LOSTISLAMICHISTORY

FIRASALKHATEEB

LostIslamicHistory

ReclaimingMuslimCivilisationfromthePast

HURST&COMPANY,LONDON

FirstpublishedintheUnitedKingdomin2014byC.Hurst&Co.(Publishers)Ltd.,41GreatRussellStreet,London,WC1B3PL©FirasAlkhateeb,2014Allrightsreserved.PrintedinIndia

DistributedintheUnitedStates,CanadaandLatinAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress,198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica

TherightofFirasAlkhateebtobeidentifiedastheauthorofthispublicationisassertedbyhiminaccordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct,1988.

ACataloguing-in-PublicationdatarecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.

978-1-84904-397-7paperbackeISBN978-1-84904-528-5

Thisbookisprintedusingpaperfromregisteredsustainableandmanagedsources.

www.hurstpublishers.com

Forthemostimportantpeopleinmylife,mymotherSanaa,mywifeHadeel,andmysisterHuda.

InthenameofGod,theMostGracious,theMostMerciful

“Ifanyonetravelsonaroadinsearchofknowledge,AllahwillcausehimtotravelononeoftheroadsofParadise.”

ProphetMuhammad

CONTENTS

1.Pre-IslamicArabia2.TheLifeoftheProphet3.TheRightlyGuidedCaliphs4.TheEstablishmentoftheMuslimState5.IntellectualGoldenAges6.Upheaval7.Al-Andalus8.TheEdge9.Rebirth10.Decline11.OldandNewIdeas

Bibliography

1

PRE-ISLAMICARABIA

The dry,mountainous landscape of theHijaz is not an environment thatgivesmuchlife.SituatedinthewesternpartoftheArabianPeninsula,thisland can be described with two words: dry and hot. In the summer,temperaturesregularlyrisetowellover100degreesFahrenheit,withlittleprecipitation.Furthereast,endlesssanddunesmarkalandscapedevoidofgreenery or permanent settlements.Yet itwas from this harsh landscapethat, intheearly600s,anewmovementemerged;onethatwouldchangethecourseofhistoryintheArabianPeninsulaandbeyond.

Geography

TheArabianPeninsulacoversanareaofover2millionsquarekilometersin the southwestern corner of Asia. Situated between Asia, Africa andEurope,thelandisuniqueinitsconnectionwithallthreecontinentsoftheOldWorld.Despite itsposition, ithasbeenmostly ignoredbyoutsiders.TheAncientEgyptianschosetoexpandintotheFertileCrescentandNubiaratherthanventureintoArabia’sdeserts.AlexandertheGreatpassedbyitinthe300sBCEonhiswaytoPersiaandIndia.ThegreatRomanEmpireattemptedtoinvadethepeninsulathroughYemeninthe20sBCE,butcouldnotadapttotheharshlandscapeandthusfailedtoannextheregion.Onecouldhardlyblameoutsiders for ignoring theArabianPeninsula.

Its dry climate is barelyhospitable, even for thenomadswho live there.Monsoonwindsbringseasonalrainstothesoutherncoastofthepeninsulain the autumn, but these are stifled by the quickly rising landscape andnever make it deep into Arabia’s deserts. Similarly, rains from theMediterranean Sea barely touch upon the northern extremities of theArabian Desert. The result is that the vast majority of the peninsularemains dry year-round. Parched riverbeds known as wadis runthroughout the land, yet they are barely recognizable as rivers. Whenclouds gather and rains fall, they become gushing and powerfulwaterways,essentialforthegrowthoftheseasonalflorathatmanagesto

bloom in thisdry land.Once thewet season isover, however, thewadisreturntotheirusual,drystate,uselessassourcesofwater.Morereliableare the oases—small fertile spots surrounded by the vast expanse of thedesert. They were capable of serving host to small communities, or aswaypoints for travelers, but were hardly enough to sustain an advancedandlargesociety.

TheArabs

Civilizationstendtobegreatlyshapedbytheenvironmentsinwhichtheydevelop,andtheArabsarenoexception.Everythingabout thelifeof theArabwasbasedaround theharshenvironment inwhichhe lived.Due tothe desert’s inability to support settled civilization, the Arabs wereconstantly on the move in search of fertile land for their flocks. Onetheoryoftheetymologyofthelabel“Arab”evenpositsthattheworditselfcomes from a Semitic root meaning “wandering” or “nomadic”. TheArabswould spend the summermonths aroundwhatever oases orwellstheycouldrelyonyearafteryear, tryingtomakesuppliesandwaterlastby living on the bare minimum. After months of enduring the summerheat, theywouldmigrate to thesouth,nearYemen,whererainfell in theautumn and fertile land appeared for their herds. The rain-fed pasturesgave their flocks of sheep, goats and camels enough food to live offthrough the winter months as they pitched their tents and temporarilysettled.Bythetimetherainsstoppedandthedryseasonbeganagaininthespring, the Arabs returned to their oases and wells to wait out anothersummer.ThisharshcyclehadbeenthenormforthenomadicArabssincetimeimmemorial,anditremainsinplacefortheBedouinArabswhostillliveinArabia’sdeserts.

Inpre-IslamicArabia,hospitalitywasofsuchimportancethataguestat the home of an Arab was guaranteed at least three days of totalsecurity and protection before he would even be questioned aboutwhy he was there. This tradition was further reinforced by theProphet,who stated that a guest has the right tobehosted for three

days.

The desert was not a place to be alone. With so many threats to thesurvivalof theArabs,communitycooperationwasessential.Relianceonrelatives was the first line of defense against famine and the heat thatconstantlythreatenedsurvival.Familieswereexpectedtoshareresourcesand shelter, and theconceptofpure individualismwas strongly frownedupon.Assuch,thefamily(andbyextension,thetribe)servedasthemostimportantunitwithinArabsociety.Groupsof families travelled togetherandwereconsideredaqabilah, or clan.Several clanswouldconstitute atribe, ledbyatribal leadercalledashaikh.Tribal identityandbelongingwere vital in the pre-Islamic world. Belonging to a tribe broughtprotection,supportandeconomicopportunities.Tribeswouldgotobattletodefendoneof theirown,andtribalwarfarewasunnervinglycommonbefore the arrival of Islam. Competition over grazing lands and flocksregularlybroughttribesintodevastatingwarswhichcouldlastyearsandextractaheavyhumantollontheparticipants.FortheArabs,strugglewasaconstant,againstbothmanandnature.In a tribal, nomadic society like this, artistic expression becomes

difficult. The resources and time necessary to complete great sculpturesand paintings like the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Greece werealmost non-existent. Yet the natural human desire to search for beautycould not be extinguished by the desert sands. Instead it took on a newform: language. Perhaps more than any other language in the world,Arabicitselfisaformofartisticexpression.Wordandsentencestructureis fluid, creatingmany differentways for a person to express the sameidea. Poetry thus naturally became the de facto art ofArabia; long, epicpoemsglorifyingtribesandheroisminwarweretheirgreatestworksofart. The finest poetswere revered celebrities in everyway.Theirwordswerememorized by themasses and repeated for generations.The sevenmost magnificent pre-Islamic poems were known as the mu’allaqat,meaning“thehangingones”.Theyweresocalledbecausetheywerehungon the walls of the Ka’ba inMecca, or alternatively because they werehung in the hearts of all Arabs due to their reverence for the poetic

medium.Despite being an advanced literary society,writingwas rare intheArabianPeninsula.Whileawrittenformof the languagedidexistbythe500s, itwasrarely learned.Memorizationwasenoughfor theArabs,whowerecapableoflearningpoemsthatwerethousandsoflineslongbyheartsotheycouldrepeatthemtofuturegenerations.MemorizationwouldprovetobeavitalskillonceIslamarrivedinthepeninsulainthe600s.When it came to religion, the pre-Islamic Arabs were almost

exclusively polytheistic. Islamic tradition holds that the Prophet Ibrahim(Abraham)andhis son, Isma‘il (Ismael), built theKa‘ba in thevalleyofMeccainancienttimesasahouseofworshipforoneGod.TheKa‘bawasbuiltasaplainrectangularbuildingonafoundationsetbythefirstman—Adam. From this shrine, Isma‘il was able to preach the monotheisticmessage to the Arabs, who adopted him as one of their own. Over thecenturies, however, the progeny of Isma‘il distorted his monotheisticteachings. Stone and wood idols were carved to represent attributes ofGod.Later, theywouldgoon to represent separategodsentirely.By thetime of the ProphetMuhammad, therewere 360 gods in theKa‘ba. Themessage of Ibrahim and Isma‘il was not entirely lost on the Arabs,however.Thetwoprophetswerestill reveredfigures in themindsof theArabs and even some of their basic teachings still held weight in thissociety.TheycertainlybelievedintheGodofIbrahimandIsma‘il,calledAllahinArabic.Buttheybelievedhewasoneamongmanydifferentgods,represented by the idols. This belief system was far removed from thestrict monotheism those two prophets had preached, and reflectedinfluence from Sumerian religions to the north. Isolated Christian andJewishcommunitiesexistedwithintheArabianPeninsulaandalsoreveredthe prophets, but that was where their similarities ended. The sparsemonotheists of Arabia tended to avoid complete assimilation with thepolytheisticArabs,insteadcreatingtheirowninsularcommunities.

Arabia’sNeighbors

In spite of being deep in the deserts of theArabian Peninsula, far frommoreadvancedcivilizations,theArabswerenotcompletelyisolatedfromtheirneighbors.TheRomanshadbecomearegionalsuperpoweralongthenorthern borders of the peninsula in the early decades CE. By putting

down numerous Jewish revolts in the province of Syria Palaestina, theRomans stamped their control on the area. For the Bedouin Arabs, thismeant the presence of awealthy and strong trading partner to the north.Merchants regularly traversed the western part of the peninsula fromYemen in the south to Syria in the north, trading goods that came fromplacesasfarawayasIndiaandItaly.TheRomanswerecontenttoremaininthemorehospitableandfamiliarlandsoftheFertileCrescentandletthenomadicArabscarryonthetradewithmoredistantlands.To the northeast of Arabia lies the Iranian Plateau. The rise of the

Sassanid Dynasty in Persia in the 200s CE ushered in a centuries-longstruggle between theRomans andPersians,whichwouldhave its effectson theArabs. The border between the two great Empires fluctuated, butwas generally in the Syrian Desert, in the northern part of the ArabianPeninsula.Both theRomansand thePersiansattempted togain theupperhandbyusingArabtribes(usuallyonesthathadconvertedtoChristianity)asproxies.Keentouse thisconflict to theirownbenefit, twoArabtribalconfederations developed into client states for the great powers. TheGhassanidsfoundedakingdominwhatarenowthemoderncountriesofJordan,SyriaandPalestine,wheretheyservedasabufferfortheRomanEmpire. Similarly, the Lakhmids controlled southern Mesopotamia andservedthePersians.BothArabkingdomsweregreatlyinfluencedbytheiroverlords,whospentheavilyonkeepingtheirvassalswellequippedinthefaceof the enemy.Yet theconstantwarfarebetween the two sideswouldslowly wear down all four parties. By the early 600s, the Romans andPersians were exhausted by decades of warfare and were weakeningbehinda façadeofmilitaristicpower.TheGhassanidsandLakhmids toofelt the stress ofwar, as theyweremere pawns in this constant conflict.MostArabtribes,however,avoidedtheexternalconflictbetweenthetwoimperial powers. Theyweremore interested in carrying on a profitabletradewiththetwowarringEmpiresthanhelpingtodecidethewinner.Tothesouthof thepeninsulawas thepowerfulKingdomofAksumin

Abyssinia, modern Ethiopia. Based high in the Abyssinian mountains,Aksum was a powerful trading state that connected inland Africankingdoms, the Indian Ocean sea routes and the southern part of theArabianPeninsula.Asacrossroadfortrade,ithadconsiderableinfluenceonArabmerchants,whodealtwith theAksumites inYemen.LikeRome,

AksumwasaChristianempire thathad tensionwithPersiaonnumerousoccasions.ControloftraderoutesrunningthroughYemenwasaconstantsourceoffriction,asbothsidessoughttoturnlocalleadersintovassals.In the increasinglyglobalizedworldof theearly600s, theArabswere

aware of their neighbors and became affected by events outside theArabianPeninsula.Being at a crossroads of three powerful statesmeantbeingawareofinternationalpoliticsandhavingtheskilltouserivalriestotheiradvantage.Yetdespitetheirprecariouslocation,theArabsweresafein the depths of the desert. They called their peninsula jazirat al-Arab,meaning“theislandoftheArabs”duetohowisolateditsinhabitantswere.This isolation proved to be greatly beneficial. The harsh environmentmeant thatnoneof the surroundingstatescould invadeandoccupyArablands.TheArabs’traditionalcycleofwanderingandtheirwayoflifewasmostlyunaffectedbyregionalpoliticsandwars.Inthisprotectedenvironmentamovementwouldriseintheearly600s

that would have huge implications for the surrounding states, andeventually the entire world. It would change the destiny of the Arabsforever,buildingonandusingtheiruniqueabilitiesanddoingawaywiththenegativecultural traits thatkept themaswandering,warringnomads.Geography, climate, culture and politics together all led to the perfectenvironment inwhich Islam could rise to become aworld power fasterthananyothermovement, religion,or empire inworldhistory. Itwouldsweep out of the deserts ofArabia into the batteredRoman and PersianEmpires,conqueringterritoriesandassimilatingdiversepeoples,creatingan empire that stretched from Spain to India by the early 700s—theworld’s largest at the time. This exponential growth in power andcivilizationwouldhavebeenunfathomabletotheArabsoftheearly600s,whowere struggling to survive.Yet all it tookwas the arrival of amanwhocamewitharevolutionarymessageandapromisetotheArabsofanewdestiny,onebeyondthesandsofArabia:Muhammad.

2

THELIFEOFTHEPROPHET

TheProphetMuhammadwasbornin thetownofMeccaaroundtheyear570CE.He belonged to theBanuHashim clan, a subset of theQurayshtribe that controlledMecca—the trading and religious centerdeep in theheart of theArabianPeninsula.About eighty kilometers inland from theRed Sea, it benefitted greatly from the north-south trade routes thatconnectedtheRomansinthenorthandYemeninthesouth.Yet,Meccawasfar detached from both these places. Hundreds of kilometers of desertsurrounding the valley town allowed it to develop independent of anyforeign control or influence. Mecca was at once both internationallyconnectedand isolated.Butwhen it came to religion,Meccawasa focalpointfortheentireArabianPeninsula.ItwasthelocationoftheKa’baandtheannualpilgrimagethatattractedArabsfromalloverthepeninsula.Sowhile Mecca was far away enough to elude imperial control by theByzantinesorPersians, itwascentralenough tohaveamajor impactonthe Arab people. Both of these characteristics would play a major rolewhenIslambegantospread.

EarlyLife

Muhammad’s early life was marked by hardship and loss. His father,‘Abdullah,diedbeforehisbirthwhileonatradingmissioninthetownofYathrib, north of Mecca. His mother, Aminah, died when he was six,leavinghis respectedgrandfather, ‘Abdal-Muttalib tocare forhim.Twoyearslater,hisgrandfatheralsodiedandMuhammadcametolivewithhispaternal uncle, Abu Talib. Despite belonging to the wealthy tribe ofQuraysh,Muhammaddidnotgrowupamidriches.Hisstatusasanorphanand his belonging to the clan of Banu Hashim—considered an inferiorbranchofQuraysh—meanthewasnotapartof the rulingclass.Hedid,however,accompanyhisuncleonnumeroustradingmissionstoSyriainhischildhood,inauguratinghimintotheage-oldnomadictraditionoftheArabs.Hisreputationasanhonest traderledtohimbeingknownbytwo

nicknames:as-Sadiqandal-Amin,meaningthetruthfulandthetrustworthy.Hewas thus respectedby theQuraysh,andhewas regularly trustedwithmoneyandbusinesstransactions,actingasanarbiterinmanycases.Byhistwenties,Muhammadwasanaccomplishedmerchant,workingasanagentfor a wealthy widow named Khadijah. Eventually, his reputation as anhonestandreliablemancaughttheattentionofhisemployer,andwhenhewastwenty-five,KhadijahproposedtoMuhammad,whoaccepted,despitebeingseveralyearsherjunior.Althoughbeingsurroundedbyapolytheisticidol-worshippingsociety,

theyoungMuhammaddidnotgetinvolvedinthereligionoftheQuraysh.The original monotheistic message of Ibrahim and Isma‘il was a faintmemory tomostArabs, but it still heldweight for a few, known as thehunafa‘ (singularhanif), meaning “monotheists”, who refused to acceptthe hundreds of stone and wood gods. Muhammad was one of them.Insteadofengagingintheidolworshipsorampantinsociety,Muhammadchoseseclusion.Hemadeahabitofretreatingtoacaveatopamountainabout five kilometers from the center ofMecca, where he would sit insilence and reflect on the society and religion that surrounded him inMecca.

TheFirstRevelations

According to Islamic tradition, in 610, while sitting in the cave he hadcometomany timesbefore,Muhammadexperiencedsomethingnew.Anangelsuddenlyappearedtohiminthecave,commandinghim,“Read!”Heresponded that he did not know how. Like most people in Mecca,Muhammad was illiterate. Again, the angel demanded he read. Again,Muhammad responded that he was unable to. A third time, the angeldemandedheread,andforathirdtime,Muhammadrespondedthathewasunableto.TheangelthenrecitedtohimthefirstversesoftheQurantoberevealed:

ReciteinthenameofthyLordwhocreatedHecreatedmanfromaclotofblood.Recite;andthyLordistheMostBountiful,Hewhohathtaughtbythepen,Taughtmanwhatheknewnot.(Quran96)

Herepeatedthewordsaftertheangel,whotheninformedhimthatheisJibreel(Gabriel),anangelsentbytheoneGodandthatMuhammadistheMessenger of God. Shaken and scared, Muhammad rushed home, notknowingwhat tomakeof theencounter.HewascomfortedbyKhadijah,who believed his account of the encounter in the cave. She asked hercousin,whowas familiarwith Jewish andChristian scriptures,what thiscouldmean.When he heard ofwhat happened, he immediately acceptedMuhammad as the messenger of his time, likeMoses and Jesus beforehim. Consoled by his wife and her cousin, Muhammad accepted hismissionastheMessengerofGod,andhislifeastheProphetbegan.ThefirstpersontohearofMuhammad’sprophethoodandacceptitwas

Khadijah,whocanbesaidtohaveconvertedimmediatelyuponhisreturnfrom the cave.He soon began to invite those closest to him to this newreligion.Hisclosestcompanion,AbuBakr,hisyoungcousin,‘Ali,andhishouse-servant, Zayd, all respected and trusted Muhammad, and thusimmediately accepted him as a prophet. They began to inform thoseclosest to them, and slowly the number of people who acceptedMuhammadbegantogrow.Thefirstattemptsatproselytizingwerecovert.Mecca was, after all, a polytheistic society, and the idea of one Godreplacing the numerous idols in theKa’bawould no doubt be seen as athreat. Thus, the early months and years of Islam were marked by thedevelopment of a secret, hidden group, fearful of society’s reaction tothem, but submitting to the ideas of this new religion.Theywere calledMuslims, meaning “submitters”. The word Islam itself, from whichMuslimderives,denotessubmissiontoGodandHiswill.

“Woe to every scorner and mocker. Who collects wealth andcontinuouslycountsit.Hethinkshiswealthwillmakehimimmortal.No!HewillsurelybethrownintotheFire.”

–Quran104:1–4

At thesame time, thecore ideasof Islambegan to takeshape throughcontinuingrevelations,whichwouldbesharedthroughoutthecommunity.

Strict monotheism, far different from the prevailing religion ofMecca,was the core theme.According toMuhammad, therewas only oneGod.The idols worshipped by the Meccans were nothing more than uselessstatues of stone and wood, and were incapable of bringing benefit toanyone. The verses alsowarned of aDay ofReckoning,when all soulswould be brought before God to account for their deeds. Those whobelieved inGodanddidgooddeedswouldenter aneternalHeavenasareward. Those who did not would have a place in Hell and would beeternally tormented.But Islamwasnot just concernedwith theologyandlife after death. The early verses also denounced social ills that wereprevalent in Mecca. With increasing prosperity from the trade routes,distinct social classes developed. Thewealthywould use theirmoney tofundmore caravans thatwould in turn bring themmorewealth.A poorperson,meanwhile,continuedtobemarginalized,doublysoiftheydidnotbelong to a powerful clan. The Quran declared such disregard for thepoorasdetrimentaltotheestablishmentofajustsocialorder,andworthyofpunishmentintheHereafter.Itwouldbeyearsuntiltherulesregardingsociety would be laid down, but from early on, it was clear thatMuhammad had come not just to change people’s religious beliefs, butalsosocietyitself.Theearlyrevelationsrepeatedthesethemesnumeroustimes.Theverses

and chapters revealed inMecca,which are found towards the endof theQuran, tended to be short and to the point. This worked well for thenascentMuslimcommunity,whichwasstillunknowntotherestofthecity.When around fellow believers, the Muslims would discuss the latestrevelations among themselves and teach each other.When around non-Muslims,theyhadtohidetheirconversionandbeliefs.Afterall,thesenewideas would threaten the established social order of Mecca. Social,economicand tribal equality flewdirectly in the faceof thewealthyandpowerfulmembersofQuraysh.Social revolution is rarelywelcomedbythoseinpositionsofpower.Even ifMuhammadhad not advocated any change in society, the new

beliefs alone were a threat to the economic and social position of thepolytheists.BecauseoftheKa’ba,MeccawasareligiouscenterforArabsthroughout the Arabian Peninsula. Once a year, Arabs would travel toMeccaforapilgrimageandtohonorthehundredsofidolskeptaroundthe

Ka’ba.Thismeantbigbusinessfor theQuraysh.Tradewasanaturalby-productofthepilgrimage:withpeoplefromsomanydistantlandsinthesameplaceatthesametime,anaturalmarketevolvedwhichmadeMeccaareligious, economic and political focal point of Arabia. And as thefacilitators of this trade, the Quraysh stood to make huge profits.Muhammad’s message, however, denied the importance of the idols,emphasizing the unity of God. Without idols, there would be nopilgrimage.Withnopilgrimage,therewouldbenobusiness.Thiswasnota scenario that was pleasing to theQuraysh, and the early followers ofMuhammadknewthat.Forthisreason,therecouldbenomentionofthisnewreligionaroundtheleadersofthetribe.TheMuslimcommunitywasstill small and weak enough that it could not yet come into openideological conflict with those in positions of power. Especiallyconsideringthefact thatmostoftheearlyconvertswerethosewhowereconsideredthelowestclassofsociety.Slaves,servants,andthepoormadeup a large proportion of the earlyMuslim community, attracted by theequality of all people before God and the egalitarian nature of the newreligion, where wealth and social status did not determine a person’sworth.

