LSAT_PT_38.pdf

LSAT*

PrepTest 38October 2002

Test ID: LL3038

A complete version of PrepTest XXXVIII has been reproducedwith the permission of Law School Admission Council, Inc.

Prep Test XXXVIII 2002 Law School Admission Council, Inc.

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Logical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION I

Analytical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION II

Reading Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION III

Logical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION IV

1. Physician: In itself, exercise does not cause heartattacks; rather, a sudden increase in an exerciseregimen can be a cause. When people of anyphysical condition suddenly increase theiramount of exercise, they also increase their riskof heart attack. As a result, there will be anincreased risk of heart attack among employeesof this company due to the new health program.

The conclusion drawn by the physician followslogically if which one of the following is assumed?

(A) Employees will abruptly increase their amountof exercise as a result of the new healthprogram.

(B) The exercises involved in the new healthprogram are more strenuous than those in theprevious health program.

(C) The new health program will force employeesof all levels of health to exercise regularly.

(D) The new health program constitutes a suddenchange in the companys policy.

(E) All employees, no matter what their physicalcondition, will participate in the new healthprogram.

2. Last month OCF, Inc., announced what it describedas a unique new product: an adjustable computerworkstation. Three days later ErgoTech unveiled analmost identical product. The two companies claimthat the similarities are coincidental and occurredbecause the designers independently reached thesame solution to the same problem. The similaritiesare too fundamental to be mere coincidence,however. The two products not only look alike, butthey also work alike. Both are oddly shaped withidentically placed control panels with the same typesof controls. Both allow the same types of adjustmentsand the same types of optional enhancements.

The main point of the argument is that

(A) the two products have many characteristics incommon

(B) ErgoTech must have copied the design of itsnew product from OCFs design

(C) the similarities between the two products arenot coincidental

(D) product designers sometimes reach the samesolution to a given problem withoutconsulting each other

(E) new products that at first appear to be unique aresometimes simply variations of other products

Questions 34

An anthropologist hypothesized that a certainmedicinal powder contained a significant amount of thedeadly toxin T. When the test she performed for thepresence of toxin T was negative, the anthropologist didnot report the results. A chemist who nevertheless learnedabout the test results charged the anthropologist withfraud. The anthropologist, however, countered that thoseresults were invalid because the powder had inadvertentlybeen tested in an acidic solution.

3. In the absence of the anthropologists reply, whichone of the following principles, if established, wouldmost support the chemists charge?

(A) Reporting results for an experiment that wasnot conducted and reporting a false result foran actual experiment are both instances ofscientific fraud.

(B) Scientists can commit fraud and yet reportsome disconfirmations of their hypotheses.

(C) Scientists can neglect to report somedisconfirmations of their hypotheses and yetbe innocent of fraud.

(D) Scientists commit fraud whenever they reportas valid any test result they know to beinvalid.

(E) Scientists who neglect to report anyexperiment that could be interpreted asdisconfirming their hypotheses have therebycommitted fraud.

4. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthensthe anthropologists counterargument?

(A) The anthropologist had evidence from fieldwork that the medicinal powder was typicallyprepared using toxin T.

(B) The activity level of toxin T tends to decline ifthe powder is stored for a long time.

(C) When it is put into an acidic solution, toxin Tbecomes undetectable.

(D) A fresh batch of powder for a repeat analysiswas available at the time of the test.

(E) The type of analysis used was insensitive tovery small amounts of toxin T.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

1 -2- 11SECTION I

Time35 minutes

24 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are bycommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

5. Naima: The proposed new computer system, oncewe fully implemented it, would operate moresmoothly and efficiently than the currentsystem. So we should devote the resourcesnecessary to accomplish the conversion assoon as possible.

Nakai: We should keep the current system for aslong as we can. The cost in time and money ofconverting to the new system would be greaterthan any predicted benefits.

Naima and Nakai disagree with each other overwhether

(A) the predicted benefits of the new computersystem will be realized

(B) it is essential to have the best computer systemavailable

(C) accomplishing the conversion is technicallyimpossible

(D) the current computer system does not workwell enough to do what it is supposed to do

(E) the conversion to a new computer systemshould be delayed

6. Every year, new reports appear concerning the healthrisks posed by certain substances, such as coffee andsugar. One year an article claimed that coffee isdangerous to ones health. The next year, anotherarticle argued that coffee has some benefits for oneshealth. From these contradictory opinions, we seethat experts are useless for guiding ones decisionsabout ones health.

Which one of the following most accurately describesa flaw in the argument above?

(A) The argument takes for granted that coffee isdangerous to ones health.

(B) The argument presumes, without providingwarrant, that one always wants expertguidance in making decisions about oneshealth.

(C) The argument fails to consider the nature ofexpert opinion in areas other than health.

(D) The argument presumes, without providingjustification, that because expert opinion istrustworthy in one case, it must therefore betrustworthy in all cases.

(E) The argument fails to consider that coffee maybe harmful to ones health in some respectsand beneficial in others.

7. Because people are generally better at detectingmistakes in others work than in their own, a prudentprinciple is that one should always have ones ownwork checked by someone else.

Which one of the following provides the bestillustration of the principle above?

(A) The best elementary school math teachers arenot those for whom math was always easy.Teachers who had to struggle through maththemselves are better able to explain math tostudents.

(B) One must make a special effort to clearlyexplain ones views to someone else; peoplenormally find it easier to understand theirown views than to understand others views.

(C) Juries composed of legal novices, rather thanpanels of lawyers, should be the final arbitersin legal proceedings. People who are not legalexperts are in a better position to detect goodlegal arguments by lawyers than are otherlawyers.

(D) People should always have their writingproofread by someone else. Someone whodoes not know in advance what is meant to besaid is in a better position to spottypographical errors.

(E) Two people going out for dinner will have amore enjoyable meal if they order for eachother. By allowing someone else to choose,one opens oneself up to new and excitingdining experiences.

8. Pundit: The only airline providing service for ourtown announced that because the service isunprofitable it will discontinue this servicenext year. Town officials have urged thecommunity to use the airlines service morefrequently so that the airline will change itsdecision. There is no reason to comply withtheir recommendation, however, for just lastweek these same officials drove to an out-of-town conference instead of flying.

The pundits reasoning is most vulnerable tocriticism on the grounds that it presumes, withoutproviding justification, that

(A) increasing the number of tickets sold withoutincreasing ticket prices will be sufficient to makecontinued air service economically feasible

(B) suspending service and losing money bycontinuing service are the airlines only options

(C) the town officials paid for their trip withtaxpayers money rather than their own money

(D) ground transportation is usually no lessexpensive than airplane transportation

(E) if the town officials did not follow their ownadvice then that advice is not worth following


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9. Some scientists believe that 65 million years ago anasteroid struck what is now the Yucatn Peninsula,thereby causing extinction of the dinosaurs. Thesescientists have established that such a strike couldhave hurled enough debris into the atmosphere toblock sunlight and cool the atmosphere. Withoutadequate sunlight, food sources for herbivorousdinosaurs would have disappeared, and no dinosaurscould have survived a prolonged period of lowtemperatures. These same scientists, however, havealso established that most debris launched by theasteroid would have settled to the ground within sixmonths, too soon for the plants to disappear or thedinosaurs to freeze.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps toresolve the apparent discrepancy between thescientists beliefs and the scientists results, asdescribed above?

(A) Loss of the herbivorous dinosaurs would havedeprived the carnivorous dinosaurs of theirfood source.

(B) Dinosaurs inhabited most landmasses on theplanet but were not especially abundant inthe area of the asteroid strike.

(C) A cloud of debris capable of diminishingsunlight by 20 percent would have cooled theearths surface by 7 to 10 degrees Celsius.

(D) The asteroid was at least 9.6 km in diameter,large enough for many dinosaurs to be killedby the strike itself and by subsequent tidalwaves.

(E) Dinosaurs were susceptible to fatal respiratoryproblems caused by contamination of the airby asteroid debris.

10. Bernard: For which language, and thus whichfrequency distribution of letters and lettersequences, was the standard typewriterkeyboard designed?

Cora: To ask this question, you must be making amistaken assumption: that typing speed was tobe maximized. The real danger with earlytypewriters was that operators would hitsuccessive keys too quickly, thereby crashingtypebars into each other, bending connectingwires, and so on. So the idea was to slow theoperator down by making the most commonletter sequences awkward to type.

Bernard: This is surely not right! These technologicallimitations have long since vanished, yet thekeyboard is still as it was then.

Which one of the following, if true, could be used byCora to counter Bernards rejection of her explanation?

