Machu Picchu EGA Galley Proof

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Chapter Title Machu Picchu: Geography and Culture

Copyright Year 2013

Copyright Holder Springer Science+Business Media New York

Corresponding Author Family Name TantaleánParticle

Given Name Henry

Suffix

Organization/University French Institute of Andean Studies

City Lima

Country Peru

Email [email protected]

Author Family Name Aguilar

Particle

Given Name Miguel A.

Suffix

Organization/University Universidad de los Andes

City Bogota

Country Colombia

Email [email protected]



Comp. by: THAMIZHVEL V Stage: Proof Chapter No.: 1996 Title Name: EGADate:30/4/13 Time:06:35:43 Page Number: 1

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2 Machu Picchu: Geography and3 Culture

4 Henry Tantalean1 and Miguel A. Aguilar 2

51French Institute of Andean Studies, Lima, Peru

62Universidad de los Andes, Bogota, Colombia

7 Introduction

8 Machu Picchu is an archaeological site known

9 worldwide. Furthermore, it is the most emblem-

10 atic site in the archaeology of Peru and in

11 building national discourses. It has undergone

12 a series of missions and “scientific” explorations

13 since the late nineteenth century, such as Antonio

14 Raimondi, Clements Markham, and Charles Wie-

15 ner (Mould de Pease 2008a). Between 1868 and

16 1919, it was represented by the mapping done by

17 these travelers. In 1874 it was recognized by the

18 Peruvian government in official map drawn up

19 by the German geologist Herman Goring (Mould

20 de Pease 2008b; Gavazzi 2012: 42). In 1911, the

21 American explorer Hiram Bingham claimed to

22

have discovered this site as the “Lost City of the23 Incas.” This would be the “scientific discovery”

24 of Machu Picchu. Seventy years after this

25 discovery, the site was declared by the Peruvian

26 government as “National Protected Area by the

27 State,” and it was in 1983 when it was declared

28 “World Cultural Heritage” by UNESCO.

29 However, in 2011, this organization included it

30 in its list of World Heritage in Danger.

31Definition

32The site of Machu Picchu amazes for the ability

33of its planners and builders, the Incas, to establish

34a monumental architecture within a natural

35environment so difficult. So, in this entry, the

36intimate relationship that Machu Picchu has

37between the geography inscribed in the nature

38of the area and the company of its designers,

39builders, and original users and their sacred status

40for this cultural group is going to be described.

41Key Issues/Current Debates/Future42Directions/Examples

43Machu Picchu is located at coordinates 13 90 4700

44south latitude and 72 320 4400 west longitude.

45Currently, it is part of the district of the same

46name, in the province of Urubamba, in the

47Department of Cuzco in Peru, about 2,430 m

48above the sea level. It is located about 80 km

49northwest of the regional capital and current

50ancient Inca capital, Cusco. Currently, the fastest

51

way to get there is through land transport or 52train crossing the tracks that follow the natural

53path in the valley of Urubamba or Sacred Valley

54to the town of Aguas Calientes, renamed as

55Machu Picchu town. From this town, located in

56the valley, at kilometer 110 of the highway

57coming from Cusco, it is possible to ascend

58directly to the archaeological site. You can also

59reach the site on foot along the so-called long way

60which takes about 3 days. This trail starts at

C. Smith (ed.), Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2,

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013




61 kilometer 88 of the highway in Qorihuayrachina

62 located at the very bottom of Urubamba valley,

63 but from there, you enter the mountainous area.

64 This “long way” goes across the rugged Andes65 passing through a series of Inca settlements and

66 sites reaching 4,250 m of altitude above sea level

67 (Open Warmiwaynuska) where you have

68 spectacular views of the mountains nearby like

69 Salkantay, considered “apus” or tutelary gods of

70 the ancient and modern inhabitants of the area.

