randomly

equipped with RFID and send off to different destinations in the world. The tracking

results showed where the system needed improvements.

Saudi Post has already implemented RFID in post operations, and Deutsche Post DHL

has lowered fuel consumption with RFID-enabled pallets to avoid bottlenecks at loading

docks. ETRI of Korea developed an RFID system that aims to reduce costs, errors and

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tedious human intervention while maximizing mail package process capabilities and

minimizing logistics costs. The Italian Postal Service has been a leader in tagging postal

bags and other uses of RFID in the postal service.

Sweden Post is also a forerunner when it comes to using RFID. They mainly use it to

monitor the quality of their customer service by allowing customers to follow their own

products through the postal logistics with the help of RFID.  These are just a few

examples, though. For more information about 40 cases that has implemented RFID

world-wide, 

1.2.5 BENEFITS OF IMPLEMENTING RFID IN POSTAL SERVICES

As a conclusion we can state that tagging mail and mailboxes would result in:

Overall reduced rate of mail delivery error

Less human errors -> more efficient working hours in sorting and deliveries

Satisfied customers who trust the system

Less money spent on investigating lost mail

Less money spent on insurances for lost mail

Real-time up-to-date database

100% exact mail traceability service for customers

Less vandalism of mailboxes

Reduced handling costs for customers -> increased competitiveness

More efficient and flexible operations -> shorter delivery times

Enhanced security and safety

Cheaper return package costs (for online shopping)

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CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 COMPONENTS USED:

ATMEGA 8

Conveyer Belt

LCD Display

L293D Driver Circuit.

DC Gear Motor

EM-18 RFID module

LM7805 Voltage Regulator

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2.2ATMEGA8

The ATmega8 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR RISC

architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega8

achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, allowing the system designer to

optimize power consumption versus processing speed.

Figure 3: Block Diagram of ATMEGA8

The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers.

All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing

two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock

cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to

ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.

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The ATmega8 provides the following features: 8K bytes of In-System Programmable

Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 512 bytes of EEPROM, 1K byte of SRAM, 23

general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers, three flexible

Timer/Counters with compare modes, internal and external interrupts, a serial

programmable USART, a byte oriented Twowire Serial Interface, a 6-channel ADC

(eight channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages) with 10-bit accuracy, a programmable

Watchdog Timer with Internal Oscillator, an SPI serial port, and five software selectable

power saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM,

Timer/Counters, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Powerdown

mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip

functions until the next Interrupt or Hardware Reset. In Power-save mode, the

asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the

rest of the device is sleeping.

The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except

asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In

Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is

sleeping. This allows very fast start-up combined with low-power consumption.

The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high density non-volatile memory technology.

2.2.1FEATURES of ATMEGA 8:

• High-performance, Low-power AVR® 8-bit Microcontroller

• Advanced RISC Architecture

– 130 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution

– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

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– Fully Static Operation

– Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz

– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments

– 8K Bytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory

– 512 Bytes EEPROM

– 1K Byte Internal SRAM

– Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

– Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C

– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

True Read-While-Write Operation

– Programming Lock for Software Security

• Peripheral Features

– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one Compare Mode

– One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture

Mode

– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

– Three PWM Channels

– 8-channel ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package

Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy

– 6-channel ADC in PDIP package

Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy

– Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface

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– Programmable Serial USART

– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator

– On-chip Analog Comparator

• Special Microcontroller Features

– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

– Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator

– External and Internal Interrupt Sources

– Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, and

Standby

• I/O and Packages

– 23 Programmable I/O Lines

– 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF

• Operating Voltages

– 2.7 - 5.5V (ATmega8L)

– 4.5 - 5.5V (ATmega8)

• Speed Grades

– 0 - 8 MHz (ATmega8L)

– 0 - 16 MHz (ATmeg8)

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2.2.2PINCONFIGURATION:

Figure 4: Pin Diagram

VCC- Digital supply voltage.

GND - Ground.

Port B (PB7..PB0)XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each

bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink

and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source

current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset

condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock

selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and

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input to the internal clock operating circuit. Depending on the clock selection fuse

settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.

Port C (PC5..PC0)- Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up

resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive

characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are

externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C

pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

PC6/RESET- If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note

that the electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If

the RSTDISBL Fuse is un programmed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this

pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is

not running.