Persecution

EventuallythesizeoftheMuslimcommunitybecametoolargefortherestofQuraysh to ignore.Previously theMuslimshadbeenable toperformtheirprayerstogetherinasecludedareaontheoutskirtsofthetown.Butas their prayer groups grew larger, the chances of them being seenincreased.That isexactlywhathappenedasagroupofprayingMuslimswereseenbyagroupofidol-worshippers,whoseimmediatereactionwastoridiculetheMuslimsandtheirprayer.AtfirsttheQurayshwerecontenttoview thesmallcommunityasanabnormality tobemocked,until theyrealized the gravity of these new ideas. Monotheism, social justice,equality,andsubmissiontotheruleofGodwereallthreateningtheoriestothe Quraysh. In the eyes of many leading members of Quraysh, thesolutionwastoridthemselvesofthisnewreligiousandsocialmovementbygettingridofthesource:Muhammad.ButArabsocietystillhadstructureandrules.AlthoughMuhammadwas

anorphan,hewasstillundertheprotectionofhisuncle,AbuTalib,whowas the leader of theBanuHashim clan ofQuraysh.Abu Talib himselfrefused to accept Islam, but his dignity and respect for Arab socialcustomsdemandedthatheprotecthisnephew.Furthermore,age-oldArabcustoms dictated that if Muhammad was killed, his clan would havepermissiontogoafterhiskillers,andthuscivilwarcouldbreakoutonthestreets of Mecca. So Muhammad himself could not be harmed, but theprotection that he enjoyed was not extended to his followers, many ofwhomwerenotprotectedbyanyclanorfamily.TheQurayshdecidedtothreaten and persecute them, in the hopes of discouraging others fromjoining the new religion. Muslims were thus regularly harassed anddeprived of the same rights as polytheists inMecca.WhileMuhammadhimself had protection, he was powerless to stop the oppression of hisfollowers.Quraysh also took steps to prevent the spread of the new religion

outsideofMecca.AgroupofMuslimrefugeeswhoescapedtoAbyssiniawerepromisedprotectionby itsChristianking, theNegus.TheQurayshsent emissaries after them, hoping to convince the king to give up hisprotectionandsendtheMuslimsbacktoMeccatobepersecuted.WhentheNegus heard Muhammad’s cousin Ja’far recite verses from the QuranaboutIslamicbeliefsregardingJesusandMary,herefusedtoforsakehisfellowmonotheists,andtheQurayshhadtogobacktoMeccawithouttherefugeeMuslims. But even ifMuslims had not escaped to distant lands,IslamcouldstillspreadbeyondMecca.ThousandsofArabsvisitedthecityeachyear,andifsomeofthosevisitorsheardMuhammad’smessageandsawQuraysh’sinabilitytostophisunorthodoxideas,thestatusofQurayshas one of the leading tribes in the peninsula would begin to wane.Alternatively, thevisitorswouldbelieveMuhammad,accepthis religion,andtakeitbacktotheirhomelands,spreadingIslamoutsideofMecca,andmakingithardertostop.All of this led to the extrememeasures taken by theQuraysh. In 617,

approximatelysevenyearsafterthefirstrevelations,theQurayshdecidedto implement an all-out boycott onMuhammad’s clan, BanuHashim, towhommanyMuslims belonged. No one was to enter into any businesstransactionswiththem,normarryanyonetoamemberof theclan.TheywereevenforcedintoexileinabarrenvalleyjustoutsideofMecca.This

haddisastroushumanitarianeffectsontheMuslimcommunity.Persecutionbroughthunger,social isolationandeconomicwoes to theMuslims,andeventhenon-MuslimswhohappenedtobepartofBanuHashim,suchasAbuTalib.ThefewMuslimsnotbelongingtoBanuHashim,suchasAbuBakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman did all they could to supply the persecutedgroup by circumventing the boycott’s rules, although at great personalloss. The boycott was draining on the entire Muslim community, thosebelonging toBanuHashimaswellasotherclans. In theend, theboycottwas ineffective in persuading Muhammad to discontinue his preaching,and it was thus ended after just over a year of enforcement. DespiteQuraysh’s efforts, more people continued to accept Islam. The boycottalsorevealed thestrengthof ties in theyoungcommunity,as thosenotapartofBanuHashimwerestillwillingtosacrificetheirwealthandsafetytohelptheirbrothersandsistersthatwerebeingpersecuted.Here,oneofthecoreconceptsofIslam—thatloyaltytothereligiontranscendedloyaltytoatribeorfamily—wasonfulldisplay.Theboycottwasnotwithoutitseffects,however.Yearsofbeingdenied

foodandaccesstoshelter,coupledwithphysicalabuse,tookatollontheMuslims. The persecution probably played a role in the death of theProphet’swife,Khadijah, in 619.She had been the first convert and hadstood byMuhammad through the adversity he had faced at the hands ofQuraysh. The emotional support she provided in the early years wasindispensablefortheProphet,encouraginghimtocontinueinthefaceofpersecution.The losswas a huge one onMuhammad, but itwas not theonly loss he had to deal with. Soon afterwards, his uncle who hadprotectedhim,AbuTalib,becameillanddied.AlthoughhedidnotacceptIslam,heenduredpersecutionliketherestofBanuHashimandnevergaveup protection of his nephew. Beyond being another emotional loss forMuhammad,thedeathofAbuTalibhadhugeimplicationsfortheMuslimcommunity.Withoutastrongleader,therewaslittletoprotectMuhammadandtherestoftheMuslimcommunityfromtheleadersofQuraysh,whowerebecomingbolderintheirattacksontheMuslims,verballyaswellasphysically.DespitehisloveforthecityofMecca,MuhammaddecidedtotrytofindanothercitythatwouldaccepthimandgivehimmorefreedomtopreachhisreligionthantheQurayshdid.ThenaturalchoicewasTa’if,atownruledbythetribeofThaqif,sixty-fivekilometerstothesoutheastof

Mecca.He rodeout toTa’if andmetwith the threebrotherswho led thetribe.TheyunequivocallyrejectedhisproposalthattheyacceptIslamandrefusedtogranthimanyformofprotection.Tomakemattersworse,onhiswayoutofthecityandbacktoMecca,acrowdofpeoplefromTa’ifgatheredtopelthimwithstonesandinsults, leavinghimbloodiedbythetimehewassafelyoutofrangeofthecity.Islamictraditionholdsthathewasvisitedby the angel Jibreel,whoasked theProphet if hewould likehimtodestroythecityofTa’ifbetweentwomountainsaspunishmentfortheir treatment of the Messenger of God. The Prophet replied in thenegative,statingthathehopesperhapsoneoftheirdescendantswouldoneday be a believer. This event would play a huge role in the spiritualconnectionbetweenIndianMuslimsandtheProphetinlatercenturies.Afterlosinghisfamily’ssupport,beingrejectedbyneighboringtribes,

and watching his own followers persecuted for their faith, MuhammadrecognizedthataradicalchangewasnecessaryifIslamwastosurviveatall. The opportunity for such a change came from an oasis town 300kilometersnorthofMecca,Yathrib.The twomain tribesofYathrib,AwsandKhazraj,wereengaged inaperpetual struggle forpower that turneddeadly in the 610s. Further exasperating the problem, numerous JewishtribesalsolivedinYathribandhadtroublecoexistingwiththelocalArabs.Muhammad’s reputation as a trustworthy and reliable man was alreadywell-knowninYathrib,anditwasin620whennumerousnotablesfromthetowntravelledtoMeccatoseekhisemigrationtoYathribtoserveastheirleader and amediator of their disputes.Muhammad accepted their offerand encouraged his followers in Mecca to make the journey with him,wheretheoppressionoftheQurayshwasabsent.Muhammadhimselfwasoneof the last to leaveMecca in622,whenhe journeyedwithhis closefriendAbuBakr, barely eludingQuraysh’s plans to have himmurderedbeforehecouldleave.InYathrib,whichwassoonrenamedal-Medinaal-Munawwarah (the radiant city), officially known as “Medina” (the city),Muhammadwouldfindsecurity,andtheabilitytospreadIslamawayfromQuraysh’sopposition.

Medina

The Prophet’s flight fromMeccawas known as thehijra,meaning “the

emigration”.ItmarkedaturningpointinearlyIslamichistoryandisusedto this day as the beginning of the Islamic calendar. No longer was theMuslimcommunityamarginalizedgroupandMuhammadasocialoutcast.The Muslim community would now turn Medina into the first Muslimstate,andMuhammadintoitsleader.TheexamplesetbytheProphetinhistenyears inMedinawould inspirehundredsofyearsofMuslimpolitics,socialorder,andeconomics.But life inMedinawas certainly notwithout challenges.Chief among

themwasthenewmixofemigrantsfromMecca,knownastheMuhajirun,andtheoriginalresidentsofMedina,theAnsar.TheMuhajirunwerenotasinglecohesiveunit.NoneoftheclansofMeccaconvertedentirely,sothecommunityofemigrants representedadiversegroupofpeople,on theirown without the protection of a clan or tribe. In contrast, the Ansarbelonged toeitherAwsorKhazraj, the twoembattled tribesof theoasis.Furthermore, there were numerous individuals who belonged to neithergroup, immigrants from lands as far away as Africa, Persia, and theByzantineEmpire.FormanyMuslims,wheretheirloyaltiesshouldliewasa major question. In response, the Prophet made clear that the old pre-Islamic ideas of loyaltywere outdated. Instead, theywere superseded byloyaltytotheUmma, theMuslimnation.IntheeyesofMuhammad,itdidnotmatter if aMuslim hailed fromQuraysh,Aws,Khazraj, or even theJewish tribes. Once they accepted Islam, they were part of a newcommunityofbrotherhoodbasedonsharedbelief,notsharedancestry.

“TheJews…areonecommunitywiththebelievers.TotheJewstheirreligion and to the Muslims their religion. [This applies] to theirclientsandtothemselveswiththeexceptionofanyonewhohasdonewrong or committed treachery, for he harms only himself and hisfamily.”

–TheConstitutionofMedina

Muhammad’s new political and social order in Medina came to becodified in a textknownas theConstitutionofMedina.TheConstitution

detailed that, under Muhammad’s authority, Medina would operate as astatebasedonIslamiclaw.TheUmmawastooperateasonepoliticalunit.Furthermore,Muhammadwould act as the city’s ultimate arbitrator.OldArabcustomsregarding revengeandhonor in the faceof injusticewereeliminated in favor of a structured justice system based on Islamic law.TheConstitutiongavetheoasis’sJewsfreedomtopracticetheirreligion,but they had to recognize the political authority ofMuhammad over thecityandjointhecommondefenseinthecaseofanattackfromQuraysh.Muhammad’snascentpoliticalentityinMedinawouldserveasthemodelIslamic state for centuries of Muslim governments, particularly withregardstothetreatmentofnon-Muslimminorities.Thenatureofthecontinuingrevelationschangedtomatchthechangein

circumstancesfortheMuslimcommunity.VersesandchaptersrevealedtoMuhammad in Medina tended to be longer than the ones from Mecca,detailing things such as forms of worship, taxation, inheritance, andrelations between Muslims and non-Muslims. The Quran provided thegeneralitiesofhowaMuslimsocietyshouldoperate,andwherenecessary,Muhammadexplainedtheprecisedetails.Hiswordsandactions,knownasthehadith,wereavitalsourceofguidanceandlaw,secondonlytoGod’srevelationitself.ButtheQuranwasnotonlyconcernedwithlawandsocialorder. Many of the Medinese verses described the stories of earlierprophets. Stories of Noah, Abraham, Moses, David and Jesus were alldescribedingreatdetailtoMuhammad’sfollowers,makingveryclearthatMuhammadwas simply the last in a long line of prophets, and that hismessageisnodifferentfromtheirs.Much of this was aimed at the Jewish community ofMedina. On the

surface, theysharedmuchincommonwiththeMuslims.Theywerebothmonotheisticinalandknownforpolytheism,theybothreveredthesameprophets, and early on in Muhammad’s prophethood, they both prayedtowards Jerusalem. As a result, some of Medina’s Jews acceptedMuhammadasaprophetandconverted to Islam.JewishscripturesspeakofaMessiah,andtothem,Muhammadwasthatpromisedman.Butmanymore rejectedMuhammad. Judaism isunique, in thatbeliefandethnicitywere tied to the concept of a Chosen People. Muhammad’s message ofegalitarianism and the unity of all Muslims regardless of ethnicitychallenged someof themain ideas the Jewsbelieved in. Someprobably

genuinelybelievedhewasaprophet,butthefactthathewasnotaHebrewwas problematic for those who followed Jewish theology strictly. Thedivide between a Jewish community that believed themselves to bespeciallychosenbyGodandaMuslimcommunitythatadvocatedtheunityof all peoplewould develop into serious tensions between the two faithgroups.

TheBattles

TheProphet’shijra toMedina did notmean the endof conflictwith theQuraysh.TheMuhajirunwerestillbitterattheirtreatmentbytheirfellowclansmen inMecca and theAnsar were eager to punish those who hadoppressedtheirnewbrothersinIslam.ButtheMuslimcommunityhadnotyetbeengivenpermissiontofightbytheProphet.Warfareis,ofcourse,aseriousendeavor,especiallyintheArabianPeninsulawherecomplexrulesregarding honor and vengeance had reigned for centuries. Furthermore,theQuran itself testifies to the sanctity of life and the egregiousness ofunjustly taking one. The Muslim community was thus hesitant to actmilitarilyagainstMecca,despitetheyearsofoppressiontheyfacedatthehandsoftheMeccans.But that changed early on in Muhammad’s time in Medina. He

proclaimed to his followers a new revelation from God, which stated“Permission [to fight] has been given to those who are being fought,because they are wronged. And indeed God is competent to give themvictory.[Theyare]thosewhohavebeenevictedfromtheirhomeswithoutright—only because they say, ‘Our Lord is Allah’” (Quran 22:39–40).These new verses made clear to Muhammad’s followers that war waspermissible,evenobligatory,whenMuslimswerebeingoppressed.Theyalso signaled an important aspect of Islam’s role in the world: that thisreligionwasnotjustasetofbeliefsabouttheunseen,butacompletewayof life that encompassed everything from prayer rituals to foreignrelations to theology. Like they did with other instructions given in theQuran, theMuslimcommunityofMedinawaseager toshowtheirworthandfollowthisnewcommand.Theopportunitycame in624when theMuslimcommunitymustereda

small army of around 300 men to intercept a caravan belonging to

Quraysh thatwaspassingbyMedina.TheMuslimswereunable to reachthecaravan,butendedupmeetingamuchlargerQurayshiforcethathadbeen sent to protect the caravan. At the Battle of Badr, about 100kilometerssouthwestofMedina,theMuslimshadtheirfirstopportunitytophysicallyfight theirformeroppressors.Despitebeingoutnumbered, theMuslim army, commanded by the Prophet’s uncle, Hamza, managed torout theMeccans, takingnumerousprisoners.TheBattleofBadrwasofmonumental importancefor thenewcommunityatMedina. ItestablishedtheMuslims as a real political andmilitary force,while simultaneouslyloweringtheprestigeofQurayshintheeyesoftherestoftheArabs.The Quraysh were of course not willing to allow such a humiliating

defeat togounpunished.ThenextyearanevenlargerMeccanarmywasassembled, with the aim of harassing Medina enough to lowerMuhammad’s newfound prestige and call into question his ability toprotecthisfollowers.Thearmycampedoutafewkilometersnorthofthecity,intheshadowoftheimposingMountUhud,wheretheycouldharassthe rural farms surrounding Medina. As part of the Constitution ofMedina,Muhammadhadvowedtoprotectthecityanditsinhabitants,andwasthuscompelledtoorganizeafightingforcetogooutandconfronttheMeccans. There was, however, a group within the city that opposed hisplan,believingthattheirbestbetwastoleavetheruralfarmerstofendforthemselvesandkeepthearmyinsidethecitytodefendit.Theywerejoinedbytwoof theJewishtribesof thecity,whorefusedtogoout toUhudtobattleasuperiorforce.MuhammadwasthusforcedtomarchouttoUhudwithaconsiderablysmallerarmythanheanticipated.TheresultsofthebattleweredisastrousfortheMuslims.TheMeccans,

ledbythebrilliantKhalidibnal-Walid—whowouldlaterconverttoIslamand leadMuslimarmies intoSyria—managed to rout theMuslims fromthebattlefielduponto theslopesofUhud.Hamza, theheroofBadr,waskilled in thefightingandhisbodymutilatedby theQuraysh.MuhammadhimselfwasatonepointsurroundedalongwithasmallgroupofMuslimsbytheMeccansandwasinjuredinthehandtohandcombatthatfollowed.The Quraysh, having defeated the Muslim army in battle and believingtheyhaddoneenoughtodamageMuhammad’sreputation,retreatedbacktoMecca.The Battle of Uhud did not manage to end Islam or the Prophet’s

authority inMedinaas theQurayshhadhoped,althoughitdidsowseedsof tension betweenMedina’sMuslims and the Jews,most of whom hadrefused to honor the terms of theConstitution and join the battle. ItwasbecomingclearthatneithertheMuslimsnortheQurayshweregoingtobeable to decisively defeat the other on the battlefield. Both sides thusresortedtotryingtogainsupportamongthenumerousArabtribesoftheregion, each hoping to tip the scales against the enemy.TheMeccans inparticular hoped to gain the support of Medina’s Jewish tribes, whichseemedwillingtodislodgetheProphetfromtheirmidst.Fiveyearsafterthe Prophet’s hijra, the Meccans besieged the city of Medina from thenorth, and sought the help of one of Medina’s Jewish tribes, the BanuQurayza,wholivedonthesouthernoutskirtsofthecity.ItwasacalculatedgamblefortheJews.Thesiegelookedpromising,andbyjoiningwiththeQuraysh,theycouldwipeoutMuhammadandhisfollowersforgood.Asit happened, however, the Meccans and their Jewish allies wereunsuccessful.Muhammad,advisedbyaPersianimmigrantnamedSalman,orderedtheconstructionofatrencharoundthecitytothwarttheMeccansiege.TheBattleof theTrench,as itwascalled,wasadisastrous failurefortheQuraysh,whofailedtoevendentthepowerofMuhammadinthecity. But it was evenworse for theBanuQurayza. They had broken thetermsoftheConstitution,andthuswereliabletobepunishedaccordingtoits terms.An arbitrator assigned to the case ruled against the subversivetribe, ordering that themenwhohad takenpart in the siegebe executedwhilethewomenandchildrenexiledfromthecity.Muhammadwassettingan importantstandardwithhishandlingof theJewsofMedina.Hemadeclear that Islamic lawhadnoproblemwith thepresenceofnon-MuslimslivingwithinaMuslimstate.ForyearsMedina’sJewshadbeentolerated.Butwhentheyfailed to liveup toexistingagreementsand threatenedthesecurity of the Islamic state, punishment had to be doled out. Likeeverything he did,Muhammad’s example in dealingwithBanuQurayzawould set the precedent for hundreds of years ofMuslim relationswithnon-Muslims.

Victory

Withhisposition inMedina secured,Muhammadcould finallydealwith

Qurayshonanequal level.Confident in the stabilityof theMuslim stateand inspired by a recent revelation that promised impending victory,Muhammadsetoutin628withanarmyof1,500towardsMecca.Butthiswas not an army intent on war. They were clothed in the simple two-garmentoutfitofpilgrims,andonlycarriedtravellingswords.Noarmor,nocavalryandnobannersofwarwerebroughtalong.Muhammadhopedto gain access toMecca and theKa’ba peacefully in order to conduct apilgrimage.HecampedjustoutsidethebordersofMecca,atHudaybiyyah,waitingforpermissionfromQurayshtoenterthesacredgrounds.TheMeccans,nodoubtbaffledbytheaudacityoftheMuslims,justsix

years after their escape fromMecca, had a difficult decision tomake. Ifthey allowedMuhammad and his followers to enterMecca, they wouldlookweak to otherArab tribes, unable to prevent a barely-armed forcefromenteringtheircity.Ontheotherhand,theirmainroleinMeccawastofacilitatethepilgrimageforanyone,adutytheytookveryseriously.Inthe end, theynegotiated a treatywithMuhammad.Theyagreed tovacateMecca for three days to allowMuhammad and theMuslims to completethepilgrimage—the followingyear.Muhammadwouldhave to return toMedina that year without having visited his hometown. Furthermore, atrucewasagreedto.MeccaandMedina(andtheiraffiliatedtribes)wouldrefrain from fighting for ten years. Some Muslims were clearlydiscontentedbythetermsoftheTreatyofHudaybiyyah,havinghopedforimmediateaccesstoMeccaorevenacompleteconquestofQuraysh.But the treaty provided a welcomed respite from conflict that gave

Muhammad theability toexpand Islam farbeyondMedina.Nowwithoutthethreatofinternaldissentandexternalinvasion,hehadthefreedomtosend missionaries throughout the Arabian Peninsula, and even beyond,into the Byzantine and Persian Empires in the north. Bedouin tribesconverted enmasse, allying themselveswith the Prophet. EvenMeccansbegan to convert. Khalid ibn al-Walid and ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, two ofQuraysh’s greatest military commanders, left Mecca and joinedMuhammad in Medina in the years after Hudaybiyyah. The treaty hadfailed to give theMuslims immediate control of their holiest site, but itallowed Islam to grow exponentially throughout Arabia, much to thedismayofthehardlinersinMecca,whojustafewyearsearlierhopedtoendIslam.

Furthermore,thesanctityofthetrucewasnotcompletelyfulfilled.Justtwoyearsafteritssigning,atribealliedwithQurayshlaunchedasurpriseattack against a tribe alliedwithMuhammad just outside the borders ofMecca.Thisconstitutedabreachofthetreaty,whichhadpromisedatotalpeace for ten years.With the treaty now voided,Muhammad could callupon his newfound allies throughout the peninsula in a new expeditionaimed for Mecca. This time, however, they would not be travelling aspeaceful pilgrims. Muhammad was finally in a position of power.Thousands of Muslims from all over the peninsula were now at hiscommand,boundbyalliancesandconversionstojoinhisarmywhenevercalledupon.Atthispoint,thepeopleofMeccaknewtherewasnowaytheycouldmilitarilydefeat theProphet.ItwasMeccaversusdozensof tribes,allunitedtogetherforthefirsttimeinthehistoryoftheArabs.AttemptednegotiationsbetweenMuhammadandtheQurayshendedinfailure,andinearly630,hisarmyofover10,000Muslims—brought together fromallcornersofArabia—marchedontheholycity.MostMeccansrealizedthatresistancewasfutile.Withtheexceptionof

some minor skirmishes, Muhammad’s army enteredMecca bloodlessly.His triumphant return to his birthplacewas seen by his followers as thefinal victory of Islam over polytheism, of truth over falsehood. Thehundreds of idols surrounding the Ka’ba were destroyed, making thesanctuaryaplaceforMuslimworshipdedicatedtooneGod.FormanyinMecca, including the leader of the Quraysh, Abu Sufyan, this completeconquest was a sign that their idols were in fact no more than crudesculpturesofstoneandwood.TheysubmittedtoMuhammad,themantheyhadoppressed,chasedoutofthecity,andgonetowarwith.Muhammad,inturn,provedtobealenientconqueror.MostMeccanswereleftunharmed,a remarkable gesture for a people accustomed to brutal tribal wars thatshowednomercy.Onceagain,Muhammadwassettingtheexamplethathisprophethood marked the beginning of a new era with new rules andcustoms.Thepre-Islamicperiodofjahiliyyah,meaningignorance,wouldforeverbeleftbehind.Muhammad’s return to Mecca is remarkable if only because of the

circumstancesofhislifeintheprecedingyears.Justeightyearsafterhisescape in the middle of the night from his oppressors, Muhammadreturned to his hometown as a victorious leader with an army of

thousands. In Mecca, he had gone from a trusted merchant, to anundesirablerebelagainstpolytheism,toadistantenemy,tothebenevolentconquerorofhisnative land.Nodoubthis rapidaccession topowerandhisabilitytobreakdownoldtribalrivalriesunderthebannerofunityinIslamwereseenasmiraculousandsignsofhisprophethoodbymany.TheMuslimsof that era, including thosewhohad suffered through the earlyyearsofoppression inMeccaand theoneswhoonlyconverteduponthecity’sconquest, thusbelieved therewassomethingspecialabout Islam. ItwasguidedandprotectedbyGod,intheireyes,andtheywereonaspecialmissiontospreadthistruereligiontotherestoftheworld.Thismindsetwould play amajor role in thewayMuslims viewed themselves on theworldstagethroughouttheirhistory.

TheEndoftheProphethood

BythetimeoftheConquestofMecca,Muhammadwasaboutsixtyyearsold,anoldmanbythestandardsofhistime.Throughhissayingsandthecontinuing revelations of the Quran, the tenets of Islam had beenformalized,coveringeverythingfromarticlesofbelief,toinstructionsforworship, to guidelines for Islamic governance. A new social order hadbeeninaugurated,onethatleftbehindtribalismandnationalisminfavorofIslamic unity under divine laws. Muhammad codified this in his lastsermon,wherehedeclaredthat“YoualldescendedfromAdamandAdamwas created from dirt. The most noble in the sight of God is the mostpious. No Arab is superior to a non-Arab except by their God-consciousness.”His religiousand socialmessagewas intertwinedwith apolitical one that forged a unitedMuslim empire that spanned the entireArabian Peninsula, the first time in history that all the Arabs had beenunited.Heevenmanagedtomakesomeinroadsamongthetribeslivingonthe southern edges of the Byzantine and Persian Empires, anaccomplishmentthatwouldnotgounnoticedbythosetwogreatempires,whowouldsoontaketherapidspreadofIslamveryseriously.After his conquest of Mecca, Muhammad returned to his adopted

hometown of Medina. He had, after all, promised to lead the MuslimUmma from that oasis eight years earlierwhenAwsandKhazraj invitedhim.Here, hebegan tomakepreparations for aMuslimcommunity that

would continue long after his death. He spoke increasingly about theobligations of a true believer, the preservation of the Quran and hisexample. Inearly632,he journeyedtoMeccaforafinalpilgrimage, thehajj.Hespoketothousandsofhisfollowers,allequallydressedinsimplewhite robes regardless of their financial status, reminding them of theequality of all people. He cautioned his followers to avoid oppression,treatwomenwithrespectandlove,andleavebehindtheoldtribalrivalriesthat had been the bane of Arab civilization for centuries. His FarewellSermon summarized his prophethood: it was a complete revolution ineverysense.Intheeyesofhisfollowers,aneworderwasdawningupontheworld, one thatwould be based uponGod’s law and inspired by theexampleofMuhammad.After the pilgrimage, Muhammad returned to Medina, where the

foundationwas laid for the continued expansion of Islam. Learnedmenwere sent to distant provinces such as Yemen and the eastern edge ofArabia to teach the recently converted the basics of Islam. Medina, thecommunityinclosestcontactwiththeProphet,wouldoperateasahubofknowledgeabout Islam,serving toeducate therestof theMuslimworld,even after the Prophet.Amilitary expeditionwas prepared to trek northagainst the Byzantines. The Islamic ethics of war, which would guidehundredsofyearsofMuslimarmies,werereiterated.According to Islamic belief, Muhammad’s role was to serve as a

messenger for God, deliveringGod’s word, the Quran, and acting as amodel for Muslims. After twenty-three years of acting as a prophet ofGod,hismissionwascomplete.TheQuranwasfinalizedandrecordedonscrapsofparchment,leather,andbone,butmoreimportantlymemorizedcompletely by many of Muhammad’s Companions. The pre-IslamictraditionofmemorizinglongpoemsgavetheArabstheabilitytomaintainand ensure the preservation of Islam’s holy book. Narrations ofMuhammad’s actions and sayings were also given due importance, andspread throughout Arabia by word of mouth. According to Islamictradition, one of the final verses of the Quran revealed to Muhammadstated,“TodayIhaveperfected foryouyour religionandcompletedMyfavoruponyouandhaveapprovedforyouIslamasyourreligion”(Quran5:3).Muhammad fell ill in the early summer of 632. He experienced

debilitatingheadaches and a fever, andwas soonunable towalkwithoutthe help of his cousin ‘Ali and his uncleAbbas.Whenhewas unable toleadthefivedailyprayersinthemosque,heappointedhisclosefriendandcompanion,AbuBakr,toleadtheminhisplace.Hespenthisfinaldaysinthe house of his wife Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr. From a walladjoining the home to the mosque, he was able to watch the MuslimcommunityfollowhisinstructionstoworshipGod,eveninhisabsence.Itwasnodoubtanemotionaltimeforhisfollowers,whohadbeenwithhimthrough the difficult days in Mecca, the fierce battles against Qurayshwhereheestablishedhisauthority,andhistriumphantbloodlessconquestofMecca.TheyhadlookedtoMuhammadforguidanceandleadershipinallaspectsoflife.Hisincreasingtalkofdeath,andthefactthathewasnowunabletoevenriseuptoleadtheminprayerplayedheavilyontheheartsoftheMuslimcommunity.Hisfinaldayswerespentrestinginhishome,withhisheadinthelapof

hiswifeAisha.Close familymembersand friendsvisited,hoping to seesomesignsof recovery in their leader.Butoneof thecentral aspectsofIslamwas uncompromisingmonotheism.Muhammadpreached that onlyGodisdivine;allothercreatures,whethertheywereanimals,humans,oreven angels would experience death, according to Islamic belief. Thuswhile theywere prepared for his passing, recognizing that Islamwouldindeed continue after him, Muhammad’s followers, deeply emotionallyinvested in this man that had led them out of the era of pre-Islamicpolytheismand tribalwarfare, couldnot imagine lifewithout him.On8June632,withhisheadonAisha’s lapandhis followersgathered in themosque hoping to hear of his recovery, the first era of Islamic history,spanning the twenty-three years of prophethood, ended as the ProphetMuhammadbreathedhislast.