71 The Inca sites of Runkuracay, Sayacmarca,

72 Phuyupatamarca, Winay Wayna, Intipata, and

73 many more, apart from being ancient complex

74 and agricultural terraces systems, complete

75 the long route which ends at the site of

76 Machu Picchu.77 The site itself occupies mainly the top of the

78 rocky outcrop known as Machu Picchu (“Young

79 Mountain”) and a natural backdrop to the north

80 known as Huayna Picchu (“Old Mountain”),

81 which also owns some buildings from the Inca

82 period. Both hills are part of a large orographic

83 formation known as Vilcabamba Batholith, com-

84 posed of intrusive igneous rocks, particularly

85 granite white to gray. The bases of both geolog-

86 ical formations are on the left bank of the

87 Urubamba River which almost entirely surrounds

88 it describing a closed meander around them. This

89 area of the valley was formerly known as Picchu

90 Gorge and is on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian

91 Andes since the waters of this river flow into the

92 jungle. The ruins of Machu Picchu are located

93 approximately at 400 m above the bottom of the

94 valley. Biogeographically, they are in the

95 Peruvian Yungas ecoregion, specifically in the

96 area known as mountainous forests of the eastern

97 slopes of the Andes of Peru.

98 The floorarea ofthe site, or llacta, isabout 5 ha

99

(Gavazzi 2010: 241). The site can be divided into100 two sectors according to type, number of architec-

101 tural structures, as well as a straight wall that

102 separates them. Thus we have the southeast sector

103 dominated by terraces and systems that would be

104 the agricultural zone and the northwest known as

105 residential or monumental (Canziani 2009: 459).

106 In turn, the residential sector is spatially divided

107 into two parts by a large square. In typically Incas

108 settlements, this division represented the biases

109called Hanan (top, higher) and Hurin (below,

110lower), a division with economic-political conno-

111tations besides ideological ones. This residential

112sector has 200 architectural structures which seem113to have housed a thousand inhabitants (Gasparini

114& Margolies 1977: 96). The buildings are made of

115granite blocks taken from a nearby quarry and are

116known as kanchas, the basic unit of Inca architec-

117ture, and which are composed of a series of

118rectangular structures surrounding a courtyard

119which allow direct access. Also, there are open

120spaces with no construction such as plazas. In

121addition, of the buildings made of stone that were

122roofed with plant material which comprises the

123core of the site, much of the work was invested

124in the construction of terraces on top of the hill and125on its lower slopes which allowed to stabilize the

126large concentration of buildings and better drain-

127age of rainfall, as well as they were used for

128agricultural crops.

129The consensus among scholars is that the site

130was built and occupied only during the Inca

131period. Also, different authors (Rowe 1990;

132Burger & Salazar 2004) agree, based on ethnohis-

133toric references, that the city was built during the

134time of Pachacutec government (circa 1450), one

135of the most enterprising rulers of the Inca Empire.

136It has even been suggested that this site would

137have located his mausoleum. Beyond this, it is

138clear that the site was built in the place for its

139natural conditions and landscape, a widespread

140practice in different places where the Incas built

141their main buildings. Also, the distance from the

142capital of Cusco and its location in the natural

143route that goes to the high forest would provide

144a space away from the capital to the rest of the elite

145that was occupied and the development

146of specialized agriculture activities (e.g., growing

147

corn ( Zea mays) and coca( Erytroxylum) coca) and148in a place that, like many of the Inca buildings in

149different ecological areas, established the employ-

150ment of architecture in spectacular landscapes

151connected to land, sky and its stars, the sea, and

152other relevant elements in the scenery. The

153amount of ceremonial-based architecture is so

154high in comparison to domestic-like structures

155that the site may have mainly served for sacred

156and ceremonial activities.

M 2 Machu Picchu: Geography and Culture




157 The diversification in technology and

158 structures, most of which unfinished, indicates

159 that multi-technology skill builders, mainly

160 from different areas of the Tahuantinsuyu, col-161 laborated to the construction process. The

162 unfinishing also shows that the site was aban-

163 doned at the time of the Spanish Conquest.

164 These three elements – the ceremonial destina-

165 tion, techno- and typological diversification and

166 the unfinished state – are coherent with the

167 hypothesis that Pachacutec may have intended

168 to reunite various religious and astronomical

169 traditions in one site, to better integrate the

170 expansion of the Tahuantinsuyu; his panaca

171 (royal family) may have led the construction

172 throughout time until the Spanish invasion.173 As we saw, the site has a sacred character

174 since the mausoleum of the Inca Pachacutec

175 would have been built there, which would be

176 located in the structure called the “Turret”

