Mac Intyre - Mintegiko aurkezpena ingelesez
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Transcript of Mac Intyre - Mintegiko aurkezpena ingelesez
Understanding and
Developing the Willingness to Communicate
Peter D. MacIntyre
Cape Breton University
Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada
Presented at EMUN
October, 2007
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Plan for this workshop
� Brief review of underpinnings of WTC theory (20 minutes)
� Focus on the choice to communicate or not
� Brief review of studies of WTC (10 minutes)
� Activity showing situational variation in WTC (20 minutes)
� Group discussion of factors affecting WTC (35 minutes)
� Discussion of personal experiences with high and low WTC
� Discussion of ways to alter the situation to increase WTC
� Focus on the personal experiences of people attending the workshop
� Summary and Conclusions (5 minutes)
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When does a language learner
become a language speaker? (observations from a paper forthcoming in Modern Language Journal)
� Moment of decision reflects a collision of
motivation and language anxiety
� implicates other process as well
� Volitional Action, Freely chosen
� Sometimes mindless, sometimes mindful
� Reflects the ‘self’
� Four Studies
� Personal Experiences of attendees
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Language anxiety
� 3 levels of concepts
� Trait
� Situation-specific
� State
� 3 levels of prediction
� Poor
� Very good
� Not well known
“Worry and Emotionality (usually negative) associated with L2 learning”
Observation #1: The relationships among variables under study in
SLA may change substantially when concepts are defined at different levels of abstraction (e.g., state, situation-specific or trait levels).
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Motivation
� Gardner’s SE model
� Integrative Motivate
� Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System
� ‘Ideal’ Self
� ‘Ought to’ Self
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Gardner’s integrative motive
Integrativeness
Attitudes toward
the learning
situation
Motivation Language
Achievement
Language Aptitude
Integrative motivation:
other other
Observation #2: The major motivation to learn another language is to
develop a communicative relationship with people from another cultural group.
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Expansion of motivation concepts
in SLA
� Self-determination theory (Noels)
� Physiological approaches (Schummann)
� Learner Autonomy (Ushioda)
� Task Motivation (Julkunen)
� Process Model (Dörnyei & Otto)
� L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei)
� Critical-Qualitative Perspective (Norton)
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Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational
Self System
� Rephrasing of integrative motivation is needed to account for:
�Learning situations without contact
�World English has no ethnic group
� Integrative and instrumental co-occur
� Ideal Self (what we wish to be become)
� Ought to self (what we should become)
� L2 learning experience (past L2 behavior)
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On the nature of ‘the self’
� The Self:
“What began as an apparently singular, static, lump-like
entity has become a multi-dimensional, multifaceted dynamic structure that is systematically implicated in
all aspects of social information processing.”
� (Markus & Wurf, 1987, pg 301).
• Identity – multifaceted, dynamic
• Motivation - multifaceted, dynamic
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Possible Selves (PS) as motivation
� PS are views of oneself in the future� Both wanted and feared
� Theory emphasizes balance between wanted & feared
� Vague hopes and specific expectations
� The vision of a new self is motivating� Articulate goals
� Links behaviour to goal
� Provide potential incentives for actions
� The more specific they are, the better they guide behaviour (Oyserman et al., 2004)
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Motivation differs over time
� Different motivational processes occur before, during, and after behavior.
� Motivational approaches will implicate a time frame, for example
� Focus on longer lasting process (integrative)
� Focus on rapidly changing events (tasks)
Observation #3:The manner in which motivation affects language
learning changes as the time frame under study changes.
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Social and Individual Context
Affective-Cognitive Context
Motivational Propensities
Behavioural Intention
Communication
Behaviour
Situated Antecedents
Layer I
Layer II
Layer III
Layer IV
Layer VI
Layer VSocial
Situation
Intergroup
Attitudes
Intergroup Climate Personality
Communicative
Competence
L2
Self-Confidence
Interpersonal
Motivation
State
Communicative
Self-Confidence
Desire to
communicate with
a specific person
L2 Use
Willingness to
Communicate
Intergroup
Motivation
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2
3 4
5 6 7
8 9 10
11 12
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WTC concept
� Original L1 concept was ‘trait-like’
� Our concept proposes a ‘state’ of readiness
� Initiating communication is a matter of choice
� Volitional act
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Volition
� Long history in psychology and philosophy
� Concept all but abandoned as issues of ‘free will’ were found intractable
� Offers the potential to study how multiple, sometimes contradictory impulses, affect action
Observation #4: Studying volitional choices demonstrates that
opposing processes (e.g., approach and avoidance) converge to affect second language communication.