3

THERIGHTLYGUIDEDCALIPHS

ThedeathoftheProphetcausedanemotionaloutpouringinthestreetsofMedina.TheMuslimshad a verydifficult timedealingwith the fact thattheir prophet was no longer with them, with some initially refusing tobelieve thenews.But thedeathofMuhammadalsobrought questionsofleadership to Medina. For over twenty years, Muhammad had led theMuslimcommunitybothpoliticallyandspiritually.HisdirectconnectionwithGodmeant that societywas guided by divine power in accordancewith a divine plan. Now that that connection was no more, what wouldhappen to the society thatMuhammadhad established?Specifically,whowouldleadtheMuslimcommunityafterthedeathoftheProphet?BeforeMuhammadwas evenburied, agroupof leading figures from

amongtheMeccanemigrantsandthepeopleofMedinagatheredtoanswerthequestionof leadership.Disagreementsbetween thegroupsaboutwhoshouldbegivenauthorityover theyoungMuslimstatecould threaten todivide the community indefinitely. There may have even been someproposals for a two-state solution—one ledbyaMedineseandonebyaMeccan.Intheend,‘UmarnominatedAbuBakrtobethepolitical leaderof a unified Muslim state based in Medina. Abu Bakr was the naturalchoice.AfterKhadijah,hewasthefirstpersontoacceptMuhammadasaprophet and convert to the new religion. He had been withMuhammadduring his flight fromMecca.Hewas even appointed byMuhammad toleadtheprayersintheProphet’sMosqueinthefinaldaysofhislife.Yes,hewasfromthepeopleofMecca,butnoone—neithertheMuhajirunnortheAnsar—coulddisputehisqualifications.

AbuBakr

Abu Bakr took the title ofKhalifat-ul-Rasul, meaning Successor of theMessengerofGod—shortenedaskhalifa(caliph)—in632.Thecaliphwasnotanewprophet.IslamicscriptureisclearthatMuhammadwasthefinalprophetandnomorewouldcomeafterhim.Rather,thecaliph’srolewas

toactasapoliticalleader,followingtheexamplesetforthbyMuhammadin his time as the leader ofMedina.Thus, the caliphwas expected to besomeone who is an adept leader, capable of efficiently managing theaffairs of the Muslim state, as well as someone who can preserve thereligionofMuhammadandinspirepeopletofollowittothebestoftheirabilities.AbuBakr ’sexampleindoingsowouldserveastheprecedentforlatercaliphsofhowtofulfilltheseroles.EstablishingcontinuitywiththepoliticalgoalsofMuhammad,AbuBakr

dispatched an expeditionary force to southern Syria to battle with theByzantines in retaliation for an earlier confrontation between the twosides. The expedition showed that the Muslim Umma’s political goalswouldnotstopbecauseoftheProphet’sdeath.Butitwasnotasimportantasagrowing threatcomingfromthesandydesert to theeastofMedina.There, the various Bedouin tribes that had recently converted to Islambegantorebel.Theirlogicwassimple:theypledgedallegiancetoIslamatthehandsofMuhammad,andsinceMuhammadhadnowpassed,thatoathheld no weight. Perhaps another reason for their desire to break awayfromAbuBakr ’sgovernment inMedinawas the traditionalArabdislikefororganizedgovernment.Forcenturies,theArabtribeshadroamedfree,without a central governmentdictating their actionsordemanding taxes.They may have begrudgingly accepted such an arrangement underMuhammad, but they would certainly not accept it under Abu Bakr.Coupledwith theirhatred fororganizedgovernmentwas theappearanceof numerous people claiming to be prophets themselves, chief amongthemamanbythenameofMusaylima—knownasMusaylimatheLiarinlaterhistoricalsources.

“Neitherkillachild,norawoman,noranagedman.Bringnoharmto the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which arefruitful.Slaynotanyof theenemy’s flock, save foryour food.Youarelikelytopassbypeoplewhohavedevotedtheirlivestomonasticservices;leavethemalone”

–AbuBakr ’swarfarerules,dictatedtohisarmy

The refusalof these tribes topay the zakat tax, an important pillar ofIslam, combinedwith their acceptance of newprophets ledAbuBakr todeclare that theyhad left the foldof Islamandconstituteda threat to thereligionitself.IfgroupscoulddecidewhataspectsofIslamtheychosetoaccept, or could declare themselves prophets and adapt the religion towhatever suited them, the sanctity of Islam itself could be lost amidhundreds of versions. No doubt the examples of previous peoples thatwerementionedin theQuranwhohadalteredGod-givenreligiontosuittheirneedscametoAbuBakr ’smind.ThosepeoplewerereprimandedbyGodandwouldbepunishedontheDayofJudgmentfortheirsins,afatethepiousamongtheMuslimcommunitydesperatelysoughttoavoid.Asaresult,militaryactionhad tobe takenbyAbuBakr.HeappointedKhalidibn al-Walid as the commander of an army to be sent east to crush therebel movement. Khalid was well-known throughout the ArabianPeninsula.Hehadnotlostasinglebattlehehadfoughtin,bothbeforeandafterconversiontoIslam.Hisfamiliaritywithdesertwarfareandmasteryofcavalrymadehimtheobviouschoicetoleadtheexpedition.After successfully defendingMedina from any possible attacks by the

rebels,Khalid led thearmyeastward towherenumerous rebelling tribeswerebased.Musaylima’sforceswerenomatchforthemilitaryabilityofKhalid:therebelswereroutedandMusaylimawaskilledinbattle.Onebyone, armies loyal to the caliphate spread throughout the ArabianPeninsula, calling tribes back to Islam and battling against those whocontinuedtorebel.By633,theWarsofApostasywereover,andtheentireArabian Peninsula was once again united as a Muslim state. Islam hadsurviveditsfirstpoliticalchallenge,bornoutofthequestionsofloyaltytoIslamanditspoliticalleadershipaftertheProphet.TheWarsofApostasysetan importantprecedent regarding the future

of theMuslimworld.First, theconflictshowed that thespiritualunityofIslamwasofparamountimportance.Deviationsandfalseprophetswouldnot be tolerated. According to Islamic belief, previous nations that hadbeencalledtomonotheismanddeviatedfromGod’slawsweregiventhebenefitofadditionalprophets sent to straighten themout.The finalityof

Muhammad’smessagemeant nomore prophetswould be coming to fixthe errors of deviant Muslims. There could be no room for error inkeeping Islam as authentic as it was during Muhammad’s life. Khalid’smilitaryexpeditionshowedthattheMuslimworldwasevenreadytotakeuparmstoprotecttheDivinemessageofIslam.Second,thepoliticalunityoftheMuslimworldwasensuredforthetimebeing.Therewasonlyroomenough forone leaderof theMuslimworld.TheArabianPeninsulawassituatedbetween twoworldpowers—theByzantinesand theSassanids. Iftheywere to survive in the international arena, unitywasnecessary.TheWarsofApostasyconfirmedthattherewouldbeonlyoneMuslimstate—the caliphate—under oneMuslim leader—the caliph. Third, and perhapsmostimportant,theauthorityofthecentralgovernmentwasconfirmed.Tothe Arab tribes, unity and acceptance of a central government basedhundredsofkilometersawaywasaforeignidea.TheWarsofApostasysetthe tone that subsequent Islamichistorywouldbe (ideally) a break fromthenomadic,decentralizedpastof theArabs.TheArabswereenteringaneweraintheirhistory,andtheirgovernmenthadtoreflectit.BesidesreinforcingthecontinuityoftheIslamicstate,AbuBakr ’stime

ascaliphwassignificantforthepreservationoftheQuraninwrittenform.During the Prophet’s life, numerous secretaries were assigned to writedown new revelations of the Quran as they came to him. Thesemanuscriptswere not compiled into a bound book, but rather existed asfragments scattered throughout Medina. Arabia was, after all, an oralsociety, and few people could read andwrite. The written pieces of theQuran were not as important as its the memorization word for word.During Abu Bakr ’s caliphate, ‘Umar suggested that all the variousmanuscripts be collected, checked against the memories of reliableCompanionsforaccuracy,andstoredinacentrallocation,justincasetheunlikelyscenariothatall thosewhohadtheQuranmemorizedwoulddieout.DespitehisinitialhesitancetodosomethingthattheProphethimselfhadnotdone,AbuBakrwentalongwith theplanandacollectionof theQuranicmanuscriptswasassembledinMedina.AbuBakr ’scaliphatelastedameretwoyears—from632tohisdeathin

634.InthosetwoyearshemanagedtostabilizetheMuslimstateafterthedeathoftheProphetandprimeittotakeadvantageofweakeningimperialpowerstothenorth.Histwoyearssettheprecedentforwhatroleacaliph

plays inMuslim society and the continuation ofMuslim belief after thedeathoftheProphet.ThelastprecedentthatAbuBakrsetwasthroughthenominationofhis successor.Rather thanchoosea relativeofhis to leadhis community after his death—as had been tradition in Arab societybefore Islam—Abu Bakr chose someone whom he believed was mostqualified and capable of handling the job of the caliph. While on hisdeathbed,henominated‘Umaribnal-Khattabashissuccessor.

‘Umar

Like Abu Bakr, ‘Umar was an early convert to Islam. He accepted thereligionat thehandsof theProphet inMeccabefore theHijrah,andwaswithhimatallthemajorbattlesandeventsinMedina.Therecouldbenodoubting his credentials to lead theMuslim state, and based on Islamictradition, there appears to have been no disagreement regarding hissuccession tooffice.Thiskindof stability ingovernanceandsuccessionwouldbesorelymissedlaterinIslamichistory.UnlikeAbuBakr,‘Umardidnothavetodealwithquestionsofpolitical

stabilityorthecontinuityofthereligion.TheentireArabianPeninsulawasunited under his command. The massive military effort that spreadthroughoutthepeninsulaintheWarsofApostasygavetheMuslimstatetheconfidence and skills to begin thinking seriously about territorialexpansiontothenorth.Furthermore, thetraditionalArabwayof life thatwas confined to the Arabian Peninsula was no longer feasible. Forcenturies,Arabshadsurvivedthroughthecontinualraidingofrivaltribesandthesubsequentspoilsofwar.NowthatthevastmajorityofArabiawasMuslim,suchraidsonneighboringtribesmeantcontraveningIslamiclaw.TheProphethadspokenonnumerousoccasionsabout theentireMuslimpopulation being one Umma, or nation. It was inconceivable that thatnationwouldgoonthroughhistoryinconstantconflictwithitself.Partlytoremovechancesofinter-Islamicconflict,andpartlytoprovidesecuritytothefewArabtribesthatwereconvertingtoIslamwithinByzantineandSassanid borders, the Muslim armies turned north, where their greatestconquestswouldcome.Raids intoSassanid-controlledMesopotamia alreadybeganduring the

last year ofAbuBakr ’s life, and continued once ‘Umar took power. At

first, ‘Umar and other leading Muslims probably did not foresee theseraidsturningintopermanentconquests.ButadevastatingwarbetweentheByzantines and Sassanids that lasted from 603 to 628 left the imperialpowersweakandunable toholdoffwavesofArabMuslims arriving attheirborders.The fertile landsofMesopotamiaandSyriawere ready tofall; all that was neededwas an organized assault by theMuslims. Thiswouldbeanewtypeofwar,however.Unlikethecampaignsofdestructionthatthetwoempireshadwaged,theMuslimcallsforwarwerecombinedwith thecalls for justiceandsocialharmonyconsistentwith themessageofMuhammad.WhenAbuBakr sentout the first armies,heorderedhisforces to secure the safety ofwomen, children and the elderly; to leavemonks in their monasteries unmolested; and even to refrain fromdestroying crops. These rules could not have beenmore different fromwhattheArabsengagingintheseconquestswereusedtobeforeIslam.ButMuhammad’smovementhadbeenrevolutionaryfromthestart.Oldideas,traditions and ways of life had to give way to a new order, and thatextendedtowarfare.Armieswere simultaneously sent into Syria andMesopotamia in 633.

Khalidibnal-Walid,freshoffhisvictoriesintheWarsofApostasyledthedetachmentheadedtowardsthePersians.Meanwhile,Yazid,thesonofAbuSufyan,ledthearmiessenttoSyria,wherehequicklymanagedtodefeataByzantine force near Gaza. For the Byzantines, the surprising lossindicated this could turn out to be not a routine raid, but a full-scaleinvasion.EmperorHeracliusordered the imperial army tomobilize andprepare to crush the Arabs before they were able to consolidate theirvictory.TheMedinagovernmentwasawarethatthiswasapossibility,andKhalidwasordered to immediately leaveIraq,wherehehadalreadyhadsomesuccess,andtravelacrossthewaterlessSyriandeserttoreinforcethearmiesthere.ThecombinedMuslimforcesmettheByzantinesattheBattleofAjnadaynaboutthirtykilometerswestofJerusalem,wheretheMuslimarmies completely routed the imperial force under the command of theemperor ’sownbrother.TheremainingByzantinetroopsinsouthernSyriaretreated to the well-fortified cities of Jerusalem, Caesarea and Gaza,leavingthevictoriousMuslimsfreetoroamthecountrysideofPalestine.TheMuslimarmiesunderthecommandofKhalidmovednorthandlaid

siege to the ancient city ofDamascus,which fell inSeptember 635.The

treatyheforgedafterthecitycapitulatedwasintendedtoallaythefearsofthe locals. In it, ‘Umar promised that their lives, property and religionwould be safeguarded from any harassment, so long as a tribute to theMuslim governmentwas paid. This set the tone for the fighting—that itwasaimedat theByzantinegovernmentandarmy,not thecivilians.Withsuchguarantees,therewouldbeamuchlowerchanceofrebellionsbytheSyrianpopulation,whichwasessentialconsideringthatarelativelysmallBedouinforcewasnowbeginningtooccupyalargeanddiverseprovinceinSyria.ThelossofDamascuscausedtheByzantineemperortoassemblean even larger force,with the hopes of sending theArabs back into thedesertsforgood.Khalidknewhisraidingforcewasnomatchforthebulkoftheimperialarmyanddecidedtowithdrawsouth,stallingtheinevitableclimacticbattlebetweenthetwosides.Eventually,Heraclius’armycaughtup with the Muslim force at Yarmuk, along the border of present-dayJordanandSyria, in the summerof636.TheByzantine forcewasmuchlarger,betterequippedandbettertrained.Butmoralewaslowasnumerousrivalries and quarrels caused friction in the ranks. Taking advantage ofthisandthefamiliaritytheArabshadfightinginroughterrain,theMuslimforcedecisivelydefeatedtheByzantines.TheByzantinearmywaschasedoff thebattlefieldandceased tobeaneffective fighting forcecapableofanymilitary action. EmperorHeracliuswas forced to concede defeat inSyria,ashehadneitherthesoldiersnorthemoneytoholdofftheMusliminvasion.CitiesthroughoutSyriafellonebyone,allofthemgiventermssimilartotheonesgiventoDamascusbyKhalidibnal-Walid.By638,theconquest of Syria was complete. From there, the fight against theByzantinescontinuedinEgypt,whichfellrelativelyquickly,by642.Twoof the Byzantine Empire’s most valuable and prosperous regions hadfallen into thehandsof apeople theyhad scarcely considered importantenoughtorecognizebeforeIslam.

In70AD,theRomanEmpireexiledJewsfromJerusalem.Itwasnotuntil theMuslimconquest in637 that theywereallowedback to theHolyCity.

Withinafewyears,SyriahadgonefromalandfirmlyunderthecontrolofByzantineempiretoaprovinceofthegrowingMuslimempire.ForthevictoriousMuslims, the conquest must not have seemed that surprising.Afterall,theybelievedthatGodwasontheirsidesolongastheyadheredto the religion thatHe sent down throughMuhammad.The examples ofBadrand theConquestofMecca fromthe timeof theProphetproved tothem that victory was possible in the face of overwhelming odds withGod’s help. For the Byzantines, the loss of Syria was simply the firstdominotofallinthefinaldeclineofthesuccessortotheRomanEmpire.Imperial armies would never again march through Christianity’s HolyLand,norwouldtheyeveragainreaptheeconomicbenefitsofthisfertileregion.ForthelocalslivinginSyria,however,theByzantinelossdidnothave much of an impact on daily life. Churches continued to operate,peasants farmed land, and trade caravans passed through as they hadbefore.Tohelpsortouttheciviladministrationoftheregion,‘Umarpersonally

travelledfromMedinatoSyria.Oneofhisfirstactionsinthecountrywasto relieve Khalid ibn al-Walid of his post. This no doubt shockedeveryone,includingKhalidhimself.Amongthemanypossiblereasonsforforcing Khalid into retirement, Muslim historians in the past tended tosettle on ‘Umar ’s desire to remind the Muslim armies that God, notKhalid, was the reason for their victories. If theMuslims could sustaintheirstreakofbattlefieldvictorieswithoutoneofthegreatestgeneralsofall time, itwould serve as proof for thosewithweak faith of the divineguidanceandhelpfortheirmission.Whenitcametogovernorshipofthenew province, ‘Umar appointed Mu‘awiya, the son of the MeccanaristocratAbuSufyan.HehailedfromthewealthyandpowerfulUmayyadfamily,which had amajor role in the administration ofQuraysh beforeIslam.ThatlineageofgovernancewouldserveMu‘awiyawellinturningSyria from a new province to the economic and political heart of theMuslimworldoverthenexttwentyyears.While ‘Umarwas inSyria, he personally attended to the surrender of

Jerusalemin637.HewasgivenaguidedtourofthecitybythePatriarch

Sophronius,anArabChristianwhohadrisentobecomeoneoftheleadingfiguresoftheGreekChurchinJerusalem.Thetermsofthetreatythatwassigned with the leaders of Jerusalemwas similar to others put in placethroughout Syria. What is unique about the Muslim conquest here,however,isthatthenewgovernorsofJerusalemallowedJewstocometothecity toworship for the first time inover500years. Islamicscriptureholds theChristian and Jewish religions in special esteem, calling them“ThePeopleoftheBook”.ItwouldnothavemadesenseinIslamiclawtoallow theChristians freedom to visit their holy sites in Jerusalemwhileupholding the Byzantine laws preventing Jews from doing so. ThisprecedentoffreedomandreligiouspluralismwasbasedonMuhammad’sConstitution ofMedina, which ‘Umarwas of course intricately familiarwith. Yet while acknowledging the rights Christians and Jews had inJerusalem, ‘Umar was keen to send the message that this city alsobelongedtoIslam.AccordingtoIslamicbelief,thiswasthecitytowhichMuhammadtravelledinhismiraculousNightJourneyfromMecca,whereheprayedonthesiteofthehouseofworshipbuiltbyhisfellowprophetSolomonandthenascendedtoHeaven.Therecouldbenominimizingtheimportance of Jerusalem in the Islamic tradition, andwith this inmind,‘UmarsetaboutcleaningtheTempleMount,which theRomansand thenByzantines had let fall into disuse. Upon theMount he erected the firstversionoftheal-AqsaMosque,thethirdholiestsiteinIslam.After the fall of Syria, the attention of the caliph went back to the

Sassanid Empire, which had been mostly ignored since Khalid wasorderedtomovehisarmiestoSyria.‘UmarappointedanotherveteranofArabwarfarewhofoughtwiththeProphet,Sa‘dibnAbiWaqqas, toleadtheMuslim armies intoMesopotamia.Despite initial setbacks due to theArabinability todealwithwarelephants,Sa‘d’sarmymanagedtodefeatthe Persians at the Battle of Qadisiyya in late 636. The battle sawsignificantspoilsfallintoMuslimhands,muchofitforwardedtoMedinafordistributionaccordingtoIslamiclaw,andthetemporarydefeatoftheSassanid army. If theMuslims reallywanted to hold Iraq, however, theywould have to takeCtesiphon, the Sassanid capital. Ctesiphonwas not awell-defended city; it lay on the plain between the Tigris and EuphratesRivers,aboutsixtykilometersnorthoftheancientcityofBabylon.Afterasiegethatlastedabouttwomonthsinearly637,theimperialcityfelltothe

Muslim forces. The entireTigris-Euphrates plainwas now firmly underthe control of the Muslim armies, with the Sassanid emperor and hisgovernment fleeing into the Persian highlands. Despite the string ofimpressive victories, ‘Umar forbade his army from pursuing theSassanidsoutsideofIraq.InMesopotamiathelandwasfamiliarenoughtothe Arab tribesmen that traditional military tactics proved useful. In theIranianPlateau,theArabswouldbeunfamiliarwiththeterrainandcouldbe decisively defeated. Furthermore, the native population there wasentirely Persian, unlike in Iraq, and resistance from both the Sassanidarmyaswellasthelocalscouldbeexpected.

The royal standard of the Sassanidswas captured at Qadisiyya andtaken toMedina.Rather thankeep it as a symbol of Islam’svictoryover Persia, ‘Umar ordered that it be destroyed and its jewels andgoldbesoldtofeedthepoor.

‘Umar ’stimeascaliphisnoteworthynotjustforhismilitaryconquests,but also his administration over conquered territories. One of the mostimpressiveaspectsoftheconquestsandsubsequentincorporationoftheminto the Muslim empire was the fact that life barely changed for mostinhabitantsoftheconqueredlands.TheByzantineandSassanidarmiesandaristocraticclass leftas theMuslimsmoved in,but the localpopulationsremaineduntouched.Therewereonlytwomainchangesinthelivesoftheconquered people. The first was who they paid their taxes to. Whereaspreviouslytheyhadpaidtaxes(oftentimesoppressivelyhightaxesusedtofund the ongoing wars) to the governments in Constantinople andCtesiphon, now they paid a tribute, in accordancewith Islamic law, thatwas forwarded toMedina. Inmost cases, this tribute did not exceed theprevious taxes, and oftentimes was much less. For an everyday citizen,lower taxes are usually good news, regardless of who collects it. Thesecondmajorchangewasthereligioustolerancegiventocertaingroups.MonophysiteChristians,whodifferedfromtherulingGreekOrthodoxonmattersofthenatureofChrist,wereallowedtopracticetheirreligionin

Syria, a welcome change from the oppressive nature of the Byzantinegovernment.Jewsweresimilarlyrelievedofofficialoppressionandwereallowed to go back to their holiest city, Jerusalem, to worship. In theformer Sassanid lands, Nestorian Christians saw increased religiousfreedom,astherulingZoroastrianshadroutinelyrestrictedtheirfreedomsonsuspicionsofbeingsecretlyalliedwiththeChristianByzantineEmpire.Tensionsofcoursestillexistedbetweenreligiousgroups,especiallysincethesettledChristiansoftheFertileCrescentprobablyresentedtheruleofnomadic Semites from the desert, but overall, the egalitarian nature ofMuhammad’smessagehelpedusher in an era of religious tolerance thathadmostlybeenabsentintheMiddleEastpreviously.In economic terms, the conquests brought unimaginablewealth to the

relativelysimpleArabs.Thousandsofsilverandgoldcoinsandvaluablegemsflowedfromconqueredlands,particularlyIraq,intoMedinaaspartofthespoilsofwar.InkeepingwiththepreceptsofIslamiclaw,thespoilswere considered to belong to the entire Muslim community and weredividedamongmembersoftheUmma,fromtheearliestconvertstoIslamtothenewestnon-Arabstoacceptthereligion.Ahugeboomineconomicactivity ensued in Mecca and Medina, with new houses being builtregularly and huge estates being established to provide continuedeconomicgrowthafter theconquests ended.For the first time in Islamichistory,immensewealthcameintothehandsofaMuslimgovernment.ThroughtenyearsasthecaliphoftheMuslimworld,‘Umarhadtaken

theyoungMuslimstatefromadesert-basedraidingsocietytoaregionalpower.This rapidexpansioncoupledwithsocial stability isproofofhisincrediblecapabilitiesasanadministratorandleader,andhehasthusgonedown as one of themost successful rulers in Islamic history. His reigncame to a sudden end in 644 when he was murdered in Medina by aPersian slavewho had a personal grudge against the charismatic leader.While on his deathbed, ‘Umar appointed a council of sixwell-respectedleadersofthecommunityofMedinatochoosehissuccessorfromamongthemselves. They chose ‘Uthman bin ‘Affan, another early convert toIslam,whounlikeAbuBakrand‘UmarcamefromtheUmayyadclanofMeccaandwasaverywealthyandpowerfulmanbeforeacceptingIslam.No doubt seeing the success of ‘Umar ’s policies, ‘Uthman promised tofollowin‘Umar ’sfootstepsandupholdthesamepracticesasthedeceased

caliph,whichledtohisappointmentinlate644.