(A) Typewriters and word-processing equipmentare typically sold to people who have learnedto use the standard keyboard and who,therefore, demand it in equipment they buy.

(B) Typewriters have been superseded in mostoffices by word-processing equipment, whichhas inherited the standard keyboard fromtypewriters.

(C) The standard keyboard allows skilledoperators to achieve considerable typingspeeds, though it makes acquiring such skillsrelatively difficult.

(D) A person who has learned one keyboard layoutcan readily learn to use a second one in placeof the first, but only with difficulty learn touse a second one alongside the first.

(E) It is now possible to construct typewriters andword-processing equipment in which a singlekeyboard can accommodate two or even moredifferent keyboard layouts, each accessible tothe operator at will.


1 -4- 11

11. Some teachers claim that students would not learncurricular content without the incentive of grades.But students with intense interest in the materialwould learn it without this incentive, while thebehavior of students lacking all interest in thematerial is unaffected by such an incentive. Theincentive of grades, therefore, serves no essentialacademic purpose.

The reasoning in the argument is flawed because theargument

(A) takes for granted that the only purpose ofschool is to convey a fixed body ofinformation to students

(B) takes for granted that students who areindifferent to the grades they receive aregenuinely interested in the curricular material

(C) fails to consider that the incentive of gradesmay serve some useful nonacademic purpose

(D) ignores the possibility that students who lackinterest in the curricular material would bequite interested in it if allowed to choose theirown curricular material

(E) fails to consider that some students may beneither fascinated by nor completelyindifferent to the subject being taught

12. Economist: Technology now changes so rapidlythat workers need periodic retraining. Suchretraining can be efficient only if it allowsindividual companies to meet their own short-term needs. Hence, large governmental jobretraining programs are no longer a viableoption in the effort to retrain workersefficiently.

Which one of the following is an assumptionrequired by the economists argument?

(A) Workers did not need to be retrained when thepace of technological change was slower thanit is currently.

(B) Large job retraining programs will be lessefficient than smaller programs if the pace oftechnological change slows.

(C) No single type of retraining program is mostefficient at retraining technological workers.

(D) Large governmental job retraining programsdo not meet the short-term needs ofindividual companies.

(E) Technological workers are more likely nowthan in the past to move in order to find workfor which they are already trained.

13. Recent research indicates that increased consumptionof fruits and vegetables by middle-aged peoplereduces their susceptibility to stroke in later years.The researchers speculate that this may be becausefruits and vegetables are rich in folic acid. Low levelsof folic acid are associated with high levels ofhomocysteine, an amino acid that contributes toblocked arteries.

Which one of the following statements is moststrongly supported by the information above?

(A) An increased risk of stroke is correlated withlow levels of homocysteine.

(B) A decreased risk of stroke is correlated withincreased levels of folic acid.

(C) An increased propensity for blocked arteries iscorrelated with decreased levels ofhomocysteine.

(D) A decreased propensity for blocked arteries iscorrelated with low levels of folic acid.

(E) Stroke is prevented by ingestion of folic acid inquantities sufficient to prevent a decline inthe levels of homocysteine.

14. Thirty years ago, the percentage of the British peoplewho vacationed in foreign countries was very smallcompared with the large percentage of the Britishpopulation who travel abroad for vacations now.Foreign travel is, and always has been, expensivefrom Britain. Therefore, British people must have, onaverage, more money to spend on vacations nowthan they did 30 years ago.

The argument requires assuming which one of thefollowing?

(A) If foreign travel had been less expensive 30years ago, British people would still not havehad enough money to take vacations abroad.

(B) If travel to Britain were less expensive, morepeople of other countries would travel toBritain for their vacations.

(C) If the percentage of British people vacationingabroad was lower 30 years ago, then theBritish people of 30 years ago must havespent more money on domestic vacations.

(D) If more of the British people of 30 years agohad had enough money to vacation abroad,more would have done so.

(E) If British people are now wealthier than theywere 30 years ago, then they must have moremoney to spend on vacations now than theydid 30 years ago.


1 1-5-1

15. Mystery stories often feature a brilliant detective andthe detectives dull companion. Clues are presented inthe story, and the companion wrongly infers aninaccurate solution to the mystery using the same cluesthat the detective uses to deduce the correct solution.Thus, the authors strategy of including the dullcompanion gives readers a chance to solve the mysterywhile also diverting them from the correct solution.

Which one of the following is most stronglysupported by the information above?

(A) Most mystery stories feature a brilliantdetective who solves the mystery presented inthe story.

(B) Mystery readers often solve the mystery in astory simply by spotting the mistakes in thereasoning of the detectives dull companion inthat story.

(C) Some mystery stories give readers enoughclues to infer the correct solution to themystery.

(D) The actions of the brilliant detective in amystery story rarely divert readers from theactions of the detectives dull companion.

(E) The detectives dull companion in a mysterystory generally uncovers the misleading cluesthat divert readers from the mysterys correctsolution.

16. Policy analyst: Increasing the size of a police forceis only a stopgap method of crime prevention;it does not get at the root causes of crime.Therefore, city officials should not respond torising crime rates by increasing the size oftheir citys police force.

The flawed reasoning in which one of the followingarguments most closely resembles the flawedreasoning in the policy analysts argument?

(A) Some people think that rules with higherstandards than people can live up to, such asthose enjoining total honesty, prevent someimmoral behavior by giving people a guide toself-improvement. But such rules actuallyworsen behavior by making people cynicalabout rules. Thus, societies should notinstitute overly demanding rules.

(B) Swamps play an important role in allaying theharsh effects of floods because they absorb agreat deal of water. Although dams preventmany floods, they worsen the effects of thegreatest floods by drying up swamps. Thusdams should not be built.

(C) Although less effective in preventing theft thansecurity guards, burglar alarm systems aremore affordable to maintain. Because thegreater loss from theft when alarms are usedis outweighed by their lower cost, companiesare advised always to use burglar alarmsystems.

(D) Because taking this drug does not cure thedisease for which it is prescribed, but onlyreduces the diseases most harmful effects,doctors should not continue to prescribe thisdrug.

(E) We will never fully understand what causespeople to engage in criminal activity.Therefore, we should investigate other ways toimprove societys ability to combat crime.


1 -6- 11

Questions 1718

In order to determine automobile insurancepremiums for a driver, insurance companies calculatevarious risk factors; as the risk factors increase, so does thepremium. Certain factors, such as the drivers age and pastaccident history, play an important role in thesecalculations. Yet these premiums should also increase withthe frequency with which a person drives. After all, apersons chance of being involved in a mishap increases inproportion to the number of times that person drives.

17. Which one of the following, if true, most underminesthe argument?

(A) People who drive infrequently are more likelyto be involved in accidents that occur onsmall roads than in highway accidents.

(B) People who drive infrequently are less likely tofollow rules for safe driving than are peoplewho drive frequently.

(C) People who drive infrequently are less likely toviolate local speed limits than are people whodrive frequently.

(D) People who drive frequently are more likely tomake long-distance trips in the course of ayear than are people who drive infrequently.

(E) People who drive frequently are more likely tobecome distracted while driving than arepeople who drive infrequently.

18. The claim that insurance premiums should increaseas the frequency with which a driver drives increasesplays which one of the following roles in theargument?

(A) a premise of the argument(B) the conclusion of the argument(C) evidence offered in support of one of the

premises (D) an assertion phrased to preclude an

anticipated objection (E) a clarification of a key term in the argument

19. Essayist: Only happiness is intrinsically valuable;other things are valuable only insofar as theycontribute to happiness. Some philosophersargue that the fact that we do not approve of abad persons being happy shows that we valuehappiness only when it is deserved. Thissupposedly shows that we find somethingbesides happiness to be intrinsically valuable.But the happiness people deserve isdetermined by the amount of happiness theybring to others. Therefore, ______.

Which one of the following most logically completesthe final sentence of the essayists argument?

(A) the notion that people can be deserving ofhappiness is ultimately incoherent

(B) people do not actually value happiness asmuch as they think they do

(C) the judgment that a person deserves to behappy is itself to be understood in terms ofhappiness

(D) the only way to be assured of happiness is tobring happiness to those who have donesomething to deserve it

(E) a truly bad person cannot actually be veryhappy

20. Sociologist: Climate and geology determine wherehuman industry can be established. Drasticshifts in climate always result in migrations,and migrations bring about the interminglingof ideas necessary for rapid advances incivilization.

The sociologists statements, if true, most stronglysupport which one of the following?

(A) Climate is the primary cause of migration.(B) All shifts in climate produce a net gain in

human progress.(C) A population remains settled only where the

climate is fairly stable.(D) Populations settle in every place where human

industry can be established.(E) Every migration is accompanied by rapid

advances in civilization.