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Two studies on the process of
initiating communication
� MacIntyre, Babin & Clément (1999)�communication in both oral and written forms.
� MacIntyre, Clément & Noels, 2007� In familiar conditions, introverts learned more
and were more WTC than extraverts
� In moderately unfamiliar conditions, extraverts learned more and were more WTC than introverts
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Effects of Extraversion and Familiarity of Study Situation
0
5
10
15
20
25
Very Similar Somew hat Similar Not at all Similar
Sco
re
Introvert
Extrovert
Posttest
State WTC
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Two Focused Essay Studies
Baker & MacIntyre (2000)
� 200 English speaking students learning French,
regular and immersion programs
� Described 2 situations
� most willing
� least willing
� We looked for themes and noticed emotional
expression
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Most willing
� Immersion students had weaker emotional reactions in these situations than non-immersion students
� Non-immersion students were pleased with small successes:
“My father has a tailoring and bridal shop… and one day a French speaking lady came in and my Dad’s wife can speak French but she was off that day, so I was able to help her [the lady] out enough so that she would come back.”
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Least Willing
� Immersion students expressed stronger emotion in these situations
� In both immersion and non-immersion, the type of event that upset them most was a Francophone interlocutor switching to English� a dramatic rejection of volitional self-presentation, it
is ignominious
� unexpectedly, many reported this was a motivating experience
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Second Focused Essay Study
� Again used Most / Least Willing
� Over 100 Anglophone and Francophone students in Ottawa
� strongly bilingual institution, bilingual city
� Typically, Francophones have higher more experience speaking English than Anglophones have speaking French
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Most Willing
� Anglophones most willing in situations where the only other choice was silence (25% of situations described)� Interlocutor was expected to speak English if possible
� Anglophones said error correction increased and decreased WTC, depending on context (20% mentioned error correction).
“I’d be most willing if I had friends around me. I always felt comfortable in a classroom giving a speech. When you are out of the classroom I feel like people are analyzing me. I don’t mind when a teacher does it, but not an acquaintance.”
� Francophones were generally highly willing, especially if friends spoke English
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Least Willing - Anglophones
� Anglophones described two situations:
� a lack of self-confidence in French (over 20%)
� speaking to strangers (over 20%)
� reported a feeling of being analyzed and
critiqued, especially for accent and grammar
� Recall William James’ account of the ‘cold outside’
as a paralyzing force.
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Least Willing – Francophones
� Least willing with Francophones (50%)
� family, friends, etc.
� Political dimension, English poses a threat to the vitality of French
� Highly specific situational vocabulary
“Quand je dois parler de sujets tres precis ou je ne suis pas certains de l’exactitude des termes.” (“When I must talk about precise topics and I am not certain of the exact terminology.”)
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At the moment of decision…
� Many factors can increase or decrease the likelihood of ‘crossing the Rubicon’� Psychological
� Pedagogical
� Situational
� Linguistic
� Sociopolitical
� The influence of these will vary, wax and wane over time
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Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory
� Action is based on totality of co-existing, mutually interdependent facets.
� General life vs momentary influences� Momentary influences have greater impact on action
� Driving vs Restraining forces� Easier to modify action by reducing restraining
forces.� Anglophone speakers in Ottawa were clearly holding
back
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Future research� Better understand the combinations of multiple driving
and restraining forces
� Focus on the moment, state-level processes
� Increases the complexity of the models� Wen & Clément (2003) additional restraining forces among
Chinese (based on deference and responsibility)
� Yashima (2002) found WTC predicted adjustment and satisfaction with a stay-abroad program
Observation #5: Future research in SLA should focus on the
momentary restraining forces that come into play when a speaker is choosing whether or not to initiate communication.
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Summary: The ‘Observations’
#1: The relationships among variables under study in SLA may change substantially when concepts are defined at different levels of abstraction (e.g., state, situation-specific or trait levels).
#2: The major motivation to learn another language is to develop a communicative relationship with people from another cultural group.
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Summary: The ‘Kernels of Wisdom’
#3: The manner in which motivation affects language learning changes as the time frame under study changes.
#4: Studying volitional choices demonstrates that opposing processes (e.g., approach and avoidance) converge to affect second language communication.
#5: Future research in SLA should focus on the momentary restraining forces that come into play when a speaker is choosing whether or not to initiate communication.
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Workshop activities
� WTC most and least willing exercise (handout)
� WTC questions for the workshop participants (handout)
� WTC and possible selves (handout)
Willingness to Communicate:crossing the psychological
Rubicon from learning to communication.
Peter D. MacIntyre
Cape Breton University
Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada
Presented at EMUN
October, 2007