Port D (PD7..PD0)- Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up

resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive

characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are

externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D

pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the clock is not running.

RESET- Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length

will generate a reset, even if the clock is not running.

AVCC -AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3..0), and ADC

(7..6). It should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC

is used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that Port C (5..4)

use digital supply voltage, VCC.

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AREF -AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

ADC7..6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7..6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D

converter. These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC

channels.

Arithmetic Logic Unit – ALU

The high-performance AVR ALU operates in direct connection with all the 32 general

purpose working registers. Within a single clock cycle, arithmetic operations between

general purpose registers or between a register and an immediate are executed. The ALU

operations are divided into three main categories – arithmetic, logical, and bit-functions.

Some implementations of the architecture also provide a powerful multiplier supporting

both signed/unsigned multiplication and fractional format.

Status Register - The Status Register contains information about the result of the most

recently executed arithmetic instruction. This information can be used for altering

program flow in order to perform

conditional operations. Note that the Status Register is updated after all ALU operations,

as specified in the Instruction Set Reference. This will in many cases remove the need for

using the dedicated compare instructions, resulting in faster and more compact code. The

Status Register is not automatically stored when entering an interrupt routine and restored

when returning from an interrupt. This must be handled by software.

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The AVR Status Register – SREG – is defined as:

• Bit 7 – I: Global Interrupt Enable

The Global Interrupt Enable bit must be set for the interrupts to be enabled. The

individual interrupt enable control is then performed in separate control registers. If the

Global Interrupt Enable Register is cleared, none of the interrupts are enabled

independent of the individual interrupt enable settings. The I-bit is cleared by hardware

after an interrupt has occurred, and is set by the RETI instruction to enable subsequent

interrupts. The I-bit can also be set and cleared by the application with the SEI and CLI

instructions, as described in the Instruction Set Reference.

• Bit 6 – T: Bit Copy Storage

The Bit Copy instructions BLD (Bit LoaD) and BST (Bit STore) use the T-bit as source

or destination for the operated bit. A bit from a register in the Register File can be copied

into T by the BST instruction, and a bit in T can be copied into a bit in a register in the

Register File by the BLD instruction.

• Bit 5 – H: Half Carry Flag

The Half Carry Flag H indicates a Half Carry in some arithmetic operations. Half Carry is

usefulin BCD arithmetic.

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• Bit 4 – S: Sign Bit, S = N ⊕V

The S-bit is always an exclusive or between the Negative Flag N and the Two’s

Complement Overflow Flag.

• Bit 3 – V: Two’s Complement Overflow Flag

The Two’s Complement Overflow Flag V supports two’s complement arithmetics.

• Bit 2 – N: Negative Flag

The Negative Flag N indicates a negative result in an arithmetic or logic operation.

• Bit 1 – Z: Zero Flag

The Zero Flag Z indicates a zero result in an arithmetic or logic operation.

• Bit 0 – C: Carry Flag

The Carry Flag C indicates a Carry in an arithmetic or logic operation. See the

“Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.

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2.3 CONVERYER BELT

The Basics of a Conveyor Belt:

Conveyor belts are basically very wide belts attached in a loop to two or more turning

rotors driven by motors. The loop is the actual conveyor belt, and is generally made of

two or more layers of rubber, one layer to give shape and structure to the belt and one to

allow it to transport its load safely. This conveyor loop is generally attached to two

wheels, called rotors, which are spun by motors. The conveyor belt has enough friction

between it and the rotor that it sticks to this rotor.

The Movement of a Conveyor Belt:

As a rotor turns, the conveyor belt will turn as well due to the intense friction between the

rotor wheel and the belt. This turning motion of the rotor causes one side of the belt to

move in one direction, while the other moves in the opposite direction. This means that

both wheels must always be moving in relatively the same direction, either clockwise or

counter-clockwise. If the two rotor wheels moved in opposite directions, the conveyor

belt would not travel at all.

The Transportation along a Conveyor:

The word convey means to send or transmit; therefore, a conveyor is something that

sends or transmits. Conveyor belts, mostly used in industry, convey products or raw

materials through the use of either friction or mounts on the belt meant to hold the

product in place as the belt moves. As the conveyor belt moves its product, the product

stays around one place on the conveyor. Many times, twists or turns are put in conveyors;

these are facilitated by cone shaped rotors or wheels, which allow the conveyor to turn.