1 1-7-1

21. Some educators claim that it is best that schoolcourses cover only basic subject matter, but cover itin depth. These educators argue that if studentsachieve a solid grasp of the basic concepts andinvestigatory techniques in a subject, they will beable to explore the breadth of that subject on theirown after the course is over. But if they simply learna lot of factual information, without trulyunderstanding its significance, they will not be wellequipped for further study on their own.

The educators reasoning provides grounds foraccepting which one of the following statements?

(A) It is easier to understand how plants andanimals are classified after learning howplants and animals can be useful.

(B) It is more difficult to recall the details of a dulland complicated lecture than of a lively andinteresting one.

(C) It is easier to remember new ideas explainedpersonally by a teacher than ideas that oneexplores independently.

(D) It is easier to understand any Greek tragedyafter one has analyzed a few of them in detail.

(E) It is easier to learn many simple ideas wellthan to learn a few complicated ideas well.

22. Damming the Merv River would provide irrigationfor the dry land in its upstream areas; unfortunately,a dam would reduce agricultural productivity in thefertile land downstream by reducing the availabilityand quality of the water there. The productivity lossin the downstream area would be greater than theproductivity gain upstream, so building a dam wouldyield no overall gain in agricultural productivity inthe region as a whole.

The reasoning in the argument above most closelyparallels that in which one of the following?

(A) Disease-causing bacteria in eggs can bedestroyed by overcooking the eggs, but the eggsthen become much less appetizing; health ismore important than taste, however, so it isbetter to overcook eggs than not to do so.

(B) Increasing the price of transatlantic telephonecalls will discourage many private individualsfrom making them. But since most transatlantictelephone calls are made by businesses, not byprivate individuals, a rate increase will notreduce telephone company profits.

(C) A new highway will allow suburbancommuters to reach the city more quickly, butnot without causing increased delays withinthe city that will more than offset any timesaved on the highway. Therefore, the highwaywill not reduce suburban commuters overallcommuting time.

(D) Doctors can prescribe antibiotics for manyminor illnesses, but antibiotics are expensive,and these illnesses can often be cured by restalone. Therefore, it is better to rest at homethan to see a doctor for these illnesses.

(E) A certain chemical will kill garden pests thatdamage tomatoes, but that chemical willdamage certain other plants more severelythan the pests damage the tomatoes, so theonly gardens that will benefit from the use ofthe chemical are those in which onlytomatoes are grown.


1 -8- 11

23. Activist: Food producers irradiate food in order toprolong its shelf life. Five animal studies wererecently conducted to investigate whether thisprocess alters food in a way that could bedangerous to people who eat it. The studiesconcluded that irradiated food is safe forhumans to eat. However, because these studieswere subsequently found by a panel ofindependent scientists to be seriously flawed intheir methodology, it follows that irradiatedfood is not safe for human consumption.

The reasoning in the activists argument is flawedbecause that argument

(A) treats a failure to prove a claim as constitutingproof of the denial of that claim

(B) treats methodological flaws in past studies asproof that it is currently not possible todevise methodologically adequate alternatives

(C) fails to consider the possibility that even astudy whose methodology has no seriousflaws nonetheless might provide only weaksupport for its conclusion

(D) fails to consider the possibility that what is safefor animals might not always be safe forhuman beings

(E) fails to establish that the independentscientists know more about food irradiationthan do the people who produced the fivestudies

24. One-year-olds ordinarily prefer the taste of sweetfood to that of salty food. Yet if one feeds a one-year-old salty food rather than sweet food, then over aperiod of about a year he or she will develop a tastefor the salty flavor and choose to eat salty food ratherthan sweet food. Thus, a young childs tastepreferences can be affected by the type of food he orshe has been exposed to.

Which one of the following is an assumptionrequired by the argument?

(A) Two-year-olds do not naturally prefer saltyfood to sweet food.

(B) A childs taste preferences usually changebetween age one and age two.

(C) Two-year-olds do not naturally dislike saltyfood so much that they would not choose itover some other foods.

(D) The salty food fed to infants in order to changetheir taste preferences must taste pleasant.

(E) Sweet food is better for infant developmentthan is salty food.

1 1-9-1

S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

2 -10- 2

Questions 17

A car drives into the center ring of a circus and exactlyeight clownsQ, R, S, T, V, W, Y, and Zget out of the car,one clown at a time. The order in which the clowns get outof the car is consistent with the following conditions:

V gets out at some time before both Y and Q.Q gets out at some time after Z.T gets out at some time before V but at some time

after R.S gets out at some time after V.R gets out at some time before W.

1. Which one of the following could be the order, fromfirst to last, in which the clowns get out of the car?

(A) T, Z, V, R, W, Y, S, Q(B) Z, R, W, Q, T, V, Y, S(C) R, W, T, V, Q, Z, S, Y(D) Z, W, R, T, V, Y, Q, S(E) R, W, T, V, Z, S, Y, Q

2. Which one of the following could be true?

(A) Y is the second clown to get out of the car.(B) R is the third clown to get out of the car.(C) Q is the fourth clown to get out of the car.(D) S is the fifth clown to get out of the car.(E) V is the sixth clown to get out of the car.

3. If Z is the seventh clown to get out of the car, thenwhich one of the following could be true?

(A) R is the second clown to get out of the car.(B) T is the fourth clown to get out of the car.(C) W is the fifth clown to get out of the car.(D) V is the sixth clown to get out of the car.(E) Y is the eighth clown to get out of the car.

4. If T is the fourth clown to get out of the car, thenwhich one of the following must be true?

(A) R is the first clown to get out of the car.(B) Z is the second clown to get out of the car.(C) W is the third clown to get out of the car.(D) V is the fifth clown to get out of the car.(E) Y is the seventh clown to get out of the car.

5. If Q is the fifth clown to get out of the car, then eachof the following could be true EXCEPT:

(A) Z is the first clown to get out of the car.(B) T is the second clown to get out of the car.(C) V is the third clown to get out of the car.(D) W is the fourth clown to get out of the car.(E) Y is the sixth clown to get out of the car.

6. If R is the second clown to get out of the car, whichone of the following must be true?

(A) S gets out of the car at some time before T does.

(B) T gets out of the car at some time before W does.

(C) W gets out of the car at some time before V does.

(D) Y gets out of the car at some time before Q does.

(E) Z gets out of the car at some time before W does.

7. If V gets out of the car at some time before Z does,then which one of the following could be true?

(A) R is the second clown to get out of the car.(B) T is the fourth clown to get out of the car.(C) Q is the fourth clown to get out of the car.(D) V is the fifth clown to get out of the car.(E) Z is the sixth clown to get out of the car.


22SECTION II

Time35 minutes

24 Questions

Directions: Each group of questions in this section is based on a set of conditions. In answering some of the questions, it may beuseful to draw a rough diagram. Choose the response that most accurately and completely answers each question and blackenthe corresponding space on your answer sheet.

2-11-2Questions 813

Each of six tasksharvesting, milling, plowing, spinning,threshing, and weavingwill be demonstrated exactlyonce at a farm exhibition. No two tasks will bedemonstrated concurrently. Three volunteersFrank,Gladys, and Lesliewill each demonstrate exactly two ofthe tasks. The tasks must be demonstrated in accordancewith the following conditions:

Frank demonstrates exactly one task before Gladysdemonstrates any of the tasks.

Frank performs neither the first nor the lastdemonstration.

Gladys demonstrates neither harvesting nor milling.Leslie demonstrates neither harvesting nor threshing.Milling is the next task demonstrated after threshing

is demonstrated.

8. Which one of the following is an acceptable list of thevolunteers and the tasks each demonstrates, in orderfrom the first to the last demonstration?

(A) Frank: weaving; Gladys: threshing;Leslie: milling; Leslie: spinning;Frank: harvesting; Gladys: plowing

(B) Leslie: plowing; Frank: harvesting;Frank: threshing; Leslie: milling;Gladys: spinning; Gladys: weaving

(C) Leslie: plowing; Frank: spinning;Gladys: threshing; Leslie: milling;Frank: harvesting; Gladys: weaving

(D) Leslie: spinning; Leslie: weaving;Frank: plowing; Gladys: harvesting;Frank: threshing; Gladys: milling

(E) Leslie: weaving; Frank: threshing;Gladys: spinning; Leslie: milling;Frank: harvesting; Gladys: plowing

9. Which one of the following must be true?

(A) Frank demonstrates harvesting.(B) Frank demonstrates milling.(C) Frank demonstrates threshing.(D) Gladys demonstrates plowing.(E) Gladys demonstrates weaving.