‘Uthman

‘Uthman’s descent from an aristocratic family played a huge role in hisdecisionsascaliph.TheUmayyadshadampleexperienceinadministrationdating back to the days before Islam, and ‘Uthman relied on thatexperience inhis personnel decisions.His cousinMu‘awiyawas alreadythe governor of Syria, andwas doing an admirable job in transitioningthatprovincefromafrontierterritorytothebackboneoftheMuslimstate.‘Uthman proceeded to appoint his foster brother, ‘Abdullah ibnSa‘d, asgovernor of Egypt, hoping thatUmayyad lineagewould serve Egypt aswell as it did Syria.Other cousins of hiswere appointed in Iraq,wheretheyledraidsintothePersianhomeland,slowlyconqueringtherestoftheSassanidEmpire. Therewere some allegations of nepotism for the firsttime in Islamic history, although they do not seem to have been seriousenough to hamper the efforts and capabilities of the expandingMuslimstate.

During‘Uthman’scaliphate,aMuslimembassywassenttoChinatoestablish diplomatic relations between the caliphate and the TangDynasty.

Continuinginthefootstepsof‘Umarandhisemphasisonthemilitary,‘UthmanorderedtheconstructionofthefirstnavalfleetinMuslimhistory,intended to thwart anyByzantine counterattacks.Governors inSyria andEgypt relied heavily on the expertise of the local Christians in buildingsea-faring vessels. Christians who had formerly been under thesovereigntyof theByzantineEmpireseemtohaveshowedenthusiasmintheirworkfortheirnewArabgovernors,especiallyconsideringthatmanyofthembelongedtotheCopticChurchandotherChristiandenominationsthatwerenot recognizedby theByzantines.TheMuslims’willingness totreatthembetterthantheByzantinesmusthaveplayedahugeroleintheir

loyalty to thecaliphate.The resultof thiswaspeaceful civil society, andsecurityfromexternalthreats,asaByzantinefleetattemptingtorecaptureAlexandriain646wasthwartedbyChristiansailorsintheemployofthecaliphate. Besides simply defending its borders, theMuslim empirewasable to expand its influence in theMediterranean, capturing Cyprus andCrete,andraidingasfarawayasSicily.Militarysuccessalsocontinuedonland, as Mu‘awiya led his powerful Syrian army into Armenia againstByzantine rule. The mountainous terrain of Anatolia, coupled with itsmainlyGreekpopulation,meantanaturalborderbetween theByzantinesand the Muslims developed around the modern border of Turkey andSyria. Further east, Muslim armies continued to push into the Persianheartland, under the command of another of ‘Uthman’s relatives,‘Abdullahibn‘Aamir.TheconquestoftherestoftheSassanidEmpirewasnot as rapid as the conquest of Iraq. Here the society was morehomogeneousandconnectedtotheSassanidgovernment.Asaresult, thewarexactedaheaviertollontheMuslimarmies.Still,thecompletenessofthe Muslim victory at Qadisiyya during the caliphate of ‘Umar hadessentiallysealedthefateoftheSassanidEmpire.Itwassimplyamatteroftime and effort to subdue the rest of the empire. Sassanid EmperorYazdegerdwas never able to fully replace the army he lost in 642, andover the following ten years, the Sassanids were constantly on thedefensive.By650,theIranianPlateauwassecured,andby651,Khurasanwastaken.Thatsameyear, thelastSassanidkingwasfoundwhileontherun and executed.Within a decade theMuslim armies had pushed fromIraqtotheRiverOxus,reachingtheedgesofCentralAsia.For ‘Uthman, leading a rapid military expansion like ‘Umar did not

resultinthesamepopularityasthesecondcaliph.Troublebegantofesterasdiscontentwithhisadministrativepolicies,particularlyhisappointmentoffellowUmayyads,beganto takeshape.Coupledwith this, theslowingconquests (in comparison to ‘Umar ’s rapid expansion)meant less bootymade its way intoMedina, resulting in economic stagnation. ‘Uthman’spopularitywascertainlynotashighashistwopredecessors,butitwouldbe a stretch to assume a massive revolution was brewing that wouldremove him from power. Instead, it was a small band of soldiers whowouldbringviolentandchaoticchangetotheMedinesegovernment.In 656, a group of soldiers from Egypt came to Medina to protest

directly to the caliph regarding his policies and the division of spoilsbetween thearmyand thecivilgovernment inEgypt.He listened tobothsides of the dispute and promised to take steps to solve the problemsequitably. On their return to Egypt, the soldiers intercepted a lettersupposedlywrittenby thecaliph to thegovernorofEgyptordering theirexecution. They returned to Medina and besieged ‘Uthman in his ownhouse.Despitethemortaldangerhewasin,‘Uthmanrefusedtoorderthatthe people of Medina arm themselves and fight the rebels, and evenpreventedhiscousinMu‘awiyafromsendingaforcefromSyriatoprotecthim,lestbloodbeshedinthecityoftheProphet.ManyoftheremainingCompanions ofMuhammad opposed thismutiny, butwere powerless tostopit.MartiallawreignedinMedinaanditsresidentscouldonlywatchinhorrorastherebelseventuallyforcedtheirwayinto‘Uthman’shouseandmurdered him as he sat reading his copy of theQuran. The caliphwasdead,andwithhimsowastheunityoftheMuslimworld.

‘Ali

As the kingmakers ofMedina, the rebels sough to appoint a new caliphthemselves. ‘Ali was the natural choice, as he was the most respectedCompanion still alive, andwas related to theProphet in twoways—asacousin and son-in-law. ‘Ali, holding onto the unwavering honor andjustice that many of the closest Companions were known for, initiallyrefusedtobeappointedbypeoplewhohadrebelledagainstthecaliphate.Hewas eventually persuaded by other leading figures inMedina that hewas the most qualified and best equipped to bring back peace to theMuslimworld.Asit turnedout,however,nopersonalitywouldbeable tomanagethe

crisisthattheMuslimworldstoodattheprecipiceof.‘Ali’smostpressingproblemwasdealingwith themurderersof ‘Uthman.Therewaspopularsentimentinfavorofpunishingtherebels.Mu‘awiyaeveninsistedthathewould not pledge allegiance to the new caliph until steps were taken topunish thepeoplewhokilledhis cousin.But ‘Ali, beingaspragmatic ashispredecessors, knew that topunish themwould likely lead tohisownassassination, as the rebels still controlled Medina. This would in turnforcetheMuslimworldintoadownwardspiralofbloodshedthathewas

keentoavoid.Instead,hemovedhiscapitaltoKufa,inthefertileplainofIraq, where support ran high for the embattled caliph.Many inMedinaweredisheartenedbyhis resistance tobringing the rebels to justice, andsoonaforcegatheredwiththeintentionofconvincing‘Alitopunishthem.Led by two fellow Companions, Talha and Zubayr, and aided by theProphet’swidowAisha,thearmydepartedforIraqtoconfront‘Ali.Itisdifficulttojudgetheintentionsof‘Aliandhispoliticalopponentsin

theirpreparationsforthecomingconflict.OnbothsidestherewerepeoplewhowereclosetotheProphetandmusthavebeenawareoftheseverityoffightingamongMuslims.Yetbothsidesbelievedthemselvestobeentirelycorrect in their ijtihad, or independent reasoning, regarding the correctcourseofactionindealingwiththerebels.For‘Ali,punishingthemwasnotpoliticallyfeasibleashebelievedthebestsolutionwastomoveonandattempt to reunify the Umma. For his opponents, reunification wasimpossible without fixing wrongs and sending the message that thecaliphatecouldnotbeviolatedasitwasduringthesiegeof‘Uthman.Botharguments probably had elements of truth in them, but the politicaldivisions that came from ‘Uthman’s death were too big for even theCompanionstosolve.Disunitywasinevitable.Eventually,in656,thesupportingarmiesoftheopposingideasmetata

field near Basra, in southern Iraq. Some members of the opposition,including Talha and Zubayr, met with ‘Ali before the battle, hoping toavoidbloodshed.Atentativepeacetreatywasagreeduponbytheleadersof the opposing sides,whowere loath to see fighting betweenMuslimsjust over twenty years after theProphet hadbeen laid in his grave.Lesspious-mindedextremistsonbothsidesstillurgedthesoldierstocometoblows with each other, despite the negotiations of their leaders. In theconfusion, the two armies finally collided, each believing the other sidehadstartedthefighting.TheBattleoftheCamel,asitcametobeknown,wasindecisive,withbothsidestakingonheavylosses.TalhaandZubayrwere both killed in the mayhem. ‘Ali and Aisha escaped the battleunharmed but were disheartened at the first battle between Muslims inhistory.AisharetiredbacktoherhomeinMedina,accompaniedalongtheway by a military escort for her protection, appointed by ‘Ali. Shedissociatedherselffrompoliticsuntilherdeathin678.Despitethisbloodshed,‘Ali’sholdonthecaliphatewasstillnotsecure.

Mu‘awiya had remained neutral in the conflict between ‘Ali and thedissentersfromMedina,butcontinuedtowithholdhisallegianceuntil‘Alipunishedhiscousin’smurderers. ‘AlicouldnoteffectivelygovernwhileoneofthemostpowerfulgovernorsoftheMuslimworlddidnotsubmittohisauthority,buthestillheldontohispositionthatpunishingtherebelswasnotapriorityandwasnotfeasibleinanycase.Thistime, topreventfurtherbloodshed,heagreedtomeetwithMu‘awiyatosettletheirdisputethrougharbitration.ThetwosidesmetatasitemidwaybetweenIraqandSyria,theirrespectivebasesofsupport,in658.Exactlywhathappenedatthenegotiationsandtheiroutcomeisdifficult

to judge through the fog of history, but it seems that the arbitratorsfavoreda solution that removeboth ‘AliandMu‘awiya frompowerandresulted in the election of a new caliph.When results of the arbitrationwere announced to the opposing sides, a group of ‘Ali’s supportersdecried the results. Declaring, “Decision belongs to God alone!” andrefusing to accept the legitimacy of the arbitration itself, the groupcondemned ‘Ali for allowing his political fate to be decided by merehumanscapableoferror.Theirextremepoliticalpositionmorphedintoanextremereligiousposition,inwhichtheydeemedanysinninghumantobeanunbeliever.After separating from themainbodyof ‘Ali’s supporters,theyweregiventhenameKhawarij(orKharijites)meaning“theoneswholeft”. The Kharijites went on to terrorize the Iraqi countryside, battlingagainst anyonewho disagreedwith their fanatical positions.Meanwhile,‘Ali, who had rejected the results of the arbitration as being invalid,decided that his former supporters who had now become the first inhistorytosecedefromacceptedIslamictheologycouldnotbeallowedtogoaboutwiththeirreignofterror.Heassembledhisarmyandconfrontedthe opposition in the summer of 658, where the main body of Kharijisupport was destroyed. The movement continued in a more clandestineform,with the aim of removing both ‘Ali andMu‘awiya.An attempt toassassinateMu‘awiyainDamascusbytheKharijiteswasunsuccessful,buttheysucceedinkilling‘Ali.AsheprayedthedawnprayersatthemosqueinKufa, an assassin stabbed the caliph, bringinghis turbulent reign to aviolent end.The caliphate fell to the onlyman left in theMuslimworldwith widespread support and the capabilities to be an effective leader:Mu‘awiya.

4

THEESTABLISHMENTOFTHEMUSLIMSTATE

Thedeathof‘AliatthehandsoftheKharijisandtheriseofMu‘awiyatothe caliphate marks the end of the era commonly referred to as the“RightlyGuidedCaliphs”.ThenatureofMuslimgovernmentandsocietyfundamentallychangedduringthenineteenyearsofMu‘awiya’srulefrom661 to680.Coming topowerata timewhendisunityandchaos reignedfrom Egypt to Iran, Mu‘awiya’s political skill and competence helpedpreventtheMuslimworldfromfallingintototalanarchy—fromwhichitmay never have risen. Yet at the same time, some of his policies andactionswerecontroversial,andformedthebasisforsomeofthebiggestdivisionsintheMuslimworldtoday.HisreignmarksthebeginningoftheUmayyad Caliphate, when succession to the position became hereditaryand stayed in the Umayyad family until 750, when it was replaced byanotheroldfamilyofMecca,theAbbasids.

Mu‘awiya

Despite the attempts at arbitration, a real solution to the dispute between‘AliandMu‘awiyanevertookshape,andthelastyearsof‘Ali’scaliphateweremarked by de facto division between the realms ofMu‘awiya and‘Ali.With the death of ‘Ali, however,Mu‘awiya was free to extend hiscontrol over the areas formerly loyal to ‘Ali and reunify the Muslimworldunder his command. Indeed, hewas probably the onlyman at thetimethathadenoughsupporttomanagesuchamonumentaltask.Hewasincrediblypopular inSyria, aprovincehehad lookedafter asgovernorfortwentyyearsbeforethestartofhiscaliphate,andSyrianarmyformedthe backbone of his military. He was not without enemies, however,particularly in Iraq,wherepopularopinionwas in favorof thecaliphatebeing inherited by ‘Ali’s son, Hasan. Ever the pragmatic statesman,Mu‘awiyahadnodesiretoplungetheMuslimworldintofurtherwarfareoverleadership.Soinsteadofmobilizingthearmytoviolentlycrushtheopposition,henegotiatedadealwith‘Ali’ssoninwhichHasanwouldgive

upanyclaimstoleadershipandretiretoalifeofworshipandscholarshipinMecca. Desire among some for rule by the house of ‘Ali remained,althoughunder thesurface,and itnevermaterialized intoareal threat tothereignofMu‘awiya.

TheDomeoftheRockMosquewasbuiltinthelate690saspartoftheal-Aqsa Mosque complex in Jerusalem. Its design is largelyByzantine,andwaspartlyengineeredbyChristians.

The caliph also relied upon negotiation and deal-making with otherpotential opponents. In many ways, Mu‘awiya ruled like an Arab triballeaderfrompre-IslamicArabia,usingfamilyrelations,anunwrittencodeofhonorandgiftstogethiswaypolitically.HavingbeenayouthinMeccawho sawhowhis father ledQuraysh, theseold traditionswerenodoubtingrained in his political persona.At the same time, however,Mu‘awiyabegantochangethecaliphateintosomethingnew:amonarchy.Hewasthefirstcaliphtositonathroneandthefirsttoprayinanenclosedareainthemosque,protectinghimfrompossibleassassins.Henolongerfollowedinthemodestandsimple footstepsof the first fourcaliphs. Instead, royaltyandcourtculturebecameapartofthecaliphateasithadbeenpartoftheRomanandSassanidEmpires.For thefirst thirtyyearsafter thedeathofthe Prophet, the caliph was simply a first among equals, and numerousanecdotes survive of the asceticism of those first four leaders, such as‘Umar being mistaken for a commoner or refusing the service ofbodyguards.Mu‘awiya was the bridge between the simple caliphate thatcamebeforehimandthemonarchythatsucceededhim.Hewouldwalkinthe markets of Damascus in his patched clothing as enormous andelaboratemosqueswerebuiltbyhisarchitects.As part of his overall program to de-emphasize political divisions

amongMuslims,Mu‘awiyachosetofocusonexpandingthebordersofthecaliphate.Reminiscentof‘Umar,whofocusedonoutwardexpansionaftertheinfightingoftheWarsofApostasy,Mu‘awiyasentarmiestocontinuethe war against the Byzantine Empire by land and sea. The important

islandsofRhodesandCreteintheAegeanSeawereoccupiedbythenavyfirst established under ‘Uthman. Buoyed by these victories, the Muslimarmieswere,forthefirsttime,abletolaysiegeoftheByzantinecapitalofConstantinople.ThelegendarycityhadbeenaprizesincetheearliestdaysofIslam,whentheProphetpromisedthateventuallyaMuslimarmywouldconquer that distant and seemingly impenetrable city.AsMuslim armiesapproachedthecityforthefirsttimein674,fulfillingthatpromiseseemedtobewithinreach.From674to678,theUmayyadarmieslaidsiegetothecity’smassivewalls,but lacked themanpoweror technology toconquerthecity.AmongthecasualtiesofthesiegewastheelderlyAbuAyyubal-Ansari, a notableCompanion of the Prophetwho lodgedMuhammad inhis home when he arrived in Medina. He was buried near the walls ofConstantinople,andalmost800yearslaterwouldbecomeamythiclegendfor the Ottoman armies that eventually managed to overcomeConstantinople’swalls.Expansion also continued in North Africa, where the Byzantines still

had control west of modern Libya. The fringes of Umayyad-controlledlandwestofEgyptweregovernedby‘UqbaibnNafi‘,anotherCompanionoriginallyfromMecca.In670,hewasorderedtoadvanceintoByzantineAfrica inconjunctionwith theongoingadvances intoByzantine territoryintheAegean.‘Uqba’sarmyconsistedof10,000Arabhorsemenwhowereaided by huge numbers of local Berberswho had recently converted toIslam. Because of the Byzantine preoccupation with other fronts, ‘Uqbawas able to advance unchallenged into modern Tunisia, where heestablished thegarrisoncityofQayrawan.Themain threat endedupnotbeing the Byzantine forces, but the local Berberswho had to be slowlysubduedbeforeanymoreadvances towards theWestcouldbeembarkedupon.Followingashortperiodfrom675to680duringwhich‘UqbawasreplacedasgovernorofIfriqya(theprovinceofAfrica),‘Uqbacontinuedhis westward raids. By 680 the Umayyad armies were well-establishedenough inNorthAfrica to embark on serious conquests acrossmodernTunisia,Algeria,andMorocco,collectivelyknownastheMaghreb,totheAtlantic Ocean. ‘Uqba’s role in these conquests would raise him to alegendarystatusforNorthAfrica’sMuslimpopulation.After leaving Qayrawan in 680, ‘Uqba’s army marched generally

unopposedthroughthedesertplateausouthofthecoastalmountainranges

thatrunalongtheMediterranean.AdvancingfromoneByzantineoutpostto the next, ‘Uqba’s army was able to quickly annex hundreds ofkilometersofterritoryalongthecoastwithrelativeease,evenasdisunityandcivilwarsragedintheheartlandoftheIslamicempire.Onepossibleexplanation for this seemingly miraculous conquest was linguistic,cultural and religious division between theBerbers ofNorthAfrica andtheByzantine rulers.TheByzantineswho ruledoverNorthAfricacouldnotbemoredifferent fromtheBerbersunder theircontrol.TheBerberswereadesertpeople,closertotheArabnomadswhoarrivedinthe600sthan the urban Latins and Greeks who had administered the area forcenturies. Their language shared no history with the Greek used inadministration, and few Berbers went out of their way to learn thelanguageoftheirgovernors.Thelackofcommonculturaltraitsmeantaconstantsocialdividebetweenthe two,andexamplesoffullassimilationoftheBerbersintoRoman/Byzantinesocietyarescarce.Religion, however, seems to be a larger factor that led to Berber

support for the Arab Muslim armies. Early Islamic accounts speak ofentire tribes of Berbers converting to Islam immediately upon arrival.Therewere certainlydividesbetweenNorthAfricans and theByzantinesonissueswithinChristianity:themainissuewasthenatureofdivinityandhumanity.SeparatistChristianmovementssuchasArianismandDonatismopenly disputed the official orthodoxy promoted by the Byzantines andmaywellhavecausedNorthAfricanstoleanclosertoIslam.Butevenifthey did not all convert immediately, as early chroniclers claim, theBerberscertainlyhadpracticalreasonstoriseupagainsttheByzantinesinconjunctionwitharrivingMuslimarmies.Thusitwaspossiblefor‘Uqba’sarmytocontinuegainingmomentumasitdidthroughtheearly680suntilthey were able to push into modern Morocco and to the shores of theAtlantic.His legendarywordswhen he rode his horse into the crashingwavesoftheoceanhintat thedeeplyreligiousnatureoftheseconquests:“O Lord, if the sea did not stopme, I would go through the lands likeAlexander theGreat, defendingyour faith and fighting theunbelievers!”Whetherornotheactuallysaidthosewordsisnotasimportantastherolethat heroic image would play in the minds of generations of militaryleadersthatwouldriseoutoftheIslamicMaghreb.

ConflictofSuccession

Despite his success in unifying the Muslim world after the troubles of‘Ali’s caliphate, one decision Mu‘awiya made would make him acontroversialcharacterandchange thenatureof Islamicgovernment forthe next 1300 years. He appointed his son Yazid as his successor wellbeforehisowndeathanddemandedoathsofallegiancefromthenotablesofDamascus.Muslimhistoriansthroughouttheageshavespeculatedastohis reasoning for doing so, especially considering the subsequentopposition that arose to Yazid. However, keeping inmind the historicalcontextofMu‘awiya’stimemakesiteasiertounderstandwhytheswitchtoa hereditary system made sense. Mu‘awiya’s time as caliph showed theemphasis he placed on political unity and harmony. After the politicalupheavalof‘Ali’scaliphate,Mu‘awiya’smainchallengewaskeepingtheMuslimworldunitedunderonecommand.Althoughhelargelysucceeded,therewas no guarantee that all subsequent caliphswould be able to useexternal threats or politicalmaneuvering tominimize internal divisions.Mu‘awiyathusfeltthattheonlywaytopreservesocialunityandharmonywas to simply bypass wars of succession and make the caliphatehereditary.As it happened, however, the choice of Yazid was not without

controversy.Unlikehis father,hehadneverknown theProphet, andwasthuswithout the aura that comeswith being aCompanion. Furthermore,rumors swirled in theholycitiesofMeccaandMedinaof the sinful lifethatYazid led.Alcohol, singing girls and excessive luxurieswere to befound inYazid’s presence, a far cry from the pious and simple lifestyleMuhammadhadpreached.Whetherornottheseallegationsofwickednesswereaccurate,theywereenoughforsometorevolt,suchas‘Abdullahibnal-Zubayr, the son of the Zubayr who opposed ‘Ali. Compounding theproblemwerethedesiresofsomeinIraqtoseeadescendantof‘AlitakethetitleofcaliphoftheMuslimworld.‘Ali’soldestsonHasanhadalreadydied inMecca duringMu‘awiya’s reign, so support fell to his youngerbrother,Husayn.ThisgrandsonofMuhammadwasattractedtothecityofKufainMesopotamiabypromisesofsupportfromitspeople.Againsttheadviceof‘Abdullahibnal-Zubayr,whowarnedhimthatthepeopleofIraqwilldeserthimattheirfirstopportunity,Husaynsetouttoestablishabase

in Iraq in680 fromwhichhecouldoppose theSyrianUmayyads, ashisfatherhaddone twenty-fiveyearsearlier.True to ‘Abdullah’sprediction,the people of Kufa abandoned their support for Husayn before he evenarrived.Yazidhadalreadysentanewgovernortothecitytorootoutanyoppositionandensurethatthepopulationdoesnotriseupinrevoltagainsthim,and itappears tobe thisshowof force thatpersuaded thepeople toabandon their promises of support. Husayn had been counting on thatsupportandonlytravelledwithaboutseventyfamilymembersandfriends,hardly a force capable of overthrowing Yazid. At the plain of Karbalaabout 80 kilometers north of Kufa, Husayn was surrounded by Yazid’sforces, which proceeded to kill the would-be rebel and most of hissupporters.TheBattleofKarbalawouldlaterbecomeoneofthefoundinglegendsofanew,divergentstrainofIslam,theShi‘a.‘Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr ’s revolt did not fare much better. After the

killing of Husayn, popular support throughout the Muslim world wasagainst the Umayyad government. Husayn was, after all, the Prophet’sdearly beloved grandson, and killing someone who had the Prophet’sblood flowing through him was a shock to many of the more pious-minded.‘AbdullahusedthisoppositiontoYazidtobolsterhisownrevoltagainsttheUmayyads,whichhedeclaredinMeccain680,afterHusayn’sdeath.Withsuchsupport, ‘Abdullah’s revoltcouldnotbestampedoutaseasilyasHusayn’s.Infact,Yazidwasneverabletodoawaywiththerevoltin theHijaz and died in 683without complete control over the Empire.After Yazid’s death, it seems that Umayyad control collapsed almosteverywhereintheMuslimworld.Yazid’ssuccessor,ayouthwhoseemstohavehadno interest ingovernment,only ruled fora fewmonthsbeforehisowndeath.‘Abdullahdeclaredhimselfcaliph,andwasgivenoathsofallegiance by people in Iraq,Egypt, and even the fringes ofSyria itself.But through a mix of tribal politics and open fighting, the Umayyadsmanaged to regain control of the caliphate under Marwan, a cousin ofMu‘awiya. Under Marwan and his son ‘Abd al-Malik, the Umayyadsregained control of Syria, Egypt and Iraq, and eventually stamped out‘Abdullahibnal-Zubayr ’srebellioninMeccaby692.TheUmayyadshadcomeback from thebrinkofextinction to regaincompletecontrolovertheMuslim empire. This certainly was not the tranquility and harmonyMu‘awiyahadhopedforwhenheappointedhissonascaliph,butoncethe

Umayyadswere re-established, theperiodofcivilwarsbetween680and692 seemed like nothingmore than a small hiccup. In the late 600s andearly700s,theUmayyadscontinuedwithasecondperiodofrapidmilitaryexpansionandeconomicgrowththatwouldrivalanyperiodofexpansioninIslamichistorybeforeorsince.