A belt conveyor system consists of two or more pulleys (sometimes referred to as drums),

with an endless loop of carrying medium - the conveyor belt - that rotates about them.

One or both of the pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material on the belt

forward. The powered pulley is called the drive pulley while the unpowered pulley is

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called the idler pulley. There are two main industrial classes of belt conveyors; Those in

general material handling such as those moving boxes along inside a factory and bulk

material handling such as those used to transport large volumes of resources and

agricultural materials, such as grain, salt, coal, ore, sand, overburden and more.

Figure 5: Conveyer Belt

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2.4 Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD)

INTRODUCTION:

It is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video display that uses the light

modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly.

LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display)

or fixed images which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7-

segment displays as in a digital clock. They use the same basic technology, except that

arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have

larger elements.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer

monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage. They are

common in consumer devices such as video players, gaming

devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones, and have replaced cathode ray

tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are available in a wider range of screen

sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they do not

suffer image burn-in. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence.[1]

The LCD screen is more energy efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT.

Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-

powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically modulated optical device made up

of any number of segments filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light

source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. Liquid crystals

were first discovered in 1888.[2] By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens

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exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most

purposes.

We always use devices made up of Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) like computers,

digital watches and also DVD and CD players. They have become very common and

have taken a giant leap in the screen industry by clearly replacing the use of Cathode Ray

Tubes (CRT). CRT draws more power than LCD and are also bigger and heavier. All of

us have seen an LCD, but no one knows the exact working of it. Let us take a look at the

working of an LCD.

Basics of an LCD Display

The liquid-crystal display has the distinct advantage of having low power consumption

than the LED. It is typically of the order of microwatts for the display in comparison to

the some order of mill watts for LEDs. Low power consumption requirement has made it

compatible with MOS integrated logic circuit. Its other advantages are its low cost, and

good contrast. The main drawbacks of LCDs are additional requirement of light source, a

limited temperature range of operation (between 0 and 60° C), low reliability, short oper-

ating life, poor visibility in low ambient lighting, slow speed and the need for an ac drive.

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Figure 6: LCD

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2.5 L293D – DRIVER IC

INTRODUCTION:

L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor to drive on

either direction. L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors

simultaneously in any direction. It means that you can control two DC motor with a

single L293D IC. Dual H-bridge Motor Driver integrated circuit (IC)

L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as

current amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-

current signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the motors.

L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of operation,

two DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse direction. The

motor operations of two motors can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 &

15. Input logic 00 or 11 will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it

in clockwise and anticlockwise directions, respectively.

Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors to start

operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver gets enabled. As a result,

the outputs become active and work in phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable

input is low, that driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance

state

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L293D Circuit:

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Figure 7: L293D Pin DiagramDiagram

2.6 DC GEAR MOTOR

INTRODUCTION:

Geared DC motors can be defined as an extension of DC motor which already had its

Insight details demystified here. A geared DC Motor has a gear assembly attached to the

motor. The speed of motor is counted in terms of rotations of the shaft per minute and is

termed as RPM .The gear assembly helps in increasing the torque and reducing the speed.

Using the correct combination of gears in a gear motor, its speed can be reduced to any

desirable figure. This concept where gears reduce the speed of the vehicle but increase its

torque is known as gear reduction.  This Insight will explore all the minor and major

details that make the gear head and hence the working of geared DC motor.

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE:

Figure 8: DC Gear Motor

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FUNCTION:

A gear motor is a specific type of electrical motor that is designed to produce high torque

while maintaining a low horsepower, or low speed, motor output. Gear motors can be

found in many different applications, and are probably used in many devices in your

home.

Gear motors are commonly used in devices such as can openers, garage door openers,

washing machine time control knobs and even electric alarm clocks. Common

commercial applications of a gear motor include hospital beds, commercial jacks, cranes

and many other applications that are too many to list.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

A gear motor can be either an AC (alternating current) or a DC (direct current) electric

motor. Most gear motors have an output of between about 1,200 to 3,600 revolutions per

minute (RPMs). These types of motors also have two different speed specifications:

normal speed and the stall-speed torque specifications.