10. If Leslie performs the fourth demonstration, thenharvesting could be the demonstration performed

(A) first(B) second(C) third(D) fourth(E) sixth

11. If Gladys demonstrates plowing immediately beforeFrank demonstrates threshing, which one of thefollowing must be true?

(A) Frank demonstrates harvesting for the seconddemonstration.

(B) Gladys demonstrates spinning for the fifthdemonstration.

(C) Leslie demonstrates weaving for the firstdemonstration.

(D) Gladys performs the fourth demonstration.(E) Leslie performs the sixth demonstration.

12. Which one of the following must be true?

(A) Frank performs the second demonstration.(B) Gladys performs the fourth demonstration.(C) Gladys performs the sixth demonstration.(D) Leslie performs the first demonstration.(E) Leslie performs the second demonstration.

13. Which one of the following could be true?

(A) Harvesting is demonstrated first.(B) Milling is demonstrated second.(C) Threshing is demonstrated first.(D) Threshing is demonstrated last.(E) Weaving is demonstrated first.


22

2 -12- 2Questions 1419

Seven job applicantsFeng, Garcia, Herrera, Ilias, Weiss,Xavier, and Yatesare hired to fill seven new positions atChroma, Inc. One position is in the managementdepartment, three are in the production department, andthree are in the sales department. The following conditionsmust apply:

Herrera is hired for a position in the samedepartment as Yates.

Feng is hired for a position in a different departmentfrom Garcia.

If Xavier is hired for a sales position, then Weiss ishired for a production position.

Feng is hired for a production position.

14. Which one of the following could be a complete andaccurate matching of the applicants with thedepartments in which they were hired?

(A) management: Weiss;production: Feng, Herrera, Yates;sales: Garcia, Ilias, Xavier

(B) management: Weiss;production: Garcia, Ilias, Xavier;sales: Feng, Herrera, Yates

(C) management: Xavier;production: Feng, Garcia, Herrera;sales: Ilias, Yates, Weiss

(D) management: Xavier;production: Feng, Herrera, Ilias;sales: Garcia, Weiss, Yates

(E) management: Xavier;production: Feng, Ilias, Weiss;sales: Garcia, Herrera, Yates

15. Which one of the following is a complete andaccurate list of the applicants, each of whomCANNOT be hired for a production position?

(A) Feng, Ilias, Xavier(B) Garcia, Herrera, Yates(C) Herrera, Yates(D) Garcia(E) Ilias

16. It can be determined in which department each ofthe seven applicants is hired if which one of thefollowing statements is true?

(A) Feng and Weiss are both hired for productionpositions.

(B) Garcia and Yates are both hired for salespositions.

(C) Ilias and Weiss are both hired for salespositions.

(D) Ilias and Weiss are both hired for productionpositions.

(E) Ilias and Xavier are both hired for productionpositions.

17. Each of the following could be an accurate partial listof the applicants hired for sales positions EXCEPT:

(A) Garcia, Ilias(B) Garcia, Xavier(C) Garcia, Yates(D) Herrera, Weiss(E) Herrera, Xavier

18. If Feng is hired for a position in the same departmentas Xavier, then each of the following could be trueEXCEPT:

(A) Garcia is hired for a sales position.(B) Herrera is hired for a production position.(C) Ilias is hired for a sales position.(D) Weiss is hired for the management position.(E) Weiss is hired for a production position.

19. If Xavier is not hired for one of the productionpositions, then which one of the following could betrue?

(A) Feng and Herrera are both hired for salespositions.

(B) Herrera and Weiss are both hired for salespositions.

(C) Feng and Yates are both hired for productionpositions.

(D) Garcia and Weiss are both hired forproduction positions.

(E) Herrera and Weiss are both hired forproduction positions.


22

2-13-2Questions 2024

Musicians perform each of exactly five piecesNexus,Onyx, Synchrony, Tailwind, and Virtualonce, and one ata time; the pieces are performed successively (though notnecessarily in that order). Each piece is performed withexactly two instruments: Nexus with fiddle and lute, Onyxwith harp and mandolin, Synchrony with guitar and harp,Tailwind with fiddle and guitar, and Virtual with lute andmandolin. The following conditions must apply:

Each piece shares one instrument with the pieceperformed immediately before it or after it (orboth).

Either Nexus or Tailwind is performed second.

20. Which one of the following could be the order, fromfirst to last, in which the pieces are performed?

(A) Nexus, Synchrony, Onyx, Virtual, Tailwind(B) Synchrony, Tailwind, Onyx, Nexus, Virtual(C) Tailwind, Nexus, Onyx, Virtual, Synchrony(D) Tailwind, Nexus, Synchrony, Onyx, Virtual(E) Virtual, Nexus, Synchrony, Onyx, Tailwind

21. Which one of the following instruments CANNOTbe shared by the third and fourth pieces performed?

(A) fiddle(B) guitar(C) harp(D) lute(E) mandolin

22. If each piece (except the fifth) shares one instrumentwith the piece performed immediately after it, thenwhich one of the following could be true?

(A) Virtual is performed first.(B) Synchrony is performed second.(C) Onyx is performed third.(D) Nexus is performed fourth.(E) Tailwind is performed fifth.

23. Each of the following could be the piece performedfirst EXCEPT:

(A) Nexus(B) Onyx(C) Synchrony(D) Tailwind(E) Virtual

24. If Synchrony is performed fifth, then which one ofthe following could be true?

(A) Nexus is performed third.(B) Onyx is performed third.(C) Tailwind is performed fourth.(D) Virtual is performed first.(E) Virtual is performed second.

22



33 -14-

The myth persists that in 1492 the WesternHemisphere was an untamed wilderness and that it wasEuropean settlers who harnessed and transformed itsecosystems. But scholarship shows that forests, inparticular, had been altered to varying degrees wellbefore the arrival of Europeans. Native populations hadconverted much of the forests to successfully cultivatedstands, especially by means of burning. Nevertheless,some researchers have maintained that the extent,frequency, and impact of such burning was minimal.One geographer claims that climatic change could haveaccounted for some of the changes in forestcomposition; another argues that burning by nativepopulations was done only sporadically, to augment theeffects of natural fires.

However, a large body of evidence for the routinepractice of burning exists in the geographical record.One group of researchers found, for example, thatsedimentary charcoal accumulations in what is now thenortheastern United States are greatest where knownnative American settlements were greatest. Otherevidence shows that, while the characteristics andimpact of fires set by native populations variedregionally according to population size, extent ofresource management techniques, and environment, allsuch fires had markedly different effects on vegetationpatterns than did natural fires. Controlled burningcreated grassy openings such as meadows and glades.Burning also promoted a mosaic quality to North andSouth American ecosystems, creating forests in manydifferent stages of ecological development. Much of themature forestland was characterized by open,herbaceous undergrowth, another result of the clearingbrought about by burning.

In North America, controlled burning createdconditions favorable to berries and other fire-tolerantand sun-loving foods. Burning also converted mixedstands of trees to homogeneous forest, for example thelongleaf, slash pine, and scrub oak forests of thesoutheastern U.S. Natural fires do account for some ofthis vegetation, but regular burning clearly extendedand maintained it. Burning also influenced forestcomposition in the tropics, where natural fires are rare.An example is the pine-dominant forests of Nicaragua,where warm temperatures and heavy rainfall naturallyfavor mixed tropical or rain forests. While there areextensive pine forests in Guatemala and Mexico, theseprimarily grow in cooler, drier, higher elevations,regions where such vegetation is in large part naturaland even prehuman. Today, the Nicaraguan pinesoccur where there has been clearing followed by

regular burning, and the same is likely to have occurredin the past: such forests were present when Europeansarrived and were found only in areas where nativesettlements were substantial; when these settlementswere abandoned, the land returned to mixedhardwoods. This succession is also evident elsewherein similar low tropical elevations in the Caribbean andMexico.

1. Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe main idea of the passage?

(A) Despite extensive evidence that nativepopulations had been burning North andSouth American forests extensively before1492, some scholars persist in claiming thatsuch burning was either infrequent or theresult of natural causes.

(B) In opposition to the widespread belief that in1492 the Western Hemisphere wasuncultivated, scholars unanimously agree thatnative populations were substantially alteringNorth and South American forests well beforethe arrival of Europeans.

(C) Although some scholars minimize the scopeand importance of the burning of forestsengaged in by native populations of Northand South America before 1492, evidence ofthe frequency and impact of such burning isactually quite extensive.