The fact that the Umayyads conquered most of Iberia in just fouryearswithafewthousandsoldiersindicatesthattheyreceivedsupportfromthelocalpopulation.

FurtherConquests

Full consolidation of ‘Uqba’s conquests in North Africa had to becompletedbeforefurtherconquestscouldbeundertaken.Thecaliph‘Abdal-Malik sent armies toconquerCarthage, the finaloutpostofByzantinecontrol inNorthAfrica in698.With this, the last remnantsofByzantineNorthAfricadisappearedforgood,astheformerrulersofthelandwereforced to retreat to Sicily and Greece. Now the Muslim armies wereprimedforoneofthemostspectacularandunlikelyconquestsinhistory.LegendhasitthataformerByzantineofficial,Julian,appealedtothenewMuslim governors ofNorthAfrica to punish theVisigothic king of theIberianPeninsula,Roderic,whohadsupposedlyseducedJulian’sdaughterwhile she was under his care. Julian even promised to ferry a MuslimexpeditionaryforceacrossthestraittoSpaintoexacthisrevengeuponthetyrant king. Whether or not Julian really existed, reports of unrest inVisigothicSpainalongwithpleas frompersecuted JewsandunorthodoxChristiansmusthaveplayeda role in thedecision tocross the strait andventureintotheIberianPeninsula.Musa ibnNusayr, theUmayyadgovernorof theMaghreb sent a force

underthecommandofTariqibnZiyad,aBerberconverttoIslam,whoinearly711landednearagiantmonolithicpromontoryonthesouthshoreofSpain.Heestablishedhiscampnearthemountain,whichbecameknownasJabal Tariq (theMountain of Tariq), Anglicized as Gibraltar. From this

base, Tariq led raiding parties throughout the south of Spain, whichprovedtobegenerallysuccessful—especiallysinceRodericandthemainbulkoftheVisigothicarmywasinthenorthofthepeninsuladealingwithaBasquerebellion.BythetimeRodericwasabletomarchhisarmysouthtomeet theMuslim forces in the summerof 711,Tariqhadmanaged tobringover an army thatnumberedaround10,000 soldiers fromMuslimNorthAfrica.AtthedecisiveBattleofGuadalete,Tariq’sarmycrushedtheamassed forces of Roderic, who suffered from disloyalty in his army’sranks alongwith the effects of an exhaustivemarch tomeet theMusliminvaders. Roderic himself was killed in the battle, and the underlyingweakness of the Visigothic kingdom soon became apparent. Centralcontrol collapsed throughout the peninsula. Tariq advanced to takeRoderic’soldcapitalcityofToledowithinafewmonthsofthebattle,andsoonafterwards,citiesbegantofallonebyonetotheinvadingMuslims.Tariq’ssuperior,Musa,alsocrossedoverintoSpaintoaidintheongoingconquest. Tariq was the conqueror and Musa was the consolidator. Asexpeditionary forces under Tariq took cities as far north as the EbroValley,Musa’slargerarmyfolloweduptofullyestablishMuslimruleinconqueredareasandsetupcivilgovernment.Intheyearsfrom711to715,TariqandMusamanagedtobringthevastmajorityofthepeninsulaunderUmayyad control. The seemingly improbable conquest of such a largeterritorybyrelativelysmall invadingarmies(nomorethantentotwentythousandsoldiers)wasreminiscentoftheconquestofNorthAfricajustagenerationbefore.

Many of the early Indian converts to Islam were Buddhists andmembersoflowercastes,whowereattractedtotheegalitariannatureofIslam.

FurtherraidstothenorthintoGaulinitiallyprovedtobeassuccessfulastheconquestofSpain.TheMuslimarmiesmanagedtoadvanceintothesouth of modern France, establishing their rule in Aquitaine andSeptimaniainthe720s.TheclimaxoftheMusliminvasionofGaulwasin

732, when armies under the Muslim governor of al-Andalus, ‘Abd al-Rahmanal-Ghafiqi,weredefeatedby theFranksunderCharlesMartelattheBattleofTours, innorthernFrance.Theimportanceofthisbattlehasbeenthoroughlydebatedbyhistorians.SomearguethataMuslimvictorywould have led to the eventual complete conquest of Europe and itssubsequent conversion to Islam in the 700s. Others downplay the battle,makingthepointthatal-Ghafiqi’sadvancetonorthernFrancewasnothingmore than a summer raidwith no aims at conquest.Whether or not thebattle really was that important cannot be determined, but one has towonder at the implications of what Muslim rule in France and beyondcouldhavemeantforEuropeanhistoryintheMiddleAges.WhatmakesUmayyadexpansionintheearlypartoftheeighthcentury

so extraordinary is that it was not confined to North Africa and Spain.Simultaneously,ontheoppositesideoftheEmpire,UmayyadarmiesweremarchingintoanunknownlandintowhichevenAlexander ’sarmiesdarednotventure.TheimpetuswasaMuslimtradevesselreturningfromCeylon(modern Sri Lanka) that was attacked by pirates based in the northwestcorner of India, Sindh.When the king of Sindh, Raja Dahir refused toreturn the Muslim captives taken from the ship, Umayyad armies wereagainspurred toaction topush theempire’sbordersevenfurther.UnderthecommandofMuhammadbinQasim,ayoungmanwhohailedfromthetribe of Thaqif, based in Ta’if (the same city that according to IslamictraditionProphetMuhammadchosenottodestroy).Althoughhewasinhisteens,IbnQasimprovedtobeanableleaderunderthetutelageofHajjajbinYusuf,thegovernorofIraq.Hewassentwithanarmyof6,000Syriansoldiers across Persia and into the Indian subcontinent in 711, the sameyearasTariqibnZiyad’sforayintoSpain.UponreachingtheIndusRiver,severalsmallcommunitiescapitulatedtotheinvadingforceoncegiventhepromise of religious freedom. Aided by Buddhist temple officials, theMuslim armymarched from city to city with relatively little resistance.WhenbinQasim’sforcefinallymetDahirinbattlealongtheIndusRiver,theMuslims,alongwithlocalsdiscontentedwithDahir ’srule,managedtoinflictadevastatingblowontheSindhiarmy.Dahirhimselfwaskilledinthechaosof thebattle,hiswarelephantsbeingnomatchfor theflamingarrowsemployedbytheMuslims.LikeinSpain,thelossofamajorbattleandthedeathofthekingledtothecompletecollapseoflocalgovernment.

Muhammad bin Qasim’s forces mopped up the remaining organizedoppositionwithinmonths, andestablishedMuslim rule inSindh.For thefirsttime,apartofIndiawasunderMuslimcontrol,althoughitwouldbecenturiesbeforeMuslimswouldmanage toestablishcontrol further intothesubcontinent.For the locals living inSindh, theMuslimconquestdidnotchangetheirdailylivesmuch.OntheadviceofhissuperiorsinIraq,IbnQasimextendedthesamereligiousfreedomtoBuddhistsandHindusthat was already given to Christians and Jews elsewhere in theMuslimworld. Temples and idols destroyed in the fighting were allowed to berebuilt by the new Muslim governors. Once again, the relaxed termsofferedby the conqueringMuslims created little discontentwithMuslimruleandrelativesocialharmony.Bythemid-700s,theUmayyadcaliphatestretchedfromSpaintoIndia,

makingit the largestempire in theworldjust100yearsafter theIslamicmovementbeganhighuponamountain inMecca.Whileexpansionandconquestareusuallysignsofapowerfulandcapablegovernment,aplotfor theendof theUmayyaddynastywasbeingplanned just asUmayyadarmiesmarchedintounknownterritories.WhereotherrebellionsagainsttheUmayyadsfailed,thisonewouldsucceedasitcapitalizedonthemanydifferent ethnic groups that were now under Muslim control and theirdiscontentwithUmayyadsocialpolicies.Therapidexpansionmeant thatahugenumberofpeoplescameunder

Muslim control who were not Muslims themselves. The percent of thepopulation that wasMuslim in the early to mid-700s is estimated to bearound just 10 per cent, the rest being a blend of Christians, Jews,Zoroastrians, Buddhists and Hindus. According to Islamic law, thesegroupswere granted religious freedom andwere exempt frommilitaryservice inexchange forpaymentof apoll tax, the jizya.Muslimson theotherhand,wereonlysubjecttoalandtaxandthezakat,amandatorytaxmeanttobedistributedtothepoor.Althoughthe jizyawasusually lowerthanthepre-IslamictaxesoftheByzantinesorSassanids,itwasstillhigherthan the taxes paid by theMuslims. A natural economic reaction to thissystemwouldbefornon-MuslimstoconverttoIslaminordertopaylesstax.ButthissolutionposedaproblemfortheUmayyadgovernment:ifallthenon-MuslimsintheempireconvertedtoIslam,itwouldleadtoahugefall in tax revenue,making furthermilitary expeditions (not tomention

luxurious Umayyad palaces) financially unfeasible. Consequently, asafeguard to protect revenue was put into place. Non-Muslims whoconvertedtoIslamwererequiredtocontinuetopaythesamejizyataxtheyhad paid before their conversion. In theory, this would protect theUmayyad caliphate from losing a valuable tax base, and ensure that allconversions would be sincere. In practice, it meant institutionalizeddiscrimination based on race. Since the Arabs had almost entirelyconverted to Islambefore theUmayyadcaliphatebegan, theonlypeoplewho were converting into the religion were non-Arabs such as Copts,Greeks, Berbers, and especially Persians. They were the only Muslimspaying the jizya, while their Arab brothers in faith were exempt. TheintentionoftheUmayyadsmayhavebeentoprotecttheirtaxbase,butthepolicyendeduphavingaracialaspect,keepingnon-Arabsatthebottomofsociety while Arabs rose to the top. From a religious perspective, thisdirectly contradicted Prophet Muhammad’s call for unity during theFarewell Pilgrimage,when he famously proclaimed, “NoArab is betterthananon-Arabandnonon-ArabisbetterthananArab.”Anattemptwasmadebythecaliph‘Umaribn‘Abdal-‘Aziztoundothe

un-Islamictaxationpolicyduringhisreignfrom717to720.Althoughhisreformswere wildly popular with the non-Arabs of the empire, he wasdistrustedbyhisownfamilyforhisviewsofequalityandwaspoisonedbytheUmayyadclanjusttwoyearsaftertakingpower.LaterMuslimswouldgive Umar II the honorary title of the “Fifth Rightly Guided Caliph”becauseofhisreligious-mindedreforms,but in theend,hisreignwouldbe nothing more than a small hiccup in Umayyad policy. With everincreasing numbers of non-Arabs accepting Islam, dissatisfaction at theunequaltaxpolicyoftheUmayyadsgrew.Ridingthiswaveofdiscontent,another old family of Mecca rose to take control of the caliphate forthemselves:theAbbasids.

TheAbbasidRevolution

TheAbbasidstaketheirnamefromtheuncleoftheProphet,Abbas,whowasthepatriarchoftheclan.TheyhadsettledinthelandeastoftheJordanRiverafter theconquestofSyria, andgenerally stayedoutofpoliticsasthe civil wars of the 600s raged. But sometime in the early 700s, they

began to circulate a rumor that one of the descendants of ‘Ali hadofficially transferred theright torule to theAbbasids.Whyhemayhavedone this, or if it evenhappened in the first place, is amystery. Fromapracticalstandpoint,itgavelegitimacytotheAbbasids.Notonlyweretheymore closely related to the Prophet than the Umayyads were, but theycould also claim to uphold the desires of those who supported ‘Ali’sdescendantsas leadersof theMuslimworld.Fromtheirbase insouthernSyria, and later in Iraq, they sent agents east to Khurasan, where thePersian population could be counted on to support a revolt against theoppressiveUmayyads.Throughoutthe730sand740s,oathsofallegianceand networks of allies were formulated, far from the Umayyad base inDamascus.With promises of amore equal society under their caliphateand vague assurances that the descendants of ‘Ali would play a greaterroleinMuslimgovernment,whichwasmajordesireformanyMuslimsintheeasternpartof theempire, theAbbasidswereable to securebackingfrom a wide spectrum of society. Support came from pious-mindedworshippers who desired to see a government more in line with theProphet’s ideals, non-Arab Muslims who resented their second-classstatus,andloyaliststothehouseof‘Ali,whobelievedruleshouldbelongtotheProphet’sfamily.In747theAbbasidsformallydeclaredtheiropenrevolt,unfurlingtheir

distinctiveblackbannersintheskiesabovethecityofMerv,inthefareastof theMuslim world in modern-day Turkmenistan. The revolutionarieswere led by a mysterious figure known as Abu Muslim. Not much isknownabouthim,buthedoesnot appear tohavebeenamemberof theAbbasid family, andwas probably ethnically Persian.Under his brilliantpolitical andmilitary leadership, theAbbasid revolutionquickly securedcontrolofKhurasan,whichwassoontoserveasabaseforthemovement.AbuMuslim sent armieswestward, into the heart of Persia,where localPersian Muslims rose up against the Umayyads and joined inrevolutionary fervor. What initially seemed like an insignificantexpression of discontent in distant Merv now became a danger to theexistenceoftheUmayyaddynastyasAbbasidarmiesflowedoutofPersiaandintotheArabworld.Kufa,everahubofanti-Umayyadsentiment,roseup against its Umayyad governor and expelled him when the blackAbbasidbannersappearedontheeasternhorizon.

OnceKufawasliberated,formaloathsofallegiancecouldbegiventotheAbbasidclaimanttothecaliphate,Abual-‘Abbas.Therevolutionhadaclear goal, widespread support throughout Persia, and now, a leader tounite behind. Everywhere the Umayyads were on the defensive asmorepeopleflockedtosupporttheAbbasids.Meanwhile,rousingtheUmayyadsupportersprovedtobeachallenge.IthadbeendecadessincethelastrealthreattotheUmayyadposition,andtheSyrianarmyofficerswerecontenttoremainontheirestates,erroneouslythinkingtherevolutionwouldpeterout.BythetimetheUmayyadcaliphMarwanIIcouldmustertogethertheUmayyadforces,theAbbasidshadalreadytakencontrolofthemajorityofIraq.Inearly750attheclimacticBattleoftheZabincentralMesopotamia,the Abbasid forces completely routed the Umayyad army. Organizedresistance to theAbbasids effectively ended after the battle, asUmayyadcontrol collapsed throughout the Muslim world. Now nothing stoodbetween the Abbasids and the Umayyad capital, Damascus. One by one,cities capitulated and accepted Abbasid sovereignty, and one by one,membersoftheUmayyadfamilywerehunteddownandexecuted.MarwanhimselfwascapturedinEgypt,wherehewasunsuccessfulinbuildinganarmythatwoulddrivebacktheAbbasidsandreestablishUmayyadcontrol.Only one member of the defeated family managed to escape the

revolutionaries. The teenaged ‘Abd al-Rahman, a relatively obscuremember of the Umayyad family, found a way to escape in disguise toNorthAfrica.PursuedbyAbbasid armies fromPalestine toEgypt to theMaghreb,andaidedonlybyaslavewhohadonceworkedforhisfamily,his legendary journey ledhimeventually toal-Andalus,wherehewouldestablish an Umayyad emirate far from Abbasid reach that would lastalmost300moreyears.

TheAbbasidCaliphate

TheAbbasidRevolutionof themid-700s inaugurated the seconddynastyto control the caliphate.The revoltwasbasedon the ideasofbuildingagovernmentmoreinlinewithPropheticideals,givingnon-Arabsamoreequitableroleinsociety,andgivingthedescendantsof‘Alisomeroleinleadership.Thesebroadandidealisticpromiseswerenecessarytosecurethe support of various groups of people that made the revolution

successful.OncetheAbbasidswereinpower,however,therealityoftheircaliphate fell far short of expectation. The revolution did not mean areturn to the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs where piety, and notpolitics, dictated the decisions of the caliph. If anything, the Abbasidcaliphscontinuedthesameauthoritariantraditionsthattheyhaddenouncedthe Umayyads for. The caliphate remained a hereditary title in thepossessionofaQurayshifamily,andthosewhosupported‘Ali’sfamilyascaliphswereleftwithunfulfilledpromises.

The Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid was known for his immensewealthanddiplomaticrelationswithdistantstates.In802,hesentanembassy to Charlemagne in France that included an elephant and awaterclock.

The one areawhere theAbbasidsmade real progresswas the role ofnon-Arabs in society. Although the caliphate itself remained in Arabhands,administrationwasincreasinglyPersianized.Forhundredsofyearsbefore Islam, the Persians had developed a complex but efficientbureaucratic system.Now that non-Arabswere no longer systematicallydiscriminated against, this experience would be put to use in theadministrationof theEmpire.Recognizing theusefulnessof thePersianscausedtheAbbasidstomovethecapitaloftheMuslimworldclosertothePersian heartland. The second Abbasid caliph, Al-Mansur, established anewcitytoserveashiscapital inthefertileplainbetweentheTigrisandEuphratesRiversin765neartheoldPersiancapitalofCtesiphon.Withintwentyyears,Baghdadbecamethelargestcityintheworld,withoveronemillion residents. The seat of the Muslim empire would become ametropolitancenterwheregovernment,culture,scienceandartwouldallintersect.A trueunderstandingof theaccomplishmentsof theAbbasidagedoes

notcomewithdiscussionsofmilitaryexploitsanddistantconquests,asitdidwiththeUmayyads.Infact,outwardexpansionessentiallyhaltedwhenthe Abbasids came to power. Seasonal raids across the border with the

Byzantinesremained,but thecampaignsweregenerallyindecisive.IntheWest, the Battle of Tours in 732 in Umayyad times meant the end ofMuslimexpansion intoEurope,andconsolidationofgains inal-AndaluswasthemainfocusoftheUmayyadrefugeeswhocontrolledit.IntheEast,only incremental gainsweremade in creating inroads intoCentralAsia.The Turks who roamed the Central Asian plains would not come intoIslamic civilization through conquest, but through migration into theheartland of Islam in the 800s and 900s. The era of Muslim militaryconquest was over for the time being. Instead, the era of Muslimintellectualconquestwasabouttobegin.

5

INTELLECTUALGOLDENAGES

TheninththroughthirteenthcenturiesintheMuslimworldmarkaneraofscientific,religious,philosophicalandculturaldevelopmentthescaleanddepthofwhichhadneverbeenseeninworldhistorybeforeorsince.Afteritsmeteoric rise from the barren deserts of Arabia, Islamic civilizationnow encompassed many diverse cultures, religions and intellectualtraditionsfromSpaintoIndia.Inthisrealm,thepreviousaccomplishmentsofdistantcivilizationscouldbebroughttogether,comparedandbuiltupontocreateanewgoldenageofscientificdiscoveries.Nowhereelse in theworld possessed the same capability to bring together so many diversepeople,supplementedbyhomegrownintellectualgiants.Theresultwasanera which not only served as a bridge between the knowledge of theancientsandRenaissanceEurope,butalsolaidthefoundationfortoday’smodernscientificworld.

The world’s oldest university, the University of Karaouin, wasestablishedbyaMuslimwomaninFez,Moroccoin859.

TheHouseofWisdom

The Abbasids, like countless political parties in history, rose toprominence on the back of promises of a positive and idealistic future.Their assurances of a more equitable society and a return to piousleadership helped propel them to prominence as the Umayyadsdisintegrated. By the early 800s, they had their empire, which stretchedfromtheAtlantictotheIndus.Theyhadtheircapital,aworldcityofoveramillion people in Baghdad, and they had the diverse cultures of theGreeks,Copts,Persians,andIndiansfromwhichtoadoptthebestaspectsof previous civilizations. It was high time for the inauguration of the

idealisticsocietytheypromised.InthemindoftheseventhAbbasidcaliph,al-Ma’mun (r. 813–833), that future idealistic society could only beachieved through science and rationalism. In order to achieve this, thevariousthreadsofscientificknowledgethatexistedthroughouttheempirehadtobebroughttogetherinacentrallocation.HebelievedthatifthebestscholarsfromtheMuslimworldcouldbebroughttogethertolearnfromeachother,limitlesspossibilitieswouldopenup.

Inthetenthcentury,theCatholicPopeSylvesterIIwasoneofthefirstEuropeans to promote the study of math that was developed byMuslims after he spent time studying in Muslim Spain and NorthAfrica.

With this in mind, he established an educational institute in Baghdadknownas theHouseofWisdom(Arabic:Baytal-Hikmah). Its scopewassuch that it defies definition by modern understandings of educationalestablishments.Itwasatonceauniversity,library,translationinstituteandresearch lab,allononecampus.Librariesandsmallschoolshadexistedsince Umayyad times, but the emphasis placed on the acquisition ofknowledgebytheAbbasidsfarsurpassedthatoftheirpredecessors.Itwassaidthatifascholarwouldtranslateanybookfromitsoriginallanguageinto Arabic, he would be given that book’s weight in gold. The mostrenowned scholars, Muslim and non-Muslim, from across the worldflockedtoBaghdadtobeapartofal-Ma’mun’sproject.Forthefirsttimein history, the best of Persia, Egypt, India, and former Byzantine landscouldbebrought together to advance science inways thatwouldbenefittheentireworld.Al-Ma’munwashardlytheonlyleaderinhistorytohaveplacedspecial

emphasisonscience.Whatmakes theHouseofWisdomand theMuslimGolden Age unique is the context in which it all took place. First, theexpansive Muslim empire knocked down walls that had previouslyseparateddifferentgroups.BeforeIslam,therewouldbenoreasonforascholarinAlexandriatotraveltoCtesiphontostudyandteach.Evenifhe

didtravel,languagebarrierswouldpreventhimfrombeingofmuchusetothePersians.ThatistheseconduniqueaspectoftheearlyAbbasidera:Arabic became a lingua franca that could unite people from diversebackgrounds. Regardless of if someone’smother tonguewasBerber orSyriacorPersian,ifhewasaMuslim,atleastarudimentaryknowledgeofArabicwasnecessaryinordertoprayandreadtheQuranastheProphetMuhammad had taught. Arabic thus served not just as a liturgicallanguage, but also one that scientists could use to communicate andresearch. Thirdly, Islam itself orders the acquisition of knowledge,making scientific research an act of worship. Numerous verses in theQuranandsayingsoftheProphetemphasizetherolethatscholarshiphasinthelifeofapiousMuslim.TheProphetwasreportedtohavesaidthatGodmakesthepathtoHeaveneasierforwhoevertreadsthepathinsearchof knowledge. ForMuslim scientists just a few hundred years removedfromthe lifeof theProphet, seekingGod’spleasureseems tohavebeenthemain reason for their research and studies. Scientific literature fromthe Golden Age commonly begins with Quranic verses that encourageseekersofknowledgeandcallonMuslimstoreflectontheworldaroundthem.ThesethreemotivatingfactorsforscientificendeavorswereuniquetotheMuslimworld,andcouldnothaveexistedwithouttheriseofIslamasageopoliticalforceinthecenturiesafterthelifeoftheProphet.