Gear motors are primarily used to reduce speed in a series of gears, which in turn creates

more torque. This is accomplished by an integrated series of gears or a gear box being

attached to the main motor rotor and shaft via a second reduction shaft. The second shaft

is then connected to the series of gears or gearbox to create what is known as a series of

reduction gears. Generally speaking, the longer the train of reduction gears, the lower the

output of the end, or final, gear will be.

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2.7 EM – 18 Module

Figure 9: EM- 18 Reader Module

The EM-18 RFID Reader module operating at 125 kHz is an inexpensive solution for

your RFID based application. The Reader module comes with an on-chip antenna and can

be powered up with a 5V power supply. Power-up the module and connect the transmit

pin of the module to receive pin of your microcontroller. Show your card within the

reading distance and the card number is thrown at the output. Optionally the module can

be configured for also a weigand output.

Typical Applications

e-Payment

e-Toll Road Pricing

e-Ticketing for Events

e-Ticketing for Public Transport

Access Control

30

PC Access

Authentication

Printer / Production Equipment

Features

RF Transmit Frequency 125kHz

Supported Standards EM4001 64-bit RFID tag compatible

Communications Interface TTL Serial Interface.Communications Protocol Specific ASCII Communications Parameter 9600 bps, 8, N, 1 Power Supply 4.6V - 5.5VDC ± 10% regulated Current Consumption 50 mA

< 10mA at power down mode. Reading distance Up to 100mm, depending on tag Antenna Integrated Size 32 32 x 8mm

Figure 10: Circuit of Reader Module

31

2.8 LM 7805 : Voltage Regulator 7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed

linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and

would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output

voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is

designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable

values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage

levels.

Figure 11: 7805 IC

Features

• Output Current up to 1A

• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

• Thermal Overload Protection

• Short Circuit Protection

• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

32

Table 1: Absolute Max Ratings of 7805

33

CHAPTER – 3

DESIGNING OF CIRCUIT BOARD

Step 1: Prepare a layout of the circuit on any commonly used PCB designing software. A

layout is a design which interconnects the components according to the schematic

diagram (circuit diagram). Take a mirror image print of the layout on the OHP sheet

using a laser printer. Make sure that the design is correct with proper placement of the

components.

Step 2: Cut the copper board according to the size of layout. A copper board is the base

of a PCB, it can be single layer, double layer or multi layer board.

Single layer copper board has copper on one side of the PCB, they are used to make

single layer PCBs, it is widely used by hobbyist or in the small circuits. A double layer

copper board consists of copper on both the sides of the PCB. These boards are generally

used by the industries. A multilayer board has multiple layers of copper; they are quite

costly and mainly used for complex circuitries like mother board of PC.

Step 3: Rub the copper side of PCB using steel wool. This removes the top oxide layer of

copper as well as the photo resists layer if any.

Step 4: Place the OHP sheet (wax paper) which has the printed layout on the PCB sheet.

Make sure that the printed/mirror side should be placed on the copper side of PCB.

34

Step 5: Put a white paper on the OHP sheet and start ironing. The heat applied by the

electric iron causes the ink of the traces on the OHP sheet to stick on the copper plate

exactly in the same way it is printed on the OHP sheet. This means that the copper sheet

will now have the layout of the PCB printed on it. Allow the PCB plate to cool down and

slowly remove the OHP sheet. Since it is manual process it may happen that the layout

doesn’t comes properly on PCB or some of the tracks are broken in between. Use the

permanent marker and complete the tracks properly.

Step 6: Now the layout is printed on PCB. The area covered by ink is known as the

masked area and the unwanted copper, not covered by the ink is known as unmasked

area. Now make a solution of ferric chloride. Take a plastic box and fill it up with some

water. Dissolve 2-3 tea spoon of ferric chloride power in the water. Dip the PCB into the

Etching solution (Ferric chloride solution, Fecl3) for approximately 30 mins. The

Fecl3 reacts with the unmasked copper and removes the unwanted copper from the PCB.

This process is called as Etching.  Use pliers to take out the PCB and check if the entire

unmasked area has been etched or not. In case it is not etched leave it for some more time

in the solution.

Step 7: Take out the PCB wash it in cold water and remove the ink by rubbing it with

steel wool. The remaining area which has not been etched is the conductive copper tracks

which connect the components as per the circuit diagram.

Step 8: Now carefully drill the PCB using a drilling machine on the pads.

35

Step 9: Put the components in the correct holes and solder them.