(D) Where scholars had once believed that Northand South American forests remaineduncultivated until the arrival of Europeans,there is now general agreement that nativepopulations had been cultivating the forestssince well before 1492.

(E) While scholars have acknowledged that Northand South American forests were beingburned well before 1492, there is stilldisagreement over whether such burning wasthe result of natural causes or of thedeliberate actions of native populations.


33 3SECTION III

Time35 minutes

27 Questions

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated orimplied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However,you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blackenthe corresponding space on your answer sheet.

(5)

(10)

(15)

(20)

(25)

(30)

(35)

(40)

(45)

(50)

(55)

3-15-32. It can be inferred that a forest burned as described in

the passage would have been LEAST likely to display

(A) numerous types of hardwood trees(B) extensive herbaceous undergrowth(C) a variety of fire-tolerant plants(D) various stages of ecological maturity(E) grassy openings such as meadows or glades

3. Which one of the following is a type of forestidentified by the author as a product of controlledburning in recent times?

(A) scrub oak forests in the southeastern U.S.(B) slash pine forests in the southeastern U.S.(C) pine forests in Guatemala at high elevations(D) pine forests in Mexico at high elevations(E) pine forests in Nicaragua at low elevations

4. Which one of the following is presented by theauthor as evidence of controlled burning in thetropics before the arrival of Europeans?

(A) extensive homogeneous forests at highelevation

(B) extensive homogeneous forests at lowelevation

(C) extensive heterogeneous forests at highelevation

(D) extensive heterogeneous forests at lowelevation

(E) extensive sedimentary charcoal accumulationsat high elevation

5. With which one of the following would the author bemost likely to agree?

(A) The long-term effects of controlled burningcould just as easily have been caused bynatural fires.

(B) Herbaceous undergrowth prevents manyforests from reaching full maturity.

(C) European settlers had little impact on thecomposition of the ecosystems in North andSouth America.

(D) Certain species of plants may not have been aswidespread in North America withoutcontrolled burning.

(E) Nicaraguan pine forests could have beencreated either by natural fires or by controlledburning.

6. As evidence for the routine practice of forest burningby native populations before the arrival ofEuropeans, the author cites all of the followingEXCEPT:

(A) the similar characteristics of fires in differentregions

(B) the simultaneous presence of forests at varyingstages of maturity

(C) the existence of herbaceous undergrowth incertain forests

(D) the heavy accumulation of charcoal nearpopulous settlements

(E) the presence of meadows and glades in certainforests

7. The succession mentioned in line 57 refers to

(A) forest clearing followed by controlled burningof forests

(B) tropical rain forest followed by pine forest(C) European settlement followed by

abandonment of land(D) homogeneous pine forest followed by mixed

hardwoods(E) pine forests followed by established

settlements

8. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) refute certain researchers views(B) support a common belief(C) counter certain evidence(D) synthesize two viewpoints(E) correct the geographical record


33 3

33 -16-Intellectual authority is defined as the authority of

arguments that prevail by virtue of good reasoning anddo not depend on coercion or convention. A contrastingnotion, institutional authority, refers to the power ofsocial institutions to enforce acceptance of argumentsthat may or may not possess intellectual authority. Theauthority wielded by legal systems is especiallyinteresting because such systems are institutions thatnonetheless aspire to a purely intellectual authority.One judge goes so far as to claim that courts are merelypassive vehicles for applying the intellectual authorityof the law and possess no coercive powers of theirown.

In contrast, some critics maintain that whateverauthority judicial pronouncements have is exclusivelyinstitutional. Some of these critics go further, claimingthat intellectual authority does not really existi.e., itreduces to institutional authority. But it can becountered that these claims break down when asufficiently broad historical perspective is taken: Notall arguments accepted by institutions withstand thetest of time, and some well-reasoned arguments neverreceive institutional imprimatur. The reasonableargument that goes unrecognized in its own timebecause it challenges institutional beliefs is common inintellectual history; intellectual authority andinstitutional consensus are not the same thing.

But, the critics might respond, intellectual authorityis only recognized as such because of institutionalconsensus. For example, if a musicologist were toclaim that an alleged musical genius who, after severaldecades, had not gained respect and recognition for hisor her compositions is probably not a genius, the criticsmight say that basing a judgment on a unit of timeseveral decadesis an institutional rather than anintellectual construct. What, the critics might ask,makes a particular number of decades reasonableevidence by which to judge genius? The answer, ofcourse, is nothing, except for the fact that suchinstitutional procedures have proved useful tomusicologists in making such distinctions in the past.

The analogous legal concept is the doctrine ofprecedent, i.e., a judges merely deciding a case acertain way becoming a basis for deciding later casesthe same waya pure example of institutionalauthority. But the critics miss the crucial distinctionthat when a judicial decision is badly reasoned, orsimply no longer applies in the face of evolving socialstandards or practices, the notion of intellectualauthority is introduced: judges reconsider, revise, or insome cases throw out the decision. The conflictbetween intellectual and institutional authority in legalsystems is thus played out in the reconsideration ofdecisions, leading one to draw the conclusion that legalsystems contain a significant degree of intellectualauthority even if the thrust of their power ispredominantly institutional.

9. Which one of the following most accurately states themain idea of the passage?

(A) Although some argue that the authority oflegal systems is purely intellectual, thesesystems possess a degree of institutionalauthority due to their ability to enforceacceptance of badly reasoned or sociallyinappropriate judicial decisions.

(B) Although some argue that the authority oflegal systems is purely institutional, thesesystems are more correctly seen as vehicles forapplying the intellectual authority of the lawwhile possessing no coercive power of theirown.

(C) Although some argue that the authority oflegal systems is purely intellectual, thesesystems in fact wield institutional authorityby virtue of the fact that intellectual authorityreduces to institutional authority.

(D) Although some argue that the authority oflegal systems is purely institutional, thesesystems possess a degree of intellectualauthority due to their ability to reconsiderbadly reasoned or socially inappropriatejudicial decisions.

(E) Although some argue that the authority oflegal systems is purely intellectual, thesesystems in fact wield exclusively institutionalauthority in that they possess the power toenforce acceptance of badly reasoned orsocially inappropriate judicial decisions.

10. That some arguments never receive institutionalimprimatur (lines 2223) most likely means thatthese arguments

(A) fail to gain institutional consensus(B) fail to challenge institutional beliefs(C) fail to conform to the example of precedent(D) fail to convince by virtue of good reasoning(E) fail to gain acceptance except by coercion


33 3

(5)

(10)

(15)

(20)

(25)

(30)

(35)

(40)

(45)

(50)

(55)

3-17-311. Which one of the following, if true, most challenges

the authors contention that legal systems contain asignificant degree of intellectual authority?

(A) Judges often act under time constraints andoccasionally render a badly reasoned orsocially inappropriate decision.

(B) In some legal systems, the percentage ofjudicial decisions that contain faultyreasoning is far higher than it is in other legalsystems.

(C) Many socially inappropriate legal decisions arethrown out by judges only after citizens beginto voice opposition to them.

(D) In some legal systems, the percentage ofjudicial decisions that are reconsidered andrevised is far higher than it is in other legalsystems.

(E) Judges are rarely willing to rectify theexamples of faulty reasoning they discoverwhen reviewing previous legal decisions.

12. Given the information in the passage, the author isLEAST likely to believe which one of the following?

(A) Institutional authority may depend oncoercion; intellectual authority never does.

(B) Intellectual authority may accept well-reasoned arguments; institutional authoritynever does.

(C) Institutional authority may depend onconvention; intellectual authority never does.

(D) Intellectual authority sometimes challengesinstitutional beliefs; institutional authoritynever does.

(E) Intellectual authority sometimes conflicts withprecedent; institutional authority never does.

13. The author discusses the example from musicologyprimarily in order to

(A) distinguish the notion of institutionalauthority from that of intellectual authority

(B) give an example of an argument possessingintellectual authority that did not prevail inits own time

(C) identify an example in which the ascription ofmusical genius did not withstand the test oftime

(D) illustrate the claim that assessing intellectualauthority requires an appeal to institutionalauthority

(E) demonstrate that the authority wielded by thearbiters of musical genius is entirelyinstitutional

14. Based on the passage, the author would be mostlikely to hold which one of the following views aboutthe doctrine of precedent?

(A) It is the only tool judges should use if theywish to achieve a purely intellectual authority.

(B) It is a useful tool in theory but in practice itinvariably conflicts with the demands ofintellectual authority.

(C) It is a useful tool but lacks intellectualauthority unless it is combined with thereconsidering of decisions.

(D) It is often an unreliable tool because itprevents judges from reconsidering theintellectual authority of past decisions.