Mathematics

Muslim contributions to mathematics in the Golden Age can only bedescribed as monumental. Mathematics itself is of course the basis foralmost all other sciences including physics, chemistry, astronomy andgeography.ForMuslimscientistsoftheGoldenAge,however,itwasalsoasacredscience.Theyhopedthat throughtheunderstandingofadvancedmathematicstheycoulddiscovertheunderlyingnumericalprinciplesthatdictatethenaturalrulesoftheworld.Today,anyonewhohastakenabasicphysics class understands that formulas dictate themovement of objectsthrough space. In the Golden Ages, that formula was a mystery, andthrough theory and experimentation, scientists hoped to find theseseemingly magical algorithms. Through that understanding, a greaterappreciationandloveforGod’spowerandrelationshipwithHiscreation

couldbeachieved,makingmathematicalstudyareligiousjourneyaswell.OneofthefirstgreatMuslimmathematicianswasMuhammadibnMusa

al-Khwarizmi, a Persianwho lived from780 to 850.Hewas one of thefirst toworkat theHouseofWisdom,and thus laid thegroundwork forfutureadvancesinmathematics.Amonghisgreatestcontributionswastheadoptionof the Indiannumeral systemand itsdissemination.Previously,thedefactosystemwasbasedon theubiquitousRomannumerals,whichhad their limitations. Complex math problems involving non-integernumbers were near impossible with the Roman system, but the Indiansystem(1,2,3,4…)allowedlargeandnegativenumberstobemoreeasilyexpressed, easing complex problems. Al-Khwarizmi not only borrowedthesystemfromtheancient Indians,butalsoaddedon to itan importantmissing link: the zero.Although hewas unable tomathematically provezero (since anything divided by zero is undefined), al-Khwarizmiimplemented it in his further studies, revolutionizing some subjects andinventingothers.Perhaps al-Khwarizmi’s greatest contribution was the development of

algebra. InhismonumentalworkTheCompendiousBookonCalculationbyCompletionandBalancing,heexplainshowalgebraicequationscanbeusedtosolveeverydayproblems,rangingfromdividingupinheritancetogeography.Hereal-Khwarizmiwasatrailblazer.WhiletheancientGreeksweremastersofgeometry,theyfailedtoseparatetheoreticalalgebrafromit, and thus found limitations to the science. Al-Khwarizmi’s bookestablished algebra as a unique subject withinmathematics with its ownpractical applications. In fact, the word algebra itself derives from al-Khwarizmi’s title for his book. It comes from al-jabr, meaning“completion”, referring to the balancing of both sides of an algebraicequationtofindasolution.AnotherofthegreatPersianmathematicianswasOmarKhayyam,who

livedfrom1048to1131.AlthoughheismostlyknownintheWestforhispoetry on love and mysticism, he was also an accomplishedmathematician,helping topush theboundariesof the subject inwayshispredecessors could not.Hemanaged to find amethod for solving cubicequations—algebraic expressions in which the variable is raised to apowerof three.Pushingfurther into theoreticalalgebra,hewasalsooneof theearliest, ifnot the first, to formulate thebinomial theorem,which

helps solve algebraic expressions by expanding them into sums. Thesediscoveries may seem overly theoretical and only useful for torturingsecondary school math students, but they have important applications.Through advanced algebra, subjects such as trigonometry and calculuscould be developed. Muslims further developed trigonometry itself,particularly the tenth-century scientist al-Battani, for a very practicalreason.Throughtrigonometricfunctionsandabasicunderstandingofthestars, people could calculate their exact position on earth,whichwas ofvital importance forMuslims,whomust pray in the directionofMecca.Handbooks produced in the Golden Age listed hundreds of cities, theircoordinatesandthedirectionfromtheretoMecca.Forthisreason,manymosques built over a thousand years ago are now being found to pointdirectly at Mecca, even from thousands of kilometers away. The basictrigonometricpropertiesput forthbyMuslimmathematiciansevenserveasthebasisforhowGPSsystemsworktoday.

Astronomy

A natural outgrowth from the Muslim development of advancedmathematicswaswork in the astronomical field. Formulas andmethodsdevelopedbyMuslimmathematicianslaidthefoundationforthestudyofthestars,whileIslamicbeliefprovidedthemotivation.NumerousversesintheQuran allude to the heavenly bodies and theirmovement.Regardingthesunandthemoon,theQuranstatesthey“movebyprecisecalculation”.Furthermore, it states that through the stars,mankind can “be guided bythemthroughthedarknessofthelandandsea”.Foranempireoffaiththatstretched from theAtlanticOcean to India, allusions in theQuran to themathematicalnatureoftheheavensweretoomuchtoignore.With theQuran as amotivating factor,Muslim astronomerswere the

first to truly develop this science. In ancient times, astronomy andastrologywereone and the same, leading to erroneous scientificbeliefsabout the impactof thestarsonthedaily livesofhumans.Muslimswerethe first to separate the science of astronomy from the guesswork andmythologyofastrology.Withthepatronageofal-Ma’munandtheHouseofWisdom, astronomerswere collected to study the ancient theories ofPtolemy,whoseworkwasseenasfinalwordonastronomyuntilMuslim

times. The key aspect of Ptolemy’s ideas was the geocentricity of theuniverse, that the earth ismotionless and everything revolves around it.This motionless theory of the earth started to come into question whenMuslim astronomers realized that the calculations Ptolemy put forth forthe movement of planets and stars were flawed and needed correction.While many simply created more accurate formulas, some began toquestionPtolemyaltogether.In the eleventh century, al-Biruni proposed that Ptolemy never fully

provedthattheearthdoesnotmoveinascientificway,andthatitmayinfactspinonitsaxis.Accordingtohim,thiswouldexplainwhyPtolemy’scalculationswereoff,sincehedidnottakeintoaccounttheearth’smotion.While the rotation of the earth was never fully accepted by Muslimastronomers due to lack of definitive evidence, it was certainly debatedamong thescholarsof theMuslimworld.Thesedebates found theirwayinto Europe, specifically through Latin translations of the works of al-Majriti, an Andalusian scholar who focused on revising and perfectingastronomical tables and calculations. Even after his death, the learnedclassesfromalloverEuropewouldtraveltotheMuslimstateinIberia tostudy theworksofal-Majritiandothers.Eventually,as theMuslim ideason astronomy disseminated throughout the continent, scientists such asCopernicus and Galileo would build upon them to come up with thetheories that we accept as fact today. Unlike European astronomers,however,Muslimswould not be harassed by the religious establishmentfor their views. Scientific endeavors were seen, after all, as a form ofworship.Like algebra, astronomywould have its practical applications.Oneof

themost importantwas the development of the astrolabe.An instrumentfirst invented by the ancientGreeks, its purposewas to determine one’slatitudebyusingthestars.Itcombinedthecapabilitiesoftheastrolabewiththe more precise astronomical calculations of Muslim scientists, andbecame a staple of navigation, particularly by ship. By holding up anastrolabeatthenightskytocalculatethepositionofcertainconstellations,a navigator could determine his precise location, and compare thatwithaccessible handbooks that listed the latitudes of known locationsthroughout the world to help set course to a destination. Travelling toMeccaforthepilgrimagethusbecamemucheasierforMuslimstravelling

long distances. For a civilization that stretched from Spain to India,technologysuchasthis,whichmadetraveleasier,wasindispensable.Theastrolabe revolutionized sailing and was in use until the 1700s as thestandardfornavigation.

Geography

Just as astronomy grew out of mathematics, geography grew out ofastronomy.FewempiresinhistoryspannedanareathesizeoftheMuslimworld in the Golden Age. With a generally unified political systemextendingacross suchawide area, long-distance travelbecame safe andrelativelycommon. It isnowonder, then, thatMuslimswouldemergeassomeoftheleadinggeographersoftheMiddleAges.The old myth that Christopher Columbus discovered that the earth is

roundisjustthat—amyth.Ithadinfactbeenacceptedsinceancienttimesthattheearthwasnotflat.Sailorswereparticularlyaware,sincetheycouldseethelowerpartofaboatdescendunderthehorizonbeforeitsmastsasitsailedaway.TheancientGreeksevenattempted tocalculate thesizeofthe earth, although they grossly underestimated the size of the AtlanticOcean, leading to a much smaller number than the earth’s actual size.Geographers working in the Abbasid caliphate came to much moreaccurate conclusions. Using trigonometry and spherical geometry theycalculated that the earth is12,728kilometers indiameter—theywereoffby a mere 37 kilometers. Furthermore they calculated the earth’scircumference to be 39,968 kilometers, when in actuality it is 40,074kilometers. Without modern satellites and telescopes, these calculationscanonlybedescribedasastounding.

During the 1300s, Ibn Battuta, a scholar of Islamic law fromMorocco, traveled over 170,000 kilometers. His journeys includedWestAfrica,India,ChinaandSoutheastAsia.

Islamicgeographywasnot limitedsolely tocalculationsof theearth’s

size. Great effort was also put into mapping the world. Ancient Greekmaps(particularlyPtolemy’s)wereexpandeduponandimproved.Oneofthebestexamples is theatlasmadebyMuhammadal-Idrisi,wholivedintwelfth-century Sicily. Although Sicily had previously been part of theMuslim world until its conquest by the Normans in the late eleventhcentury,thereigningkinginal-Idrisi’stime,RogerII,wasatolerantandwell-informedsovereign.Underhispatronage,al-IdrisiproducedaworldmapunrivaledinitsaccuracyanddetailintheMiddleAges.Forhundredsof years afterwards, it was the benchmark by which other maps werejudged.Itwasnotonlyadrawingofthephysicalgeographyoftheknownworld, but it also included descriptions of the cultures, politics, andsocietiesofthevariousregionstowhichexplorershadtravelled.JustasfascinatingtoMuslimgeographersastheknownworldwaswhat

wasunknown.WesternmythologyholdsupChristopherColumbusas thegreat explorer who was the first to brave the vast Atlantic Ocean todiscover the NewWorld in 1492. Besides narratives of his “discovery”discounting the fact that natives had been living there for centuries, andthat there is very strong evidence that Vikings ventured to what is nowCanadain the tenthcentury, there ismountingevidenceofMuslimtrans-Atlantic voyages hundreds of years before Columbus. In the mid-tenthcentury,thegreatgeographerandhistorianal-Mas‘udiwroteofavoyagefromMuslim Iberia in 889 that sailedwest from the port ofDelba—thesameportfromwhichColumbuswouldsail—formonthsuntilithappeneduponavery large,previouslyunknown landmass.Hisaccount states thatthey tradedwith the locals and then returned home. Al-Mas‘udi’s worldmapevenincludesan“unknownland”across theAtlanticOceanbecauseofthisaccount.Anotheraccountisrecordedbyal-Idrisi,whowrotethatagroupofMuslimsailorsventured for thirty-onedaysacross theAtlanticOceanand landedonanunknownisland.Theywere takencaptiveby thelocal natives, but eventually freed when one of the natives who spokeArabicwasabletomediatebetweenthetwogroupsandarrangefortheirrelease. A final report of a trans-Atlantic voyage comes fromMali, theMuslimkingdominWestAfricathatpeakedinthefourteenthcentury.Astold to IbnBattuta, thegreatMuslimtraveler,200shipssailedwest fromthecoastofAfrica todiscover theunknown.Whenonlyone returned, itreportedtheyhadfoundlandacrosstheoceanbuthadtoturnbackbecause

ofastorm.ThekingofMali,MansaAbuBakr,reportedlyoutfitted2000ships this time, sailed with them into the Atlantic Ocean and was neverheardfromagain.ThesestoriesofMuslimvoyagesacrosstheoceanarecertainly not definitive proof of trans-Atlantic contact beforeColumbus.But the fact that they are recorded by geographers known for theirinsistenceonaccuracy,coupledwithallusionstoMuslimcommunitiesinthe Americas found in the journals of the first generation of Europeanexplorers of the NewWorld, point to possibilities which could entirelyrewritetheacceptedhistoryoftheAgeofDiscovery.

Medicine

Commonmisperceptionsaboutthehistoryofmedicineincludethebeliefthat it was mostly guesswork until the past few hundred years. Mentalimagesofcharlatanmedical“experts”sellingtheirphonycure-allscometo mind when thinking about medicine before the twentieth century. Inactuality, however, there exists a long medical tradition in the Muslimworld that was based on earlier Greek knowledge that emphasizedempirical study and clinical professionalism. While this is lost in themodern popular imagination, there still existwritings from someof thegreatestmedicalmindstheworldhaseverknownwholivedandpracticedin the Muslim Golden Age. Their work points to an era of medicalenlightenmentandadvancementthatformsthebasisofmodernmedicine.

In the tenth century, Baghdad instituted a licensing exam that alldoctorshadtotakebeforepracticingasphysicians.

Muslim advances in medicine picked up where the ancient Greekphysician,Galen,leftoff.Galenwasthegiantofthisfieldinancienttimes.This second centuryCEphysician andphilosopherwrote extensively onmedicine, and supported the theory that the body is composed of fourhumors: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. According to him,diseaseswerecausedbyanimbalanceofthesefluidsinthebody.Although

some of his ideaswere revolutionary in his time, otherswere seriouslyflawed. Despite this, he was uncritically accepted by physicians forhundredsofyearsafterhisdeath.ThefirsttocriticallychallengetheideasofGalenwasMuhammadibn

Zakariyaal-Razi,wholivedintheninthcentury.BasedinBaghdad,hewasastrongproponentofa rational, insteadof theoretical,understandingofthehumanbody.InhisbluntlytitledDoubtsAboutGalen,heconcludedthatphysical ailments could not simply be attributed to an imbalance amongthe humors or to punishment from God as Middle Age Europeansbelieved,buttocertainexternalandinternalfactorsthatmustberesolvedinordertotreattheproblem.Alongtheselines,hedevelopedspecificandeffective cures for common problems such as coughs, headaches, andconstipation.But hewas not limited to simply treating the symptoms orphysicalcausesofailments.Hisgiantmedicalencyclopedia,TheVirtuousLife, extolls the importance of dedication to the field of medicine andconstantimprovementandlearning.Furthermore,hebelievedthatmedicalpracticeisasacredendeavor,andthatdoctorsareentrustedbyGodtodogoodtoanyonewhorequires it,eventheirenemiesor thosewhocannotaffordmedicalattention.Hewasthusknownfortreatingpoorpatientsfreeof charge in Baghdad’s famous hospitals. His works were widelydisseminated, and helped guide future generations of physicians in theMuslimworldandEuropeforcenturies.ThenextgreatMuslimphysician,andperhapsthemostwell-known,was

Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in Medieval Europe. Despite constantlymovingfromcitytocityintheturbulentpoliticalenvironmentofPersiaintheearly1000s,hemanagedtohaveoneofthemostaccomplishedcareersof any polymath of the Muslim Golden Age. He applied the rationalapproachtosciencethatMuslimsweretakinginotherfieldstomedicine,givinghiminsightthatothers,includingal-Razi,lacked.Heformulatedatheory that everything in the body can be understood through a causalchain of events. While this may seem like common sense in today’sscientifically advanced world, it was a new idea in the early eleventhcentury;one that IbnSinawaskeen toprove.Basedonyearsof clinicalobservationandscientificstudy,heconcludedthatdiseasescanbespreadthrough air, water or soil. Furthermore, each disease had uniquecharacteristicsandthusmustbetreatedinauniqueway.Hewasoneofthe

firsttopromoteexperimentalmedicine,andinhismonumentalwork,TheCanon of Medicine, he insisted that drugs be tested under controlledconditionsandnotbetrustedsimplybasedontheory.Drugsthatwerenotuniversally effective, or could not be proven to actually treat a diseasemeant nothing to him, as he believed medicine was a science ofobservation and rationalism, notmysticismand luck.HisCanon becamethestandard textbook foranyonedesiring to learnaboutmedicine in theMuslim world and beyond. European medical schools relied on Latintranslations of it into the seventeenth century, and, in the Yuan Dynasty(thirteenth- and fourteenth-century), itwas translated intoChinese by thesizeable Muslim community in China. It is easy to understand why theCanon enjoyed such widespread popularity and reverence. Ibn Sina’sgreatestworkwasnotsimplyahandbookofcommonailmentsandcures.Itwasacompletemedicalencyclopedia.Descriptionscanbefoundinitofanesthesia, breast cancer, rabies, toxins, ulcers, kidney disease, andtuberculosis. Beyond this, Ibn Sina wrote about the connection betweenmentalandphysicalhealth,andconcludedthatnegativethoughtscancauseillness justasmuchasotherfactorssuchas toxins, injuryordiet.Todaythepossibilityofaconnectionbetweenmindandbodyisattributedtothefirstgenerationofpsychologists likeFreudandJung. In reality, itwasapossibility that seemed very real to Ibn Sina and other physicians andphilosophersofhistime.

In872,therulerofEgypt,AhmadibnTulun,spent60,000golddinarsestablishing a hospital in Fustat. It provided free healthcare to thepublicandincludedawardformentalillnesspatients.

The greatest medical minds of all time would not have been able toaccomplish great feats without the support of great institutions. TheMuslimworld of theGoldenAges,with its vast financial resources andstrong political institutions, established some of the first hospitals inhistory.Theimpetustobuildhospitalscamefromtheneedtocareforthehealthofpoorercitizens.Thewealthywereabletohireprivatephysicians

andpayforhometreatment,butthepoorhadnosuchluxury.Toprovideforthem,caliphsandemirsestablishedlargeinstitutionsinthegreatcitiesof theMuslimworldaimedatprovidingaffordableorfreehealthcare toanyonewhowould need it. In the early ninth century, the first hospitalsbegantoappearinBaghdad.Asthehospitalsgrewovertime,theybegantoresemblemodernhospitals insizeandscope.Hospitalshaddozensofdoctors and nurses, including specialists and surgeons. They containedoutpatientcenters,psychiatricwards,surgerycentersandmaternitywards.Perhapsthebiggestdifferencewasthatthehospitalsofthaterawerefreeto those who could not afford it; a far cry from the revenue-fueledhospitalsoftoday.Tothepatronsofthesehospitals,thePropheticexampleof compassion was clear. In their eyes, a society based on Islam wasexpected to care for all its citizens, regardless of wealth, race or evenreligion. After first being established in Baghdad, these enlightenedinstitutionsofhealingspreadtotherestoftheMuslimworld’smajorcitiesthroughout the tenth to fourteenth centuries.Hospitals could be found inCairo,Damascus,Baghdad,Mecca,Medina, and evendistantGranada inIberia. The Ottomans would later carry on this tradition of publichospitals, and itwasduring their long reign thatEuropewouldbegin tocatchup,andevensurpass,theMuslimworld.

Inthe1200s,Ibnal-Nafiswrotethatbloodcirculatesfromthehearttothelungswhereitabsorbsoxygenandthenbacktotheheartandtherestofthebody.

TheRenaissancesawamovetotranslatehundredsofArabictextsintoLatin in the great cultural and scientific centers such as Padua andBologna.Europeanswereabletofurtheradvancetheknowledgeofgiantssuchasal-RaziandIbnSina,whoadvanced theknowledgeofGalenandHippocrates. Today’s medical knowledge and institutions come largelyfrom the West, but are based on the earlier Muslim medical tradition,which in turn was based on ancient Greece. The clash of civilizationsnarrativethatispromotedbyextremistsonbothsidesofmodernconflicts

neglectsexamplesofcross-culturalintellectualtraditionssuchasthis.

Physics

Mathematics only tookMuslim scientists so far. If they truly wanted tounderstand the principles through which God controls the universe, theideas formulated bymathematicians had to be applied to the realworld.ThatiswherethetalentedcropofMuslimphysicistscamein;likeinotherfields,Muslimphysicistsbuiltonearlieradvancebyancientcivilizations,whoseworksweretranslatedintoArabic.DrawingonvariousintellectualtraditionsaswellasthewiderangeofsciencesthattheMuslimworldwasattheleadingedgeof,thephysicistsoftheGoldenAgedevelopedsomeofthecoreconceptsofthesubject.TheirworkhelpedlaythefoundationthatgiantssuchasNewtonandEinsteinbuiltupon.One of the primary scientists who contributed to this continuous

intellectualtraditionwasIbnal-Haytham,wholivedfrom965to1040.HewasoriginallyfromIraq,andearlyinhislifeheworkedasacivilofficialin the Abbasid government, but soon abandoned the post to join apromising intellectual center in Cairo, the capital of the rival FatimidEmpire.AfterrunningafouloftheFatimidruler,hewasputunderhousearrest inCairo,which proved to be a blessing for him, and the field ofphysicsitself.Whilecontainedwithinhishome,Ibnal-Haythamwasableto focushiseffortsandstudieson light.Sinceancient times the studyoflightanditspropertieshadperplexedeventhebrightestminds.Oneoftheleading ideas about light in Ibn al-Haytham’s time was promoted byPtolemy, who argued that light is a ray that is emitted from the eye,bounces off objects, and comes back into the eye, allowing someone tosee. The ancient Greek tradition of understanding the world entirelythrough philosophy ran contrary to the beliefs of Ibn al-Haytham, whoadvocatedthatscientifictheorybeformulatedthroughempiricalstudyandexperimentation. Thus, he ran hundreds of experiments on the nature oflight.By relying less onphilosophy andmore on science, he concludedthat Ptolemy’s theory of light being emitted by the eye was simplyimpossible.Rather,he theorized that lightbouncesoffeverypointonanobject into the eye, where the numerous rays of light are turned intoinformationthatthebraincanprocess.AtthesametimethatIbnSinawas

dissectingeyesinPersiatounderstandhowlighttravelsthroughthem,Ibnal-HaythamwasconductingsimilarexperimentsinEgypt.Afteryearsofhardwork,researchandexperimentation,Ibnal-Haytham

wroteabookthatwasgroundbreakingat the time.InhisBookofOptics,Ibnal-Haythamarguedthatlightwascomposedofrays,whichtravelledinstraight lines.He furthered this idea by building theCameraObscura, adevicewhichconsistsofa lightproofbox, throughwhicha tinyhole(anaperture) is punctured. On thewall inside the box opposite the hole, animagedepictingwhatever thehole ispointingat isprojected.Hearguedthatthisisonlypossibleifstraightraysoflightwerecomingfromobjectsoutsidethebox,werefocusedbytheaperture,andlandedontheoppositewall. Ibn al-Haytham lacked the technology necessary to advance hisCameraObscuraastep further into themoderncameras thatcancaptureimages today.Butwithouthispioneeringstudy inoptics, cameraswouldnot be possible 1000 years later.He alsomanaged to bring together thefields of optics and astronomy in his calculations on the depth of theearth’satmosphere.Usingprincipleshederived regarding thepropertiesofrefractedlight,heconcludedthatatsunset,thecoloroftheskychangesbasedontheangleatwhichthesun’srayshittheatmosphere.Basedonthecolorsandthesun’spositioninrelationtotheearthatnumeroustimes,hecameupwithacalculationforthedepthoftheatmospherethatwasnotoffbymuch.ItwasnotuntilspacecraftfromtheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion blasted off into the skies that they were able to verify hiscalculations.Ibnal-Haytham’sscientificachievementscanfillvolumesontheirown,

and indeed they did. He reportedlywrote over 200 books, but nomorethanafewdozensurvivetoday.Hepioneeredworkinmagnifyinglenses,the laws of motion, analytical geometry, calculus, astronomy, and evenexperimental psychology. When taking all of his accomplishmentstogether, one can truly appreciate the real legacyof Ibn al-Haytham: thescientificmethod.Today, thismethod is the technique throughwhich allscientistsacquirescientificknowledge.Ibnal-Haytham’sabsoluterelianceon observation and experimentation—which we now call the scientificmethod—separated the sciences from the philosophy of the ancientGreeks.Themodernworld’sunderstandingoftheentirefieldofscienceisbasedonthemethodsinitiatedbythisintellectualgiant.Inexplainingwhy

he dove so deep into scientific study, Ibn al-Haytham concluded, “Iconstantly sought knowledge and truth, and it becamemybelief that forgainingaccess to theeffulgenceandcloseness toGod, there isnobetterwaythanthatofsearchingfortruthandknowledge.”After Ibn al-Haytham’s death,Muslim scientists continued to build on

his discoveries and find practical uses for them. New inventions andimprovementsonolddeviceswereconstantlypoppingup,fromimprovedwater clocks to chemistry laboratory equipment. Crankshafts, waterpumps,eyeglasses, compasses,gliders,drinkingglassesandevenwater-poweredrobotsallappearedintheMuslimworldbythethirteenthcentury.The list goeson.What is important tonote is that through the advancedstudyof the sciences,a technological revolutionoccurred in theMuslimworld.WhenthelightbegantodimonMuslimscientificcreativity—astheCrusadersandtheMongolswreakedhavocontheMuslimheartlandinthetwelfth and thirteenth centuries—Christian Europe picked it up. There,anotherscientific revolutionwasspurredfromtheworksofCopernicus,Galileo and Newton, all of whom where familiar with earlier Islamicscientificliteratureandwerealmostcertainlyinfluencedbyit.

Inthetwelfthcentury,aMusliminventor,al-Jazari,designedandbuiltnumerous automatic machines. Among them were automatic hand-washingsystems,clocksandevenmusicalrobotspoweredbywater.

FiqhandHadith

WiththedevelopmentofempiricalsciencescamethedevelopmentoftheIslamicsciences.Throughthein-depthstudyoftheQuranandtheactionsof the Prophet, scholars began to formulate the field of fiqh—Islamicjurisprudence. Contrary to modern understandings of secular law, fiqhapplies to everything from criminal law to how worship should beconductedandwhatfoodsareacceptabletoeat.Thechallengeforscholarsof fiqh was how to adapt the rules set forth byMuhammad in the early600stothedynamicworldthatMuslimcivilizationfounditselfinduring

the successive centuries.From this challenge,different interpretationsoffiqhdeveloped,propagatedbydifferentscholarsindifferentplaces,butallaiming to understand and apply the Quran and prophetic example asauthentically as possible. These interpretations became schools of legalthought,knownasmadahib(singular:madhab).Theneedforinterpretationsoffiqhdevelopedfromthechangingnature

of Islamic society in the decades after Muhammad’s life. The firstgenerationaftertheProphetcouldrelyonhowtheysawhimpractice,butbythelate600s,barelyanyonewasleftwhocouldrememberhislifeandactions.AsIslamspreadthousandsofkilometersinalldirectionsandnewconvertstoIslambegantopopulatethemajorcitiesoftheMuslimworld,the need arose to interpret Islamic law in a systematic way, facilitatingeverything fromworship to business transactions. As scholars began toaddress the subject of fiqh in the eighth century, difference of opinionarose regarding what could be considered a source of law. No onedisagreed that theQuranandMuhammad’sactions,knownas thehadith,were the top two resources to rely on. But what if a subject was notaddressed in either of those?Here the jurists differed.The first of thesescholars, AbuHanifa (699–767), began promoting the idea that rationallogicshouldplayamajorroleinthedevelopmentof fiqh. Ifa topicwasnot addressed in the Quran or hadith, he argued, then jurists speciallytrainedinfiqhshouldexercisetheirbestjudgment(ijtihad)incomingupwitharuling,basingitonwhatMuhammadwouldhavedone.ItisperhapsnosurprisethatAbuHanifa’sideasweremostpopularinIraq,wheretherationalist thinkingof al-Ma’munhelpedestablish theHouseofWisdomjust a fewdecades later.The secondgreat jurist,Malik (711–795),wasacontemporary of Abu Hanifa, but lived in Medina, the city where theProphethimselfhadlivedandpreached.Contrarytootherscholarsofhistime,hebelievedthatsincemostofthepeoplelivinginMedinaathistimewere descendants of Companions, their actions could be considered asource of law, since they must have learned from their parents, wholearnedfromtheProphet.HisrationaleinusingthetraditionsofMedina’scitizens and strict adherence to the hadith instead of reason was notaccepted by all, but he did build a substantial following, including theAbbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. The third great jurist, Muhammad al-Shafi‘i (767–820), studied the Hanafi tradition in Iraq and the Maliki

traditioninMedina,andwasabletobuildontopoftheideasofbothAbuHanifaandMalik.Whileheagreedthatijtihaadwasnecessary,hearguedthat it should only be usedwhenmaking an analogybetween a situationMuhammadaddressedandamodernissue.Hisbalancedapproachprovedvery popular, and caused him to be hailed as the father of usul al-fiqh(PrinciplesofJurisprudence)—thefoundationoffiqh.Thelastofthegreatjurists, Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855), was a student of al-Shafi‘i, andtendedtoleanmoretowardsstrictrelianceonthehadiththanijtihaad.Hisfocusonhadithhelpedfurtherdevelop thatscience,whichwasperfectedunderhisstudent,Muhammadal-Bukhari.