177 (National Institute of Culture of Cusco 2005). In

178 this mausoleum the Incas built three walls that

179 serve to stabilize a granite block and are partly

180 a natural ceiling of the cave, which would

181 house the mummy of this ninth Inca, which

182 would have been stolen during the colonial period

183 and was held by the Spanish until it was lost. The

184 site also includes the classic Incas carved stone

185 buildings, a number of elements that articulate

186 internally with nature and the surrounding geog-

187 raphy. For example, the system of canals that run

188 through the site allows the existence of freshwa-

189 ter spring collection whose purposes were

190 pragmatic and ritual (Mays & Gorokhovich

191 2010:188). Also, a number of natural caves

192 were modified and used as part of their ritual

193 spaces. Additionally, some sculptures were

194 carved in the rocky outcrops, as the one

195

representing a bird, in what has been called the196 Temple of the Condor , and highlight the relation-

197 ship that their designers and builders wanted to

198 convey with regard to the nature and the symbol-

199 ism which, for them, the sculptures involved.

200 Also, another rocky outcrop known as the

201 Intihuatana sculpted or the construction of build-

202 ings like the same Temple of the Sun or Turret

203 that is around a large rocky outcrop links the site

204 directly with the observation of the movement of

205the sun in the sky. Finally, the big rock carved or

206Sacred Rock , which mimics the horizon formed

207by the mountain called Yanantin, makes clear the

208link between the Inca culture and geography.209Regarding protection, Machu Picchu was

210declared an intangible territory by the Peruvian

211state and therefore is protected by the National

212System of Protected Natural Areas (SINANPE)

213which, in turn, is part of the National Park System

214under control of Peru’s National Institute of

215Natural Resources (INRENA). Therefore, the

216area where the site is has been designated as

217Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu. The

218Historic Sanctuary protects a number of biologi-

219cal species in danger of extinction and several

220Incas establishments, including Machu Picchu221which is considered the main one. In the

222Americas, Machu Picchu and the Mayan site of

223Tikal in Guatemala are the only two sites

224considered by UNESCO as a World Heritage

225inscribed with double category of Natural and

226Cultural.

227At present, we can recognize four main themes

228in current national and international debates

229about the place: (1) the history of the discovery

230of Machu Picchu archaeological site (Aguilar

2312011; Vilela & De La Puente 2011); (2) the use

232of the site as a tourist destination and its

233subsequent preservation and conservation

234(Martorell 2002; Lopez Lenci 2005); (3) the use

235of Machu Picchu as part of the generation of

236a local identity, regional and/or national, and the

237“institutionalization of memory” (Flores Ochoa

2382004; Jallade 2012); and (4) the relationship of

239indigenous communities and property and/or

240enjoyment of the site for tourism (Luciano

2412006; Zan & Lusiani 2011; Aguilar & Tantalean

2422012).

243

A better way to route all these talking points,244archaeological, anthropological, sociological,

245and historical in-depth research are necessary;

246fortunately these have already been generated in

247the last decade. Also, these discussions need to be

248grounded in a reflection on the way we are

249managing the archaeological site, which has

250a neoliberal orientation, also adopted by the

251Peruvian state.

Machu Picchu: Geography and Culture 3 M




252 Also, within the cultural policies of the

253 Peruvian state and international organizations

254 related to the archaeological and cultural heri-

255 tage, the communities associated with the site256 must be recognized as active agents of this

257 management and enjoyment. Consequently, the

258 state institutions that protect and manage the site

259 will need to establish better channels of dialogue

260 with the communities. Furthermore, it is expected

261 that in the coming years the communities near

262 Machu Picchu strengthen their processes of

263 interference and ownership of the site. Finally,

264 as we have seen, it is important to recognize

265 that the site was inscribed on the landscape within

266 an Andean rationality that should seek to be

267 maintained, as far as possible, for which we268 need the commitment and involvement of the

269 various political and economic institutions,

270 private companies, and social groups involved.

271 Cross-References

272 ▶Andes: Prehistoric Period

273 ▶Cultural Heritage Management and

274 Native Americans

275 ▶ Inca Empire State and Formation

276 ▶United Nations Educational, Scientific and

277 Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and

278 Malta Conventions

279 References

280 AGUILAR, M. 2011. Entre Dialogos y Repatriaciones.

281 Reparacion colonial por la memoria y preservacion

282 de Machu Picchu. Antıpoda 12: 211-234.