(E) It is an unreliable tool that should beabandoned because it lacks intellectualauthority.


33 3

33 -18-In explaining the foundations of the discipline

known as historical sociologythe examination ofhistory using the methods of sociologyhistoricalsociologist Philip Abrams argues that, while people aremade by society as much as society is made by people,sociologists approach to the subject is usually to focuson only one of these forms of influence to theexclusion of the other. Abrams insists on the necessityfor sociologists to move beyond these one-sidedapproaches to understand society as an entityconstructed by individuals who are at the same timeconstructed by their society. Abrams refers to thiscontinuous process as structuring.

Abrams also sees history as the result ofstructuring. People, both individually and as membersof collectives, make history. But our making of historyis itself formed and informed not only by the historicalconditions we inherit from the past, but also by theprior formation of our own identities and capacities,which are shaped by what Abrams callscontingenciessocial phenomena over which wehave varying degrees of control. Contingencies includesuch things as the social conditions under which wecome of age, the condition of our householdseconomy, the ideologies available to help us makesense of our situation, and accidental circumstances.The ways in which contingencies affect our individualor group identities create a structure of forces withinwhich we are able to act, and that partially determinesthe sorts of actions we are able to perform.

In Abramss analysis, historical structuring, likesocial structuring, is manifold and unremitting. Tounderstand it, historical sociologists must extract fromit certain significant episodes, or events, that theirmethodology can then analyze and interpret. Accordingto Abrams, these events are points at which action andcontingency meet, points that represent a cross sectionof the specific social and individual forces in play at agiven time. At such moments, individuals stand forthas agents of history not simply because they possess aunique ability to act, but also because in them we seethe force of the specific social conditions that allowedtheir actions to come forth. Individuals can make theirmark on history, yet in individuals one also finds theconvergence of wider social forces. In order to capturethe various facets of this mutual interaction, Abramsrecommends a fourfold structure to which he believesthe investigations of historical sociologists shouldconform: first, description of the event itself; second,discussion of the social context that helped bring theevent about and gave it significance; third, summary ofthe life history of the individual agent in the event; andfourth, analysis of the consequences of the event bothfor history and for the individual.

15. Which one of the following most accurately states thecentral idea of the passage?

(A) Abrams argues that historical sociology rejectsthe claims of sociologists who assert that thesociological concept of structuring cannot beapplied to the interactions betweenindividuals and history.

(B) Abrams argues that historical sociologyassumes that, despite the views of sociologiststo the contrary, history influences the socialcontingencies that affect individuals.

(C) Abrams argues that historical sociologydemonstrates that, despite the views ofsociologists to the contrary, social structuresboth influence and are influenced by theevents of history.

(D) Abrams describes historical sociology as adiscipline that unites two approaches taken bysociologists to studying the formation ofsocieties and applies the resulting combinedapproach to the study of history.

(E) Abrams describes historical sociology as anattempt to compensate for the shortcomingsof traditional historical methods by applyingthe methods established in sociology.

16. Given the passages argument, which one of thefollowing sentences most logically completes the lastparagraph?

(A) Only if they adhere to this structure, Abramsbelieves, can historical sociologists concludewith any certainty that the events thatconstitute the historical record are influencedby the actions of individuals.

(B) Only if they adhere to this structure, Abramsbelieves, will historical sociologists be able tocounter the standard sociological assumptionthat there is very little connection betweenhistory and individual agency.

(C) Unless they can agree to adhere to thisstructure, Abrams believes, historicalsociologists risk having their disciplinetreated as little more than an interesting butultimately indefensible adjunct to history andsociology.

(D) By adhering to this structure, Abrams believes,historical sociologists can shed light on issuesthat traditional sociologists have chosen toignore in their one-sided approaches to theformation of societies.

(E) By adhering to this structure, Abrams believes,historical sociologists will be able to betterportray the complex connections betweenhuman agency and history.


33 3

(5)

(10)

(15)

(20)

(25)

(30)

(35)

(40)

(45)

(50)

(55)

3-19-317. The passage states that a contingency could be each

of the following EXCEPT:

(A) a social phenomenon(B) a form of historical structuring(C) an accidental circumstance(D) a condition controllable to some extent by an

individual(E) a partial determinant of an individuals actions

18. Which one of the following is most analogous to theideal work of a historical sociologist as outlined byAbrams?

(A) In a report on the enactment of a bill into law,a journalist explains why the need for the billarose, sketches the biography of the principallegislator who wrote the bill, and ponders theeffect that the bills enactment will have bothon society and on the legislators career.

(B) In a consultation with a patient, a doctorreviews the patients medical history, suggestspossible reasons for the patients currentcondition, and recommends steps that thepatient should take in the future to ensurethat the condition improves or at least doesnot get any worse.

(C) In an analysis of a historical novel, a criticprovides information to support the claimthat details of the works setting are accurate,explains why the subject of the novel was ofparticular interest to the author, andcompares the novel with some of the authorsother books set in the same period.

(D) In a presentation to stockholders, acorporations chief executive officer describesthe corporations most profitable activitiesduring the past year, introduces the vicepresident largely responsible for thoseactivities, and discusses new projects the vicepresident will initiate in the coming year.

(E) In developing a film based on a historicalevent, a filmmaker conducts interviews withparticipants in the event, bases part of thefilms screenplay on the interviews, andconcludes the screenplay with a sequence ofscenes speculating on the outcome of theevent had certain details been different.

19. The primary function of the first paragraph of thepassage is to

(A) outline the merits of Abramss conception ofhistorical sociology

(B) convey the details of Abramss conception ofhistorical sociology

(C) anticipate challenges to Abramss conceptionof historical sociology

(D) examine the roles of key terms used inAbramss conception of historical sociology

(E) identify the basis of Abramss conception ofhistorical sociology

20. Based on the passage, which one of the following isthe LEAST illustrative example of the effect of acontingency upon an individual?

(A) the effect of the fact that a person experiencedpolitical injustice on that persons decision towork for political reform

(B) the effect of the fact that a person was raised inan agricultural region on that personsdecision to pursue a career in agriculture

(C) the effect of the fact that a person lives in aparticular community on that personsdecision to visit friends in anothercommunity

(D) the effect of the fact that a persons parentspracticed a particular religion on thatpersons decision to practice that religion

(E) the effect of the fact that a person grew up infinancial hardship on that persons decision tohelp others in financial hardship


33 3

33 -20-One of the greatest challenges facing medical

students today, apart from absorbing volumes oftechnical information and learning habits of scientificthought, is that of remaining empathetic to the needs ofpatients in the face of all this rigorous training.Requiring students to immerse themselves completelyin medical coursework risks disconnecting them fromthe personal and ethical aspects of doctoring, and suchstrictly scientific thinking is insufficient for grapplingwith modern ethical dilemmas. For these reasons,aspiring physicians need to develop new ways ofthinking about and interacting with patients. Trainingin ethics that takes narrative literature as its primarysubject is one method of accomplishing this.

Although training in ethics is currently provided bymedical schools, this training relies heavily on anabstract, philosophical view of ethics. Although theconceptual clarity provided by a traditional ethicscourse can be valuable, theorizing about ethicscontributes little to the understanding of everydayhuman experience or to preparing medical students forthe multifarious ethical dilemmas they will face asphysicians. A true foundation in ethics must bepredicated on an understanding of human behavior thatreflects a wide array of relationships and readily adaptsto various perspectives, for this is what is required todevelop empathy. Ethics courses drawing on narrativeliterature can better help students prepare for ethicaldilemmas precisely because such literature attaches itsreaders so forcefully to the concrete and varied worldof human events.

The act of reading narrative literature is uniquelysuited to the development of what might be calledflexible ethical thinking. To grasp the development ofcharacters, to tangle with heightening moral crises, andto engage oneself with the story not as ones own butnevertheless as something recognizable and worthy ofattention, readers must use their moral imagination.Giving oneself over to the ethical conflicts in a storyrequires the abandonment of strictly absolute, inviolatesets of moral principles. Reading literature alsodemands that the reader adopt another persons point ofviewthat of the narrator or a character in a storyand thus requires the ability to depart from onespersonal ethical stance and examine moral issues fromnew perspectives.

It does not follow that readers, including medicalprofessionals, must relinquish all moral principles, as isthe case with situational ethics, in which decisionsabout ethical choices are made on the basis of intuitionand are entirely relative to the circumstances in whichthey arise. Such an extremely relativistic stance wouldhave as little benefit for the patient or physician aswould a dogmatically absolutist one. Fortunately, theincorporation of narrative literature into the study ofethics, while serving as a corrective to the latter stance,need not lead to the former. But it can give ussomething that is lacking in the traditionalphilosophical study of ethicsnamely, a deeperunderstanding of human nature that can serve as afoundation for ethical reasoning and allow greaterflexibility in the application of moral principles.