Thewife of the great fifteenth century scholar ofhadith, IbnHajaral-‘Asqalani,wasascholar inherownright.AnasKhatunregularlygavepubliclecturesthatwereattendedbymenandwomen.

Based on the principles set forth by these four jurists, four majormadahib of fiqh developed: the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘i, and Hanbalischoolsofjurisprudence.TheseschoolswerecertainlynotdifferingsectswithinIslam,butratherdifferentinterpretationsofIslamiclaw.Intheend,they all aimed for the same goal: practicing Islam as authentically aspossible even in contexts different from that inwhichMuhammad lived.Today,thesefourschoolsarestillfollowedbyoveronebillionMuslims.The Hanafi school is most popular in the Indian subcontinent, CentralAsia,TurkeyandtheBalkans;theMalikischoolhasprominenceinNorthandWestAfrica;theShafi‘ischoolispracticedintheLevant,Egypt,EastAfrica and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali, the smallest, is mostlyconfined to theArabianPeninsula. InMuslim immigrantcommunities inEurope and North America, all four schools mingle, leading to newchallengesofhowtoapplyIslamicjurisprudenceindiversecommunities.Asanaturaloutgrowthofthescienceoffiqh, thestudyofhadith itself

became more prominent in the early Abbasid era. For the most part,sayingsoftheProphetwerepasseddownbywordofmouth.Peoplewouldsay that they heard from person xwho heard from person y who heard

frompersonzwhoheardfromaCompanionwhoheardfromtheProphetsuchandsuch.WhileitseemsthatmostMuslimsdidtheirbesttofaithfullynarratewhattheyhadheard,somedoubtsbegantocreepinregardingtheauthenticityof thehadith corpusasgenerationspassed.Therewereevenclaims that somehadithwere entirely fabricated to beginwith andwereneverutteredbyMuhammad.IntothisscholasticfraysteppedMuhammadal-Bukhari(810–870),whorecognizedthethreatthatsuchdoubtsaboutthehadith posed. He was the first to pioneer a scientific approach todetermining the authenticity of an individualhadith. Like the pioneeringMuslimscientistsworkingat thesame time,al-Bukhari refused toacceptanythingpurelyonfaithandinsistedonanempirical,organizedmethodinhisanalysis.Inal-Bukhari’smind,inorderforahadith tobeconsideredauthentic,boththewordingofthehadith itselfandthechainofnarratorsgoingbacktoMuhammadhadtobeverified.Placingspecialemphasisonthenarrators, al-Bukharimeticulously researched the livesof thepeoplewhopassedonhadiths.Ifonepersoninthatchainwasknowntohaveeverlied,acteddishonestlyoropenlydisobeyedIslamiclaw,al-Bukhariwouldrefusetoacceptthathadithasauthentic.Afteralifeofcarefulstudyofthelivesofhadithnarrators,al-Bukharicompiledananthologyofover7,000hadiths which he considered to be entirely authentic. His methods werealmost unanimously accepted by Muslim scholars, and his compilationcametobeknownasSahihal-Bukhari,meaningtheAuthentic[Hadiths]ofal-Bukhari.Today,Sahihal-BukhariisconsideredbymostMuslimstobethemostauthenticbookaftertheQuranitself.

Theology

At its core, Islamic theology is relatively straightforward; it is basedonthe belief in the absolute unity of God and the finality ofMuhammad’smessage. Belief in this implies acceptance of theQuran as theWord ofGodandthehadithasdivinely-inspiredguidance.AccordingtotraditionalIslamic thought, these two sources provided all that was needed forMuslims to live in accordancewith theWill ofGod and achieve eternalhappiness in Paradise. But in the middle of the eighth century, a newapproach to religion itself began to emerge. AsMuslims translated thescientific textsofancientGreece, theyalso translated theirphilosophical

works. A new generation ofMuslim philosophers began to believe thatrationalism could be used to discover divine truths. In their view,conclusions that they came to using logic and philosophy were on thesamelevelastheQuranitself.Someevenpositedthatlogiccouldoverriderevelation in some cases. This group became known as the Mu‘tazila,meaning“thosewhoseparated”,duetotheirdivergencefrommainstreamIslamic theology. Indeed, their philosophical conclusionswere far frommainstream Islamic belief. They advocated that the Quran was not theliteralWordofGod,butratherthatitwasacreation,justlikethecreateduniverse.Furthermore, theybelieved thatGod is limitedby theattributeshe isdescribedashaving in theQuran.To them,God isnotomnipotent.Thus,onthetopicoffreewillversuspredestination,theyarguedinsupportof absolute freewill, even arguing that God Himself cannot control thefutureandisnotawareofwhatwillhappen.AsMu’taziliideasbegantospreadamongintellectualcircles,areaction

came fromscholars concernedwith the theological implicationsof suchideas.Tothemore traditional,orthodox-mindedMuslims, theQuranandhadith gave humanity all the truth and guidance it needed and usingphilosophy to come upwith divine truthswas not only unnecessary, butalso dangerous. Leading this traditionalist charge in the early 800s wasAhmadibnHanbal, thesamescholarwhofoundedtheHanbalischooloffiqh. Despite persecution by the Abbasid caliph al-Ma’mun, who was amajorpatronofMu‘taziliideology,IbnHanbalarguedinfavorofastrict,literalinterpretationoftheQuranandhadithwhenitcametotheology.Inhismind,therewasnoroomforphilosophicalreasoning,especiallywhenit led to conclusions that contradicted what the Quran states as true. Assuch, IbnHanbaladvocated thatGod’sattributesshouldbe taken literallyandnotquestioned.So if theQuransays thatGodis theAll-Seeing, thenGodisAll-Seeing,andnooneshouldtrytounderstandhowGodseesallorrationalizehowitispossible.IbnHanbal’sstrictapproachtothesubjectwonhimfollowersandmanaged toslow thespreadofMu‘tazilibeliefs,but they continued to be popular in academic circles until anotherapproachatcombatingthemarose.

“GreatindeedisthecrimeagainstreligioncommittedbyanyonewhosupposesthatIslamistobechampionedbythedenialofmathematicalsciences.”

–Imamal-Ghazali

WhiletheliteralapproachreemphasizedtheauthorityoftheQuranandhadith in the face of philosophical reasoning, it failed to combat thespecific ideas of the Mu‘tazila. This changed when the tenth-centurythinkeral-Ash‘aribegantoadvocateadefenseoftraditionalbeliefsusingreason.Whilehebelievedinaliteral interpretationoftheQuranlikeibnHanbal,hebelievedtherewasnoharminusingphilosophicalreasoningtodefendthatinterpretation.HisapproachtotheologybecameknownastheAsh‘ari school, and his method of rational discourse known as kalam.Using this framework, traditionalistsbegan toattack individualMu‘taziliarguments,usingthelogicthattheMu‘tazilathemselvesheldinsuchhighesteem.Thegreatestofthesetraditional-mindedscholarswasAbuHamidal-Ghazali(1058–1111),whoissometimescreditedasthemostinfluentialMusliminhistoryaftertheProphetandCompanions.HavingstudiedbothMu‘tazila and Ash‘ari thought in depth, he was well versed in thenumeroustheologicalargumentsbackandforthbetweenthetwo,aswellasinvariousotherapproachestoreligioningeneral.Hearguedthatone’sfaith should not be based entirely on philosophical reasoning, but thatlogic had its place in the defense of traditional ideas when needed. Hecautioned,however,againsttheuseofphilosophybythosewithoutafirmfoundation in traditional Islamic belief.According to his autobiography,heconcludedthatthetruepathtoGodwasthroughabsoluteobediencetoGodandpurificationofthesoulfromworldlydesires.Thisemphasisonpurification was a major focus of the Sufis, a diverse spiritual groupinsistentonemotionaldetachmentfromthisworldinanefforttoachievenearnesstoGod.Al-Ghazali’sworkhelpedfinallyturnbackthetideoftheMu‘tazila school,which retreated into oblivion in the centuries after al-Ghazali. Simultaneously, the Sufism advocated by al-Ghazali becameincrediblypopular andbecame amajormovement in almost allMuslimlands.

Shi‘ism

While most of the Muslim world accepted the approaches to fiqh andhadith takenby its leading scholars, aminority rejected themaltogether.Theirdeparture from themainstreamMuslimcommunitywasoriginallypolitical, but over time a religious dimension evolved. The group thatbelieved‘Aliandhisdescendantshadthemostrighttothecaliphatebeganto develop divergent thoughts on Islamic law and hadith that stemmedfrom the political differences of the early caliphate. This group calledthemselves Shi‘at ‘Ali, meaning The Party of ‘Ali, but is colloquiallycalledtheShi‘a.FortheShi‘a,itallstemmedfromtheelectionofAbuBakrascaliphon

the day the Prophet died. In the meeting where ‘Umar historicallynominated Abu Bakr and gave an oath of allegiance to him, ‘Ali wasabsent. While ‘Ali himself accepted Abu Bakr ’s caliphate, latergenerations of Shi‘a began to question its legitimacy. In their eyes, thecousinandson-in-lawoftheProphetshouldhavebeenatthatmeetingandshouldhavebeenelectedas the firstcaliph.This led toabelief thatAbuBakr,‘Umar,andallwhosupportedthem(excluding‘Ali,ofcourse)wereusurpers, who denied the family of the Prophet their rightful role asleaders of the Muslim Umma. To the Shi‘a, the entire concept of thecaliphatewasvoid. Instead, theyadvocated that theMuslimworldshouldbe ruled by a descendant of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah,whowasmarriedto‘Ali.Theseleadersweredubbedimams.Insteadofacaliphate, the Shi‘a promoted an imamate in which only descendants of‘Ali had the right to rule. The Shi‘a considered ‘Ali as the first imam,whilehissonsHasanandHusaynwerethesecondandthird,respectively.Evenwith their belief in an imamate instead of a caliphate, the Shi‘a

werenotyetaseparatesectofIslam.Theimamatewassimplyapoliticalconcept which did not automatically have any religious implications. Infact,UmayyadandAbbasidcaliphswerecommonlyreferredtoasimamsaswell.InorderfortheShi‘atobeconsideredareligiousgroupinsteadofjustapoliticalone,theirargumentsaboutthefirstcaliphshadtogoastep further. That step was the idea that if Abu Bakr and his supporterswereusurpers,thenanyhadithnarratedbythemcouldnotbetrusted.Thisargumentcarriedhugereligiousimplications.PeoplewhosupportedAbu

Bakr ’scaliphatenarratedthevastmajorityofthehadiththatwasacceptedby Muslim scholars. The Prophet’s wife Aisha and his neighbor AbuHurairahtogetheraccountedforhundredsofthehadithlistedinSahihal-Bukhari. To the Shi‘a these hadith could not be trusted because of theirpolitical support for Abu Bakr, ‘Umar and ‘Uthman. To fill the voidcreated by the rejection of thousands of hadith, the Shi‘a elevated thesayingsoftheimamstoaleveljustbelow,orinsomecasesequal,totheProphet’s sayings.To the rest of theMuslimworld, thiswas blasphemy.But to the Shi‘a, the imams, due to their special lineage,were infallibleinterpretersofreligion,givenspecialknowledgedirectlyfromGod.Muchof this ideology seems to have been influenced by the Mu‘taziliphilosophy.WhereasinorthodoxapproachestoIslam,theideaofhumanswithaspecialsemi-divinestatuswasunheardof,theneo-Platonicideasofsomeof themajorphilosophersof theearlyAbbasidagecouldhelp theShi‘alegitimizetheimamatefromatheologicalperspective.The main branch of Shi‘ism is known as the Ithna‘ashariyyah—the

Twelvers—due to their belief that there were twelve imams afterMuhammad. According to them, the line of imams ended with ImamMuhammadal-Mahdi,whowent intohidingwhenhewas just fiveyearsold in 874. Thus began the period known as the “Minor Occultation”,during which special representatives were able to remain incommunicationwithhimandreceiveguidancefortheShi‘acommunity.In941,however,itwasannouncedthatal-Mahdihadgoneintothe“GreaterOccultation”, and further communication with the hidden imam becameimpossible.TheShi‘abelievethatthehiddenimamwillonlyreturnattheend of time to inaugurate a utopian era under his leadership. Until hereturns,however,TwelversinsistthatguidancecanbefoundintheQuran,thehadith compilations that they accept as authentic, and the actions andbeliefsofthetwelveimams.TheTwelverswerenottheonlyShi‘agroupto have developed in the turbulent early Abbasid age. Another groupbelievedinonlysevenimams,andthuscametobeknownastheSab‘iyyah—Seveners. The Seveners were much more successful politically thantheirTwelvercousins,andthetenthcenturysawtheriseofmajorSevenerShi‘astatesineasternArabiaandEgypt.ThesmallestoftheShi‘agroupsbelieveinonlyfiveimams,andaregenerallyknownastheZaydis,duetotheir acceptance of Hussein’s grandson, Zayd, as the final imam. The

ZaydissharemuchincommonwithmainstreamIslam,andaregenerallymuch more moderate in their views on the early caliphate than theSevenersandTwelvers.Shi‘a ideas never caught on in the way their proponents had hoped.

Despite intense vigor in preaching and appeals to Muslim emotion byinvoking the conflicts of ‘Ali and Husayn, the majority of the MuslimworlddidnotacceptthetheologicalandjuristicdeviationsofShi‘ism.Infact, formuchof themainstream,majorityMuslimbody,Shi’a ideologyposed a grave danger to Islam itself. After all, since the beginning theIslamicmovement had considered itself unique. TheQuran described indetail how previous nations who were sent prophets had changed themessageandcorruptedittosuittheirneeds,citingJewsandChristiansasprimeexamples.AccordingtoIslamicbelief,Muhammadhadbeensentasthe final prophet with a pure message that could not be changed ordistorted,aspreviousmessageshad.When this internal intellectual forcebegan to threaten the sanctity of the Islamicmovement, the reactionwaslargelynegative.BesidespoliticalpersecutionbytheAbbasidgovernment,mainstream theologians rushed to refute Shi‘a ideology, and dubbedthemselvesAhlus-Sunnahwal-Jama‘ah (literally: the peoplewho followthe example of the Prophet and the consensus of the community),shortened to Sunni. The most influential of these theologians is AbuHamidal-Ghazali, thesameal-GhazaliwhospentmuchtimerefutingtheMu‘tazili arguments of the philosophers. With the combination ofintellectual arguments and political-military defeat of Shi‘a states in thetwelfth century, Shi‘ismwaned in popularity from the 1100s. It was notuntiltheriseoftheSafavidEmpireintheearly1500sthatShi‘ismwouldagainbecomeamajorforceintheMuslimworld.

6

UPHEAVAL

Afterthefirst300yearsofIslamichistory,MuslimscertainlycouldhavebelievedthattheultimatetriumphofIslamintheworldwasnear.Duringthat time, Islamspread rapidly throughout theMiddleEast,NorthAfricaandPersia,withMuslimarmiesknockingonthedoorofFranceandIndia.Whenthemilitaryexpansionstopped,theintellectualexpansionbeganandthe sciences were pushed into new frontiers never before seen. EveneconomicallytheMuslimsledtheworld,asBaghdadbecamethecenterofpoliticalandeconomicpower,withbanksthathadbranchesasfarawayasChina.Clearly itwould seem that Islamwas destined to spread to everycorneroftheearththrougharmies,booksandcoins.Yet thatdestinywasnot tobe.Theyear900marks thebeginningof a

turbulentfewhundredyearsfortheMuslimworldthatwouldnottrulyenduntilthegoldenageoftheOttomanEmpireinthe1500s.Fromthetenthtothe thirteenth centuries, the Muslim world was under almost constantattack. The Shi‘a, European Crusaders andMongol hordes combined toreign terror upon the Islamic heartland, leading some to believe in the1200sthattheendoftimewasnear,notbecauseofthetriumphofIslam,butbecauseofitsdestruction.

Isma‘ilism

Since its development, Shi‘ism has based itself around the idea of analternative to themainstream Sunni caliphate. Leadership of theMuslimworldbelongedto the imamswhohadaspecialconnection toGod, theyargued,not to any laypersonwhohappens tobelong to theUmayyadorAbbasiddynasties.WhenShi‘ism itselfwasdivided intonumerous sects,differing ideas about how to bring about the Imamate developed. TheTwelvers, the largestgroup,seemtohavepreferredpolitical inaction. Intheir view, since the Twelfth Imamwentmissing, no legitimateMuslimgovernment could exist without him. For them, it was a patient waitinggame until he returned to inaugurate a utopian civilization at the end of

time.For the Seveners, however, such complacency would not do. They

believed theSeventh Imam, Isma‘il,hadgone intohiding toavoidbeingcaught by Abbasid authorities sometime in the mid-700s. Unlike theTwelvers,whobelievednomoreimamswouldcomeuntilthereturnofthelastone, theSevenersbelieved Isma‘il’sdescendantscontinued to live inhiding among the mainstream Muslim population. Thus they are morecommonlyreferredtoasIsma‘ilis.ThetruthaboutIsma‘il’slifeandevenwhetherornotheeverexisted is lostsomewhere in therealmofhistoryand mythology. What is clear is that soon after his disappearance (ordeath),missionariesbegantotravelthroughouttheMiddleEastandNorthAfricatryingtobuildsupportfortheIsma‘iliImamate.TheAbbasids,whohad come to power themselves through secret support networks, dideverythingtheycouldtoeradicatethethreattheIsma‘ilisposed.ThisonlyservedtopushtheIsma‘ilimovementfurtherundergroundandawayfromAbbasid reach. The Isma‘ili missionaries spread throughout the majorcitiesof theMuslimworld,andseemtohavegatheredsupportnotbasedon their revolutionary ideas,butonanydiscontentpeoplemayhavehadwith Abbasid authority. They were especially popular among the lowerclasses, non-Arabswho resentedArab rule, and the traditionalBedouinswhohadalwayshatedcentralauthority.Afterdecadesofmissionarywork,theIsma‘iliswerereadytostrikethe

first major blow against Sunni power right around the year 900. TheIsma‘ilimissionarieshadmanaged to rouseup theBedouin tribesof theeasternArabianPeninsulatobecomearealthreattotheAbbasids.Knownas the Qaramita (the Qarmatians), this group of Isma‘ilis struckunexpectedlyintoSyriain903,whentheycapturedDamascusanddefeatedanAbbasidarmysenttoconquerthem.TheircontrolofSyriawasshort-livedhowever,andtheywereforcedbackintotheArabianDesertjusttwoyearslater.From905,onwards,theQarmatianstooktoanewapproachtobringingaboutanIsma‘ilirevolution.Insteadofseekingtoconquerlandandestablishanewgovernment,theyresortedtoterrorizingtheAbbasidsfromtheirbaseinBahraininordertoachievetheirpoliticalgoals.In906,theymassacred20,000people travelling toMecca for thepilgrimage. Inthe mid-1920s, the Iraqi cities of Basra and Kufa were sacked by theQarmatians, and even Baghdad itself came close to being captured by

Bedouinraiders.Theirsacrilegiousattacksreachedapeakin928whentheQarmatiansattackedMecca,massacreditspopulation,andstoletheBlackStone fromtheKa’bamoving it toBahrain,where itwould remainuntil952.Religiously,theQarmatianswereextremistswhoincorporatedfanatical

apocalyptic ideas as well as pre-Islamic religious beliefs into theirworldview.Visitors toBahrain relate that in theQarmatian domain, onecouldnotfindmosquesorevenpeoplepraying.TheQarmatiansrejectedMecca as a holy site and the pilgrimage as anti-Islamic, thus leading totheir attacks on pilgrims and the city of Mecca. It is no surprise thattraditionallyIslamicorthodoxyhasnotevenconsideredtheQarmatiansasMuslim.ThedifferencesinbeliefandactionbetweentheQarmatiansandmainstreamIslamisgreat,tosaytheleast.Butdespitetheirreignofterror,theQarmatiansneverbecameareal threat to theestablishedorder.Theirmethodswere tooextreme tobeacceptedby theMuslimworldand theirbeliefstoounorthodox.TherealthreattoSunniIslaminsteadcamefromtheMaghreb,whereanother Isma‘ilimovement roseon thebacksof theBerberstobecomearegionalpower.

TheFatimids

Isma‘ili missionaries were relatively successful in North Africa, wheretheycouldexploit traditional tensionsbetween theBerbersof theSaharaandtheArabsofthecoastalcitiestotheiradvantage.Throughoutthelate800s, Isma‘ilimissionaries built up support among theSanhajaBerbers,leading to the violent overthrow of the ruling Sunni dynasties of NorthAfrica, the Rustamids and the Aghlabids, by 908. In 909, this group ofIsma‘ilis declared the reappearanceof an imamdescended from Isma‘il.Hewas‘UbaydAllah,buthetookthehonorifictitleal-Mahdi,meaningtheguided one, or savior. ‘Ubayd Allah’s origins are obscure. He claimeddescentfromIsma‘il,andthusalsofrom‘AliandhiswifeFatima,leadingtothenameofthedynastyheinaugurated:theFatimids.

In929, theUmayyad ruler of Iberiadeclared the establishmentof a

new caliphate based in Cordoba to combat the Fatimids in NorthAfrica. In the 900s, there were thus three dynasties claiming thecaliphate:theAbbasids,theFatimids,andtheUmayyads.