This completes your PCB fabrication now put the components on mounting side and

solder them. Make sure that you properly dispose of the FeCl3 solution, clean your tools

and wash your hands after this exercise. You can also store the solution in a plastic box

for future use but not for too long.

36

Figure 12: PCB LAYOUT

37

CHAPTER - 6

PROGRAMMING FOR RFID BASED

COURIER SORTING SYSTEM

38

// include the library code:

// include the library code:

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

// initialize the library with the numbers of the interface pins

LiquidCrystallcd(9,4,5,6,7,8);

int a=0,x=0,a1=1,b1=1;

void setup()

{

Serial.begin(9600);

lcd.begin(16, 2);

Serial.println("Scan RFID Tag!");

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("WELCOME TO");

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("CORIER SORTATION");

pinMode(13,OUTPUT);

pinMode(10,OUTPUT);

pinMode(18,OUTPUT);

pinMode(15,OUTPUT);

pinMode(11,OUTPUT);

pinMode(12,OUTPUT);

}

void loop()

{

while (Serial.available())

{

39

int i =Serial.read();

Serial.println(i);

a=a+i;

x++;

Serial.println(a);

Serial.println(x);

}

if(a==689)

{

b1=3;

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("TO MUMBAI");

digitalWrite(10,HIGH);

move();

a1=3;

delay(3000);

digitalWrite(10,LOW);

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("CORIER SORTATION");

}

if(a==661)

{

b1=1;

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("TO DELHI");

digitalWrite(13,HIGH);

move();

a1=1;

delay(3000);

digitalWrite(13,LOW);

40

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("CORIER SORTATION");

}

if(a==669)

{

b1=2;

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("TO BANGLORE");

digitalWrite(15,HIGH);

move();

a1=2;

delay(3000);

digitalWrite(15,LOW);

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("CORIER SORTATION");

}

if(a==685)

{

b1=4;

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("TO CALCUTTA");

digitalWrite(18,HIGH);

move();

a1=4;

delay(3000);

digitalWrite(18,LOW);

lcd.clear();

41

lcd.print("CORIER SORTATION");

}

if(x>=12)

{

x=0;

a=0;

}

}

void move()

{

int l;

if(b1>a1)

l=b1-a1;

if(a1>b1)

l=4-a1+b1;

if(a1==b1)

l=0;

int d1=l*2300;

digitalWrite(11,HIGH);

digitalWrite(12,LOW);

delay(d1);

digitalWrite(11,LOW);

digitalWrite(12,LOW);

}

42

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE USEAs the production costs decrease, the use of RFID will continue to increase. According to the Auto-ID Center, up to 5,000,000,000 bar codes are scanned worldwide every day. Several companies, including Alien Technology Inc., are currently working on ways to manufacture tags that can be sold for five cents or less. At such a price, RFID can more viably compete with barcodes, and the industry will likely skyrocket.

Several companies, including Motorola Inc., are interested in correlating RFID tags with internet links. Suppose that you are comparing products from two different companies, and would like more information on which to base your choice. You pull out your web enabled PDA or cell phone that features a built in RFID receiver and use this to scan the product. The tag on the product transmits a code to your cell phone, which in turn accesses the internet. The company's webpage pops up and shows you the detailed product specifications.

In another scenario, imagine yourself in a grocery store of the future. You walk up to a cash register, and all your items are instantaneously scanned - in the midst of this process, the supermarket automatically updates its inventory, and the system orders more of the items needed. On the factory floor, this order is received and another RFID system locates the items needed; once they are gathered and shipped out, an RFID system tracks the progress to ensure delivery to your local grocery store.

When you return home, you place your items in your refrigerator which also has a reader. The reader scans the items and logs the time that each item is placed inside. If you just purchased a gallon of milk, your fridge will be able to retrieve information regarding when and where it was bottled, the quality of dairy products from that region, what the best-before date is, and what temperature it should be kept at.

These are just a few of the possible applications that RFID technology offers. In the near future, RFID tags will likely become as common as barcodes, and interminable Christmas shopping lines may become a thing of the past.

43

BIBLIOGRAPHY http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/

http://www.engineersgarage.com/

http://rfidarena.com/2012/9/26/national-post-office-rfid-system.aspx

www.wikipedia.com

www.ardiuno.co.in

Illumin.usc.edu

44