21. Which one of the following most accurately states themain point of the passage?

(A) Training in ethics that incorporates narrativeliterature would better cultivate flexibleethical thinking and increase medicalstudents capacity for empathetic patient careas compared with the traditional approach ofmedical schools to such training.

(B) Traditional abstract ethical training, because itis too heavily focused on theoreticalreasoning, tends to decrease or impair themedical students sensitivity to modernethical dilemmas.

(C) Only a properly designed curriculum thatbalances situational, abstract, and narrativeapproaches to ethics will adequately preparethe medical student for complex ethicalconfrontations involving actual patients.

(D) Narrative-based instruction in ethics isbecoming increasingly popular in medicalschools because it requires students todevelop a capacity for empathy by examiningcomplex moral issues from a variety ofperspectives.

(E) The study of narrative literature in medicalschools would nurture moral intuition,enabling the future doctor to make ethicaldecisions without appeal to generalprinciples.

22. Which one of the following most accuratelyrepresents the authors use of the term moralimagination in line 38?

(A) a sense of curiosity, aroused by reading, thatleads one to follow actively the developmentof problems involving the characters depictedin narratives

(B) a faculty of seeking out and recognizing theethical controversies involved in humanrelationships and identifying oneself with oneside or another in such controversies

(C) a capacity to understand the complexities ofvarious ethical dilemmas and to fashioncreative and innovative solutions to them

(D) an ability to understand personal aspects ofethically significant situations even if one isnot a direct participant and to empathizewith those involved in them

(E) an ability to act upon ethical principlesdifferent from ones own for the sake ofvariety


33 3

(5)

(10)

(15)

(20)

(25)

(30)

(35)

(40)

(45)

(50)

(55)

(60)

3-21-323. It can be inferred from the passage that the author

would most likely agree with which one of thefollowing statements?

(A) The heavy load of technical coursework intodays medical schools often keeps themfrom giving adequate emphasis to courses inmedical ethics.

(B) Students learn more about ethics through theuse of fiction than through the use ofnonfictional readings.

(C) The traditional method of ethical training inmedical schools should be supplemented orreplaced by more direct practical experiencewith real-life patients in ethically difficultsituations.

(D) The failings of an abstract, philosophicaltraining in ethics can be remedied only byreplacing it with a purely narrative-basedapproach.

(E) Neither scientific training nor traditionalphilosophical ethics adequately preparesdoctors to deal with the emotional dimensionof patients needs.

24. Which one of the following is most likely the authorsoverall purpose in the passage?

(A) to advise medical schools on how toimplement a narrative-based approach toethics in their curricula

(B) to argue that the current methods of ethicseducation are counterproductive to theformation of empathetic doctor-patientrelationships

(C) to argue that the ethical content of narrativeliterature foreshadows the pitfalls ofsituational ethics

(D) to propose an approach to ethical training inmedical school that will preserve the humandimension of medicine

(E) to demonstrate the value of a well-designedethics education for medical students

25. The passage ascribes each of the followingcharacteristics to the use of narrative literature inethical education EXCEPT:

(A) It tends to avoid the extreme relativism ofsituational ethics.

(B) It connects students to varied types of humanevents.

(C) It can help lead medical students to developnew ways of dealing with patients.

(D) It requires students to examine moral issuesfrom new perspectives.

(E) It can help insulate future doctors from theshock of the ethical dilemmas they willconfront.

26. With regard to ethical dilemmas, the passageexplicitly states each of the following EXCEPT:

(A) Doctors face a variety of such dilemmas.(B) Purely scientific thinking is inadequate for

dealing with modern ethical dilemmas.(C) Such dilemmas are more prevalent today as a

result of scientific and technological advancesin medicine.

(D) Theorizing about ethics does little to preparestudents to face such dilemmas.

(E) Narrative literature can help make medicalstudents ready to face such dilemmas.

27. The authors attitude regarding the traditionalmethod of teaching ethics in medical school canmost accurately be described as

(A) unqualified disapproval of the method anddisapproval of all of its effects

(B) reserved judgment regarding the method anddisapproval of all of its effects

(C) partial disapproval of the method and clinicalindifference toward its effects

(D) partial approval of the method anddisapproval of all of its effects

(E) partial disapproval of the method andapproval of some of its effects

33 3



44 -22-

Questions 12

Ms. Smith: I am upset that my sons entire class lost twodays of recess because some of the childrenwere throwing raisins in the cafeteria. He wasnot throwing raisins, and it was clear toeveryone just who the culprits were.

Principal: Im sorry youre upset, Ms. Smith, but yoursons situation is like being caught in a trafficjam caused by an accident. People who arentinvolved in the accident nevertheless have tosuffer by sitting there in the middle of it.

1. If the principal is speaking sincerely, then it can beinferred from what the principal says that theprincipal believes that

(A) many children were throwing raisins in thecafeteria

(B) Ms. Smiths son might not have thrown raisinsin the cafeteria

(C) after an accident the resulting traffic jams aregenerally caused by police activity

(D) Ms. Smiths son knows who it was that threwraisins in the cafeteria

(E) losing two days of recess will deter futuredisruptions

2. The principals response to Ms. Smiths complaint ismost vulnerable to criticism on which one of thefollowing grounds?

(A) It makes a generalization about all the childrenin the class which is not justified by the facts.

(B) It suggests that throwing raisins in thecafeteria produces as much inconvenience asdoes being caught in a traffic jam.

(C) It does not acknowledge the fact that a trafficjam following an accident is unavoidablewhile the mass punishment was avoidable.

(D) It assumes that Ms. Smiths son is guilty whenthere is evidence to the contrary which theprincipal has disregarded.

(E) It attempts to confuse the point at issue byintroducing irrelevant facts about theincident.

3. Journalist: Obviously, though some animals arepurely carnivorous, none would survivewithout plants. But the dependence is mutual.Many plant species would never have come tobe had there been no animals to pollinate,fertilize, and broadcast their seeds. Also,plants photosynthetic activity would depletethe carbon dioxide in Earths atmosphere wereit not constantly being replenished by theexhalation of animals, engine fumes, andsmoke from fires, many set by human beings.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe main conclusion of the journalists argument?

(A) The photosynthetic activity of plants isnecessary for animal life, but animal life isalso necessary for the occurrence ofphotosynthesis in plants.

(B) Some purely carnivorous animals would notsurvive without plants.

(C) The chemical composition of Earth and itsatmosphere depends, at least to some extent,on the existence and activities of the animalsthat populate Earth.

(D) Human activity is part of what prevents plantsfrom depleting the oxygen in Earthsatmosphere on which plants and animalsalike depend.

(E) Just as animals are dependent on plants fortheir survival, plants are dependent onanimals for theirs.


44 44SECTION IV

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are bycommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

4-23-44. The government-owned gas company has begun

selling stoves and other gas appliances to create alarger market for its gas. Merchants who sell suchproducts complain that the competition will hurttheir businesses. That may well be; however, thegovernment-owned gas company is within its rights.After all, the owner of a private gas company mightwell decide to sell such appliances and surely therewould be nothing wrong with that.

Which one of the following principles, if valid, mosthelps to justify the reasoning above?

(A) Government-owned companies have the rightto do whatever private businesses have theright to do.

(B) A government should always take seriously thecomplaints of merchants.

(C) Private businesses have no right to competewith government monopolies.

(D) There is nothing wrong with a government-owned company selling products so long asowners of private companies do not complain.

(E) There is nothing wrong with privatecompanies competing against each other.

5. Toxicologist: A survey of oil-refinery workers whowork with MBTE, an ingredient currently used insome smog-reducing gasolines, found analarming incidence of complaints aboutheadaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath. Sincegasoline containing MBTE will soon be widelyused, we can expect an increased incidence ofheadaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

Each of the following, if true, strengthens thetoxicologists argument EXCEPT:

(A) Most oil-refinery workers who do not workwith MBTE do not have serious healthproblems involving headaches, fatigue, andshortness of breath.

(B) Headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath areamong the symptoms of several medicalconditions that are potentially serious threatsto public health.

(C) Since the time when gasoline containingMBTE was first introduced in a fewmetropolitan areas, those areas reported anincrease in the number of complaints aboutheadaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

(D) Regions in which only gasoline containingMBTE is used have a much greater incidenceof headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breaththan do similar regions in which only MBTE-free gasoline is used.