283 AGUILAR, M. & H. TANTALEAN. 2012. Estado, patrimonio284 cultural y comunidades indıgenas: Machu Picchu y la285 historia de un dialogo asimetrico, in de M. Rivolta,

286 M. Montenegro & L. Menezes (ed.) Multivocalidad

287 y activaciones patrimoniales en arqueologıa:

288 Perspectivas desde Sudamerica. Instituto Interdisci-

289 plinario Tilcara, Facultad de Filosofıa y Letras,

290 Universidad de Buenos Aires.

291 BURGER, R. & L. SALAZAR. 2004. Lifestyles of the rich and

292 famous: luxury and daily life in the households of

293 Machu Picchu’s elite, in S. Toby Evans & J. Pillsbury

294 (ed.) Palaces of the ancient New World: form, func-

295 tion, and meaning: 325-357. Washington,

296 D. C. umbarton Oaks Research Library andCollection.

297CANZIANI, J. 2009. Ciudad y Territorio en los Andes.

298Contribuciones a la Historia del Urbanismo

299Prehispanico. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Catolica

300del Peru.

301FLORES OCHOA, J. 2004. Contemporary significance of 302Machu Picchu, in R. Burger & L. Salazar (ed.)

303 Machu Picchu: unveiling the mystery of the Incas:

304109-123. New Haven: Yale University Press.

305GASPARINI, G. & L. MARGOLIES. 1977. Arquitectura Inka.

306Caracas: Centro de Investigaciones Historicas

307y Esteticas, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo.

308Universidad Central de Venezuela.

309GAVAZZI, A. 2010. Arquitectura Andina. Lima: Apu Graph

310ediciones.

311- 2012. Espacios Sagrados: La Herencia de los Centros

312Ceremoniales en la Arquitectura Inca de Machu

313Picchu, in M. Villavicencio (comp.) Peru Magico II.314 Homenaje a Machu Picchu: 41-59. Lima:

315Estruendomudo.

316INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE CULTURA DEL CUSCO. 2005.317 Machupicchu, Historia, Sacralidad e identidad .318Lima: Impresion Konygraf.

319JALLADE, S. 2012. L’homogene et le pluriel, L’exemple de

320la multiculturalite au Perou. Droit et Cultures 62 (2).

321(Spanish translation: La reinvencion de las rutas incas:

322representaciones y construccion de la memoria en el

323Peru (2001- 2011)). Available at: http://www.qhapaq-

324nan.org/rutas-incas-construccion-memoria.html.

325LOPEZ LENCI, Y. 2005. La ciudad del Cusco hoy: ¿lugar

326sagrado y/o marca registrada de una cultura

327globalizada? Available at: http://www.iai.spkberlin.de/ .

328LUCIANO, P. 2006. Neoliberalism, heritage conservation,

329and the resulting dispossession at Machu Picchu,

330

a protected area in the Peruvian Andes. Applied 331 Anthropology 26(1).

332MARTORELL, A. 2002. Machu Picchu, Patrimonio cultural

333y Natural de la Humanidad: problemas y alternativas.

334 Ecosistemas 2002(2). Available at: http://www.um.es/

335gtiweb/adrico/medioambiente/machu%20picchu.htm .

336MAYS, L . & Y . GOROKHOVICH. 2010. Water technology in the

337ancient American societies, in L. Mays (ed.) Ancient

338water technologies: 171-200. New York: Springer.

339MOULD DE PEASE, M. 2008a. De la propiedad de Machu

340Picchu. Lima CAP. Revista especializada en341arquitectura, urbanismo, y territorio 2(7): 58-60.

342- 2008b. Disco compacto: Mapas que muestran a

343 Machu Picchu antes de las visitas de Hiram Bingham.

3441868 -1910. Cuzco: Sociedad Pro Cultura, Clorinda

345Matto de Turner. Coleccion Franklin Pease G.Y. para346la Historia Andina del Peru, BNP.

347ROWE, J. 1990. Machu Picchu a la luz de documentos del

348siglo XVI. Histo rica 14(1): 139–154.

349VILELA, S. & C. DE LA PUENTE. 2011. El U ltimo Secreto de

350 Machu Picchu. Quien es Dueno de la Ciudadela de los351 Incas. Lima: El Comercio.

352ZAN, L. & M. LUSIANI. 2011. Managing change and master

353plans: Machu Picchu between conservation and

354exploitation. Archaeologies: Journal of the World

355 Archaeological Congress 7(2): 329-371.

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