(E) The oil-refinery workers surveyed werecarefully selected to be representative of thebroader population in their medical historiesprior to exposure to MBTE, as well as in otherrelevant respects.

6. In any field, experience is required for a proficientperson to become an expert. Through experience, aproficient person gradually develops a repertory ofmodel situations that allows an immediate, intuitiveresponse to each new situation. This is the hallmarkof expertise, and for this reason computerizedexpert systems cannot be as good as humanexperts. Although computers have the ability to storemillions of bits of information, the knowledge ofhuman experts, who benefit from the experience ofthousands of situations, is not stored within theirbrains in the form of rules and facts.

The argument requires the assumption of which oneof the following?

(A) Computers can show no more originality inresponding to a situation than that built intothem by their designers.

(B) The knowledge of human experts cannot beadequately rendered into the type ofinformation that a computer can store.

(C) Human experts rely on information that canbe expressed by rules and facts when theyrespond to new situations.

(D) Future advances in computer technology willnot render computers capable of sortingthrough greater amounts of information.

(E) Human experts rely heavily on intuition whilethey are developing a repertory of modelsituations.

7. When drivers are deprived of sleep there are definitebehavioral changes, such as slower responses tostimuli and a reduced ability to concentrate, butpeoples self-awareness of these changes is poor. Mostdrivers think they can tell when they are about to fallasleep, but they cannot.

Each of the following illustrates the principle that thepassage illustrates EXCEPT:

(A) People who have been drinking alcohol are notgood judges of whether they are too drunk todrive.

(B) Elementary school students who dislikearithmetic are not good judges of whethermultiplication tables should be included inthe schools curriculum.

(C) Industrial workers who have just been exposedto noxious fumes are not good judges ofwhether they should keep working.

(D) People who have just donated blood and havebecome faint are not good judges of whetherthey are ready to walk out of the facility.

(E) People who are being treated for schizophreniaare not good judges of whether they shouldcontinue their medical treatments.


44 44

44 -24-8. Politician: My opponent says our zoning laws too

strongly promote suburban single-familydwellings and should be changed to encourageother forms of housing like apartmentbuildings. Yet he lives in a house in thecountry. His lifestyle contradicts his ownargument, which should therefore not be takenseriously.

The politicians reasoning is most vulnerable tocriticism on the grounds that

(A) its characterization of the opponents lifestylereveals the politicians own prejudice againstconstructing apartment buildings

(B) it neglects the fact that apartment buildingscan be built in the suburbs just as easily as inthe center of the city

(C) it fails to mention the politicians own livingsituation

(D) its discussion of the opponents lifestyle isirrelevant to the merits of the opponentsargument

(E) it ignores the possibility that the opponentmay have previously lived in an apartmentbuilding

9. Consumers are deeply concerned about the quantityof plastic packaging on the market and have spurredmanufacturers to find ways to recycle plasticmaterials. Despite their efforts, however, only 6.5percent of plastic is now being recycled, as comparedto 33 percent of container glass.

Each of the following, if true, helps to explain therelatively low rate of plastic recycling EXCEPT:

(A) Many factories are set up to accept and makeeconomical use of recycled glass, whereasthere are few factories that make products outof recycled plastic.

(B) Many plastic products are incompatible andcannot be recycled together, whereas mostcontainers made of glass are compatible.

(C) The manufacture of new plastic depletes oilreserves, whereas the manufacture of newglass uses renewable resources.

(D) Unlike glass, which can be heated to thousandsof degrees during the recycling process toburn off contaminants, recycled plasticcannot be heated enough to sterilize it.

(E) Plastic polymers tend to break down duringthe recycling process and weaken the resultingproduct, whereas glass does not break down.

10. Technological progress makes economic growth andwidespread prosperity possible; it also makes aworkers particular skills less crucial to production.Yet workers satisfaction in their work depends ontheir believing that their work is difficult andrequires uncommon skills. Clearly, then,technological progress _________.

Which one of the following most logically completesthe argument?

(A) decreases the quality of most products(B) provides benefits only to those whose work is

not directly affected by it(C) is generally opposed by the workers whose

work will be directly affected by it(D) causes workers to feel less satisfaction in their

work(E) eliminates many workers jobs

11. Environmentalist: The complex ecosystem of theNorth American prairie has largely beendestroyed to produce cattle feed. But the prairieecosystem once supported 30 to 70 millionbison, whereas North American agriculture nowsupports about 50 million cattle. Since bisonyield as much meat as cattle, and the naturalprairie required neither pesticides, machinery,nor government subsidies, returning as muchland as possible to an uncultivated state couldrestore biodiversity without a major decrease inmeat production.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe environmentalists main conclusion?

(A) If earlier North American agriculturaltechniques were reintroduced, meatproduction would decrease only slightly.

(B) Protecting the habitat of wild animals so thatwe can utilize these animals as a food sourceis more cost effective than raisingdomesticated animals.

(C) The biodiversity of the North American prairieecosystem should not be restored if doing sowill have intolerable economic consequences.

(D) Preservation of the remaining North Americanbison would be a sensible policy.

(E) The devastation of the North American prairieecosystem could be largely reversed withoutsignificantly decreasing meat production.


44 44

4-25-412. Morris: Computers, despite some peoples

expectations, will have an inappreciable impacton education. To be sure, computers are usefulfor drills promoting memorization, thoughonly a small part of education can beaccomplished through drills. But machinescannot help students with any of the higherintellectual functions we call understanding;for that, human teachers are indispensable.

The conclusion of Morriss argument followslogically if which one of the following is assumed?

(A) Whatever memorization is necessary can beaccomplished as easily without computers aswith them.

(B) Requiring memorization in appreciableamounts tends to thwart development ofhigher intellectual functions in students.

(C) Successful memorization of relevant facts is anecessary precondition for the developmentof higher intellectual functions in students.

(D) Many students become familiar withcomputers before encountering them atschool.

(E) Having an appreciable impact on educationinvolves affecting the higher intellectualfunctions of students.

13. A recent study reveals that television advertising doesnot significantly affect childrens preferences forbreakfast cereals. The study compared two groups ofchildren. One group had watched no television, andthe other group had watched average amounts oftelevision and its advertising. Both groups stronglypreferred the sugary cereals heavily advertised ontelevision.

Which one of the following statements, if true, mostweakens the argument?

(A) The preferences of children who do not watchtelevision advertising are influenced by thepreferences of children who watch theadvertising.

(B) The preference for sweets is not a universaltrait in humans, and can be influenced byenvironmental factors such as televisionadvertising.

(C) Most of the children in the group that hadwatched television were already familiar withthe advertisements for these cereals.

(D) Both groups rejected cereals low in sugar evenwhen these cereals were heavily advertised ontelevision.

(E) Cereal preferences of adults who watchtelevision are known to be significantlydifferent from the cereal preferences of adultswho do not watch television.

14. Reducing speed limits neither saves lives nor protectsthe environment. This is because the more slowly acar is driven, the more time it spends on the roadspewing exhaust into the air and running the risk ofcolliding with other vehicles.

The arguments reasoning is flawed because theargument

(A) neglects the fact that some motoristscompletely ignore speed limits

(B) ignores the possibility of benefits fromlowering speed limits other thanenvironmental and safety benefits

(C) fails to consider that if speed limits arereduced, increased driving times will increasethe number of cars on the road at any giventime

(D) presumes, without providing justification, thattotal emissions for a given automobile trip aredetermined primarily by the amount of timethe trip takes

(E) presumes, without providing justification, thatdrivers run a significant risk of collision onlyif they spend a lot of time on the road

15. Loggerhead turtles live and breed in distinct groups,of which some are in the Pacific Ocean and some arein the Atlantic. New evidence suggests that juvenilePacific loggerheads that feed near the Baja peninsulahatch in Japanese waters 10,000 kilometers away.Ninety-five percent of the DNA samples taken fromthe Baja turtles match those taken from turtles at theJapanese nesting sites.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriouslyweakens the reasoning above?

(A) Nesting sites of loggerhead turtles have beenfound off the Pacific coast of North Americaseveral thousand kilometers north of the Bajapeninsula.

(B) The distance between nesting sites and feedingsites of Atlantic loggerhead turtles is less than5,000 kilometers.

(C) Loggerhead hatchlings in Japanese waters havebeen declining in number for the last decadewhile the number of nesting sites near theBaja peninsula has remained constant.

(D) Ninety-five percent of the DNA samples takenfrom the Baja turtles match those taken fromAtlantic loggerhead turtles.

(E) Commercial aquariums have been successfullybreeding Atlantic loggerheads with Pacificloggerheads for the last five years.

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