TheFatimidswouldnotbecontentwithbeingathorninthesideoftheSunni world like the Qarmatians. They believed it was their duty toentirelytakeitoverandestablishIsma‘ilirule through‘UbaydAllah.Hewas thus declared caliph in 909, directly challenging the Abbasids forauthorityovertheMuslimworld.AlthoughtheFatimidswerenotthefirstones to declare their opposition to the Abbasids, they soon became themost dangerous. From their base in modern Tunisia, they fanned outquickly,conqueringSicily,movingeastwardtowardsEgypt,andbringingwesternNorthAfrica under their control by the 920s.After the death of‘Ubayd Allah in 934, the Fatimids slowed their military expansion.NumerousrebellionsaroseledbyMuslimsdiscontentwiththeunorthodoxIsma‘ilis and their views for a Sunni-free world. Even the Kharijis ofNorthAfrica rebelled against Fatimid authority. The rebellions failed tobring an end to the Fatimids, although they slowed the Isma‘ili advancethroughtherestoftheMuslimworldforafewdecades.ButSunnidisunityprovedtobetoobigofahandicaptopermanentlystopthegrowthoftheFatimidrealm.By the mid-tenth century, the Abbasid caliphate became essentially

powerless. Throughout the ninth and tenth centuries, politicaldecentralizationcoupledwiththeriseofhereditarygovernorshipsledbyslave soldiers brought in from Turkic lands, led to the decline of thecaliph’spower.In945,thePersiandynastyconqueredIraqandruledinthecaliph’s name. Egypt, once an economic and agricultural center of thecaliphate, was under an independent Turkish dynasty known as theIkhshidids that was constantly quarrelling with an Arab state based innorthernSyria.To say theMuslimworld betweenEgypt andPersiawasdisunited is an understatement. Constant warfare amongMuslims and arenewedByzantinethreatfromthenorthgavetheFatimidsanopportunityto invade Egypt in 969. The Fatimids led an army of around 100,000soldiersagainsttheIkhshididsofEgypt,whowerequicklydefeated.Sunni

governance in Egypt collapsed in the face of the marauding Fatimidarmies.ThevictoriousFatimidsestablishedanewcity,al-Qahira(Cairo),along thebanksof theNileas theircapital.No longeradesertnuisance,theFatimidswerenowthemostpowerfulstateintheMuslimworld.Withchaos reigning in Syria, Iraq, andPersia, it seemed conceivable that theFatimidswould continue their eastwardmarch into Baghdad, overthrowthe caliphate, and establish themselves as rulers of the entire Muslimworld.Thiswasnottobe,however,astheFatimidssoonhadtodealwithByzantinethreatstoSyriaand,ironically,attackfromtheircoreligionists,the Qarmatians of Bahrain, who considered the Fatimids not extremeenough in their Isma‘ilibeliefs.Thecapitalof thecaliphate thusescapedconquest by the unorthodox Fatimids and the Sunni world had time torecoverandbuildstrongpoliticalandmilitaryinstitutionsundertheSeljukTurksintheeleventhcentury.The Fatimids thus had tomake dowithNorthAfrica, Egypt, the holy

cities of Mecca and Medina, and parts of Syria and Palestine. Theirrevolutionaryzealcontinued,withtheirdesiretoturntheirdomainintoapurelyIsma‘iliShi‘aland.Al-AzharUniversitywasestablishedinCairoin970 in an effort to spread Isma‘ili beliefs among the mainly Sunnipopulation of Egypt. Sunni Muslims, Christians, and Jews underwentperiods of intense persecution as well as periods of relative freedomundertheFatimids,basedonthewhimsofwhichevercaliphwasincharge.OneofthemostinterestingattemptstobringIsma‘ilismtothemasseswasfrom 996 to 1021 during the reign of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim,infamouslyknownas“TheMadCaliph”.LikeallFatimid rulers,hewashailed as a divinely chosen and holy leader by Isma‘ilis, but by prettymuch all others, he was hated as a tyrant, ruling based on whims anddesire. Christians and Jews suffered as he ordered the destruction ofchurchesandsynagoguesthroughouthisdomain,includingtheChurchofthe Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, where Christians believe Jesus wasburied and resurrected.Assurances for the safetyof the churchmadeby‘Umarin637wereignoredandthesitewasentirelydemolishedin1009.Christianswerenot theonlyonesoppressedbyal-Hakim.Muslimswerebanned from performing communal prayers according to the norms ofSunni Islam, and the Fatimid caliph’s name was inserted into Fridayprayers, giving them an Isma‘ili leaning. Sunnis were banned from

entering the holy city of Jerusalem, alongwithChristians and Jews.Al-Hakim’sirrationallyoppressivelawswerenotrestrictedtoreligion.Onawhim, all the dogs of a village near his palace in Cairo were killedbecausetheirbarkingannoyedthecaliph.Hedecreedallbusinessmustbeconducted at night. Chess was banned, presumably because he was notgoodatit,andtheconsumptionofmulukhiya(Corchorusleaves)—astapleEgyptianfood—wasoutlawed.HeevenplacedthegreatMuslimphysicistIbnal-HaythamunderhousearrestbecausehefailedtobuildadamacrosstheNile.Tothereliefofmanyofhissubjects,thereignofTheMadCaliphendedonenight in1021,whenheventuredout into thedesertalone,andmysteriouslydisappeared.Al-Hakim’s time inpowerwasuniquefor itsbrutalityandoppression.

SocietyundertheFatimidscannotbeeasilygeneralizedaseithertolerantor oppressive. The Fatimids suffered from a lack of concrete legalguidelines that dictated governance, society and relations with non-Muslims.IncontrasttotheAbbasidsandotherSunnidynasties,whichwere(at least officially) bound by Islamic laws, the Fatimid caliphs, as semi-divine beings,were allowed to exercise amuchmore personal form ofauthority.Thuseachnewcaliphcouldradicallychange thecharacteranddirection of the empire, sometimes with disastrous results. Without astrong legal and intellectual basis, the Fatimids and their faith neverbecame particularly attractive to their subjects, and Ismailism wasrelegatedtothepoliticaleliteasthepopulationofEgypt,SyriaandNorthAfrica remained staunchly Sunni Muslim. Without widespread support,and hampered by radical changes in policy during each succession, theFatimids slowly declined in power through the eleventh and twelfthcenturies. They were finally eliminated by Salah al-Din during theCrusades,anotherconflictwhichwreakedhavocontheMuslimworld.

TheCrusades

Perhaps no other conflict in Western and Islamic history has been asemotionallychargedas theCrusades.Theentireconflict itselfwasbasedaroundthecityofJerusalem,holytoJews,ChristiansandMuslimsalike.For Christians, it is the city where Jesus preached, was crucified andresurrected. For Muslims, its holiness stems from the belief that

MuhammadmiraculouslytravelledfromMeccatoJerusaleminonenightandthenfromJerusalemtoHeaventospeaktoGod.DuringtheCrusades,thememories of these eventswere evoked thousands of times by kings,sultans,generals,priests and imams to rally the faithfulonboth sides tostake their claim to the holy city. Starting in 1095, 200years of conflictcommencedthatwouldfundamentallyreshapeChristianEuropeaswellastheMuslimworldforgood.TheimpetusfortheCrusadesbeganfarfromJerusaleminCentralAsia.

Here, the Turks had lived for thousands of years as a tribal, nomadicpeoplewhowere feared for their battle toughness.TheAbbasidsput theTurkic expertise in warfare to good use by recruiting generals fromCentralAsiatoserveintheirmilitariesasearlyastheninthcentury.Massmigrations ofTurks soon followed as tribesmoved out ofCentralAsiaand into the Islamic world. As theymigrated, the Turkic tribes adoptedIslamandbegantosetuptheirownstatesinthepoliticalchaosofthetenthcentury.ThegreatestofthesewastheGreatSeljukEmpire,establishedin1037.TheSeljuksbuiltastablestate that stretched fromSyria toCentralAsia. The era ofAbbasid powerwas by this point nothingmore than amemory,buttheSeljuksassumedaroleasprotectorsofthecaliphs,whoremained entrenched in their palaces in Baghdad. As staunchly SunniMuslims, the Seljuks even managed to provide a counterweight to theheretical Fatimids and helped prevent Fatimid expansion in the eleventhcentury.

TheSeljuksestablishedtheNizamiyyahSchoolinBaghdadinthelateeleventhcentury.ItwasthelargestuniversityoftheMiddleAgesandchargednotuition.

In 1071, the Seljuks won an important battle against the ByzantineEmpireineasternAnatolia.TheBattleofManzikerteffectivelyendedtheabilityof theByzantines toholdontoAnatolia as a completeunit. In theyears following the battle, the Seljuks gradually expanded westwardthroughoutthepeninsula,untiltheybegantoappearontheshoresopposite

Constantinople, threatening to expand Turkic Muslim power into theimperialcityandbeyond.In1095,theByzantineEmperorAlexiosrealizedtheByzantinecouldnotbattle theTurksalone.Despitea rivalrybetweenthe Eastern and Western halves of Christianity that spanned centuries,AlexioswageredthatChristianunitywastheonlythingthatcouldpreventthefalloftheByzantineEmpire.HesentanurgentappealtoPopeUrbanIIin Rome for assistance, perhaps hoping for an expeditionary force thatcould help him turn the tide and regain the lands lost since Manzikert.Urbantooktheopportunitytorallyapan-EuropeanChristianarmyinthename of Christ that numbered in the tens of thousands. But he had nointentionofhelpingAlexios,orevenfightingtheTurks.Urban’sCrusadeset its sights on Jerusalem.Decrying the fact that Jerusalemhadbeen inMuslimhands since ‘Umar ’s caliphate,UrbancalledonallChristians tosupport an expedition to conquer the city and establish aLatinChristiankingdominPalestine,undertheauthorityofthePapacy.Urban’sarmywasslowtomobilize.Itwasnotuntil1096and1097that

armiesledbynoblesandknightsbeganmarchingtowardsEasternEuropefrommodern-day France, Germany and Italy. Along the way, EuropeanJewsweremassacredinhugenumbersduetothereligiouszealstokedbytheChurch.TheFirstCrusadewassofearsomethatwhenitarrivedatthewallsofConstantinople,EmperorAlexiosrefusedtoallowthementryintothecity,forfearthattheywouldplunderitastheydidwithdozensofcitiesandtownsalongtheway.The30,000-strongarmycrossedtheBosphorusandbeganalongmarchthroughAnatoliathatthenewly-establishedTurkswereunabletoresist.Inlate1097,theCrusadersreachedAntioch,awell-defended,majorcity that todayliesnear theborderofTurkeyandSyria.This was to be the first test of the Crusades. If the Christians weresuccessful here, they could expect to continue their march towardsJerusalem. If they failed, it could be harder to recruit future armies toventurefarintotheMuslimworldtoconquerJerusalem.TheSiegeofAntioch revealsmuchabout thepolitical situationof the

Middle East late in the eleventh century. The city was incredibly well-defended, and posed a considerable challenge to the invaders. Butpolitically, the city was an island. The Great Seljuk Empire haddisintegratedintheyearsleadinguptotheCrusades.Nolongerwasitoneunitedpoliticalentity. Instead,pettyTurkicemirsadministered individual

cities,andseemedtobeconstantlyquarrelling.ThemajorcitiesofSyria:Damascus,Aleppo,AntiochandMosulwerealldisunited,andtheiremirshad all been in perpetual war throughout the 1090s. When the ruler ofAntioch,Yaghi-Siyan,askedforhelpfromhisTurkicbrethrenagainsttheCrusaders that surrounded his city, he received no response. The otheremirswereprobablyhappytoseetheirrivalbeingattacked,ashisdemisewould mean their increased power and influence. As such, Antiochreceived no help from the surrounding Muslim cities. Furthermore, anarmormaker thatwas in chargeof thedefenseof a sectionof the city’swalls ended up allowing the Crusaders entry into the city because of apersonalfeudhehadwiththeemir.Once the Crusaders captured the city, its population was put to the

sword. The massacre of Antioch and other cities along the way toJerusalem(alongwithatleastoneincidentofcannibalism)instilledterrorin thesurroundingareas.Muslimemirswerekeen toavoidconflictwiththe Crusaders, and once they realized the target was Jerusalem, manydecidedtosupporttheCrusaderswithfood,armsandsafepassageratherthantofightthem.Bythesummerof1099,theCrusadersfinallyreachedthewallsofJerusalem.Jerusalemwasinnopositiontodefenditself.Intheyearsbefore,ithad

gonebackandforthbetweenFatimidandSeljukcontrol,anditsdefenseswere in shambles.Furthermore, theFatimidswere slow to recognize thethreattheCrusadersposedtoJerusalem,andtherewasnothingmorethana token garrison in the city, certainly not enough to withstand a siegeagainsttensofthousands.TheFatimidsmobilizedanarmyinEgypttogodefendthecity.ButbythetimetheyreachedPalestine,itwastoolate.On15July1099,afterasiegelastingonlyaweek,theCrusadersmanagedtopush into the city and take it from theMuslims. For the first time since‘Umarenteredthecity462yearsbefore,JerusalemcameunderChristiancontrol.

“In the Temple and porch of Solomon [the al-Aqsa Mosque] menrodeinblooduptotheirkneesandbridlereins.”

–RaymondD’Aguilers,aCrusader,referringtothe

ConquestofJerusalemin1099

For the Islamic world, the conquest of Jerusalem was a disaster. Itsentire civilian population, over 70,000 people,wasmassacred. In the al-Aqsa Mosque, where Muslims believe Muhammad led all previousprophetsinprayer,thebloodofMuslimcivilianswasuptotheshinsoftheconquerors.Mosquesandsynagoguesthroughoutthecityweredestroyed.Even Christians suffered as the Crusaders sought to impose their ownCatholicversionofChristianityinsteadofthetraditionalGreek,Georgian,Armenian,andotherchurchesthathadoperatedinthecity.ThenewsofthelossofIslam’sthird-holiestcitywasashocktoMuslimsaroundtheworld.ExpressionsofangerandvengeanceragedinCairoandBaghdad.Yettheexpected unified Muslim front in the face of Crusader atrocities nevercame.TheFatimidsweredefeated inbattleon thecoastofPalestineand,after that, theydidnotmakemuchofaneffort to liberate thecity.CourtintrigueandineffectiveleadersrenderedtheFatimidsentirelyincapableofdealing with the Crusaders. Meanwhile, the Abbasid caliphate was stillpowerless and theTurkic emirs inSyria, Iraq, andPersia remained in astate of constant civil war. With the Muslim world preoccupied, theCrusaders consolidated their position along the coast of Palestine andSyria.Morecities(includingtheonesthathadearlieraidedtheCrusadersintheirmarchtoJerusalem)wereconquered,andwithinafewyears,fourCrusaderkingdomsruledtheMediterraneancoast.InthenewMiddleEastoftheearly1100s,EastandWestbegantomixin

theHolyLand for the first time since thearrivalof Islam.TheFrankishknights who conquered the region began to establish European-stylefeudal societies, like the ones in Medieval Europe. While the Crusaderarmieshaddepopulatedthecity,thesurroundingvillagesweremostlyleftunharmed and were simply made property of European knights. TheCrusades did not usher in new demographics to theMuslim world. NomassmigrationofEuropeanpeasantscameintotheHolyLand.Rather,theexisting Arab Muslim demographic was incorporated into a European-style feudal society. This became one of the entry-points for Muslimknowledge in Europe, as more enlightened Crusaders took home

knowledgeofthesciencesandphilosophythattheywereexposedtointheLevant.Economically, theCrusadesmarkedthebeginningofnewtiesbetween

theEastandWest.ThemostenterprisingsailorsofMedievalEuropewerethe Italian city-states.As the first Crusadersmarched down the shore ofSyriainthelate1090stowardsJerusalem,ItalianmerchantshipsshadowedthemintheMediterranean.OncetheCrusaderkingdomswereestablishedand consolidated, Italian states such asGenoa andVenice regularly sentfleetsofmerchantstotheHolyLand.Tradeingoodsthatwereoncedistantandunreachablenowbecamecommonplace.Theresultwasahugeinfluxofwealth into the Italian peninsula and the hands of the leading tradingfamilies of the major city-states. That wealth, coupled with knowledgegainedfromtranslationsofMuslimscholarlyworks,wouldlaterhelpfueltheRenaissancestartinginthefourteenthcentury.Furthermore,thewealthand power gained by the city-statesmade them formidable opponents totheOttomanEmpireinthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies.Politically and militarily, not much progress was made against the

Crusaders in the decades after their capture of Jerusalem in 1099. TheMuslimworldwasfar tooweakandfractured tomountmuchresistance.WhenthechallengetotheCrusadersfinallyappearedinthemid-1100s,itwas not from the traditional centers of power inBaghdad,Damascus orCairo. Instead, it came from a Turkish emir, ‘Imad al-Din Zengi, whoruled over the city ofMosul in northern Iraq.A resilient and somewhatharsh leader,hemanagedtouniteMosulandAleppointoonestate.Withthe combined power of two of the largest cities in the region, his armyconqueredtheCountyofEdessa,thenorthernmostCrusaderstatein1044.Atthetime,theconquestofEdessadidnotmeanmuchpolitically.Itwasbyfar theweakest Crusader state and its loss did not affect the other threemuch,butlookingback,1044waswhenthetidebegantoturnagainsttheCrusadersandinfavoroftheMuslims.Zengi had hoped to forge a united Syria in the face of the Crusader

threat by bringingDamascus under his control, but the former imperialcityremainedoutofhisgrasp.PettywarfareamongTurkishemirswasnotoveryet,andtheemirofDamascuscouldnotstandtogiveuphisdomain,eveninthenameofMuslimunity.When‘Imadal-DinZengidiedin1146,hissonNural-DinZengipickedupthestruggletounifytheMiddleEast.

The younger Zengi managed to conquer most of the territory aroundAntiochin1149,andin1154,heoverthrewtheemirofDamascuswiththehelpof the localpopulationwhohadgrownsickofDamascus’salliancewith theCrusader states.With Syria unified under theZengid dynasty, itwould seem that the liberationof Jerusalemand the restof theoccupiedland was on the horizon. But a bizarre and unexpected series of eventsbroughtNural-Din’sattentiontoEgyptandthedecliningFatimidEmpire.WithSyriaunifiedandstrongerthanithadbeensincethedemiseofthe

Great Seljuk Empire, theCrusaders had to look south if theywanted toexpandtheirrealm.ThatmeantinvadingintotheancientandfertilelandofEgypt. In 1163, the king of Jerusalem led an invasion of Fatimid Egyptunder the pretext of Fatimid refusal to pay tribute. To counter thisinvasion, theFatimidgrandvizier,Shawar,whohadbeenoverthrownbyrivalcourt forces justbefore the invasion,appealed toNural-DinZengifor military aid, lest the Crusaders manage to conquer Egypt. Despitemisgivingsabouttheexpedition,ZengisentanarmytoEgyptinthenameofMuslimunitytofighttheCrusadersandreinstateShawarin1164.AftersuccessfullydefeatingtheCrusaders,Shawarwasagainmadegrandvizier,anditseemedanalliancebetweenShi‘aEgyptandSunniSyriawouldsooncrush theKingdom of Jerusalem between them.But, as soon as Shawarregained power he changed sides, signing an alliance with the sameCrusadershehadjustfoughtagainstinanattempttodislodgetheZengidarmy from Egypt. Zengi’s army was forced to retreat to Syria and acombined Fatimid-Crusader force held Egypt. Just four years later,however, the Crusaders again invaded Egypt, hoping to annex the areaonceandforall.Onceagain,Nural-DinwascalleduponinthenameofSunni-Shi‘a unity to protect Egypt. And once again, the Zengid armyarrived along the banks of the River Nile. This time, however, Zengi’sarmy was not to be crossed by Shawar again. This military expeditiondefeated theCrusader army, and thenShawar,whowas executed for hisrepeatedtreachery.TheFatimidEmpireitselfwasnotofficiallyabolished,althoughitwasbroughtunderZengidsuzerainty,withZengi’stopgeneral,Shirkuh,beingappointedvizier inShawar ’splace.After just twomonthsasvizier,however,Shirkuhdiedofintestinalillness,andcontrolofEgyptfell to his nephew, a youngmanwith the given nameYusuf, but whomhistoryknowsasSalahal-Din(Saladin).

LiberationofJerusalem

Salah al-Din seems to have been relatively disinterested in politics andwarfare.RaisedinDamascus,hestudiedtraditionalIslamicsciencesundersome of the greatest scholars of his era. He was staunchly Sunni,followingtheShafi‘ischooloffiqhandtheAsh‘arischooloftheology.Itevenseemshewasmore interested ina lifeofscholarshipandreligiousstudiesthangovernment,buthisuncle’s insistencethatheaccompanytheEgyptianexpeditionalteredthedestinyoftheyoungSalahal-Din.Whenheinherited his uncle’s position as vizier of Egypt in 1169, his religiousleanings greatly influenced his policies. The heterodox Fatimid Empire,whichhadbeenathorninSunniIslam’ssideforcenturies,wasofficiallyabolished on Salah al-Din’s orders. The al-Azhar University, once abastion of Isma‘ili propaganda was converted into a traditional Sunnischool,and it remains so today.ThegeneralpopulationofEgypt,whichhadneverfullyembracedShi‘ism,welcomedSalahal-Din’sreforms,andacloserrelationshipwithSyria.Butonepersonwhodidnotwelcomethegrowinginfluenceandpower

ofSalahal-DinwasNural-Din,hisnominalmaster inSyria.Nural-Dinfeared the growing influence of his governor of Egypt, and tensionbetweenthetwowasclearlyveryhigh.ManyinEgyptandSyriabelievedwar between Zengi and Salah al-Din was inevitable. However, the twoneverfought.Zengidiedin1174fromdisease,andSalahal-DinwasabletomarchintoSyriaunopposedandwithbroadpublicsupport.Hewasnowhisownsovereign,withEgyptandSyria—united for the first time sincethe Fatimid uprising—under his authority. The Crusader Kingdom ofJerusalemwasnowsurroundedbyapowerful,unitedMuslimstateunderaruler who believed it was his religious duty to liberate the city ofJerusalem. Further compounding their problems, unity among theCrusaders was at an all-time low. Organizations such as the KnightsTemplar and theKnightsHospitaller regularly undermined the authorityof theKingdomofJerusalem. In the1170sand1180s, theMuslimworldwasunitedwhiletheCrusaderswerequarrellingamongthemselves.Itwastheexactoppositeofthesituationin1099.Nonetheless,Salahal-Dinwasnoteagertogotowar;hesignedpeace

treatieswiththeKingdomofJerusalemwhilehesecuredhisdomainfromexternalandinternalthreats.HisbiggestproblemwasprobablyasecretivecultknownastheHashashin(theirnamewascorruptedtoAssassinsintheWest), an extremist group of Isma‘ilis who believed the Fatimids hadfailed to bring a promised Shi‘a revolution. Instead, they resorted topolitical assassinations and terrorism to bring the Sunni world to heel.Salahal-DinnevermanagedtofullyeliminatetheHashashinthreat,buthisconflict with them preoccupied him politically and led to at least twoassassination attempts by Hashashin agents. Salah al-Din was forced tobring his focus back to the Crusaders in the mid-1180s, after repeatedprovocationsbyahawkishknight,ReynalddeChatillon,whohadbrokennumerous peace treaties, massacred a Muslim pilgrimage caravan, andevenattemptedtoattackMeccaitself.TheKingdomofJerusalembecameinvolved in the conflict, leading to the final confrontation between theunitedMuslimforcesofSalahal-DinandtheKingdomofJerusalem.At theBattleofHattin in1187,Salahal-Din’sarmycompletely routed

theCrusaderarmyofJerusalem.Onlyafewknightswereleftintheholycity,whichcapitulatedtoSalahal-DininOctoberofthatyear.Eighty-eightyears earlier, Crusaders had stormed into the city, massacring itspopulationandsubjectingitsreligioussitestoChristiandomination.Salahal-Din,keen tofollowin thefootstepsof thecaliph‘Umarwhohadfirstconquered the city in 637, did not cleanse theCrusader occupationwithanothermassacre.AlltheoccupantsofthecityweregivensafepassagetoChristian lands, and were allowed to take their belongings with them.Christiansitesinthecitywereprotectedandpilgrimagetothemallowed.Salah al-Din’s noble behavior was not lost on the defeated Christians.Legendsofhis chivalry soon spread throughoutEurope, and subsequentconflictsfoughtbetweenSalahal-DinandCrusaderkings,notablyRichardtheLionheart, are filledwith stories ofmutual respect betweenMuslimsandChristians.Salahal-Din’sdomainevolvedintotheAyyubidDynastyafterhisdeath.

HisdescendantscontinuedtocontrolSyriaandEgyptfordecades,evenasmore Crusader armies arrived at their shores to attempt to regainJerusalem.TheCrusadesstretchedonforoverahundredmoreyearsaftertheliberationofJerusalem,buttheyneveragainbecameamajorthreattotheMuslimworldoritscontrolovertheHolyLand.Instead,anewthreat

wasbrewingthatwouldtrumptheCrusadesinsizeandscope.Justtwentyyears after Salah al-Din’s liberation of Jerusalem, a warlord known asGenghisKhanmanagedtounitethevariousMongoltribesnorthofChinaintoonestatewithagoalofconstantmilitaryexpansion.Althoughhewas5,000kilometersawayfromtheheartoftheMuslimworld,theexpansioninauguratedbyGenghisKhanwouldsoonthreatentheentireexistenceofIslamasapoliticalforce.

TheMongols

Ironically,theMongolinvasionoccurredwhentheMuslimworldseemedprimed for a comeback. The Fatimids were nomore, and radical Shi‘arevolutionariesonlyexistedinsmallpocketsthroughoutPersiaandSyria.TheCrusadersstillheldsomecoastalterritoryinSyriaandPalestine,butwerenotagreatthreattothesanctityofMuslimlands.TheByzantinesstillwere incapable of recouping their losses from Manzikert, and weredealingwith problems caused byCrusaderswho seemedmore intent onfightingfellowChristiansinConstantinoplethanMuslimsinJerusalem.Yet the stabilityof theearly1200swas short lived.GenghisKhanand

theMongolshadgone froma tribalnuisancenorthof theGreatWallofChinatoamajorworldempireinamatterofafewyears.Withintenyearsofcomingtopower,thenomadicMongolsmanagedtoconquerandholdthe entire northern half of China. Genghis Khan’s attention then turnedwestward,wheretheKara-KhitanKhanateofCentralAsiastoodinthewayofMongoldominationofAsia.CentralAsia’splainsweresimilar to thelandscape theMongolshailed from,and theconquestof thisvast regionwas quick and severe. By 1219, Genghis Khan ruled a land empire thatstretchedfromKoreatothebordersoftheMuslimworldinPersia.Thesuddenexplosionof theMongols in theearly1200s isoneof the

most remarkable examples of military expansion in world history. TheMongolswerenomadichorsemenwhohadnotevenmasteredagriculture,butbuiltaworldempirethatstretchedfromCentralEuropetoKoreatothebordersofIndia.Itwastheirnatureasnomadichorsementhatmadethemcapable of such conquests.TheMongols practically lived on horseback,and thus long distances and roadless terrain that deterred conventionalarmieswere no barrier at all. In addition to their impressive speed, the

Mongolsemployedadeliberatecampaignaimedatinstillinggreatterrorintheheartsoftheirenemies,totheextentthattheywouldvoluntarilylaydownarmsratherthandefendtheirhomelands.WhentheMongolsarrivedatanenemycity,thedefendinggarrisonwasgiventhreeoptions.Thefirstoption was to avoid fighting, capitulate to the Mongols and join theMongolarmyintheircontinuedcampaignofconquest.Thesecondoptionwasresistance:ifthecityresistedtheMongolsandlost(asmostcitiesdid),itsentiregarrisonwouldbeputtotheswordandthecitylooted.ThethirdoptioninvolvedmassresistancetotheMongols,byboththecity’sarmedgarrison and civilians. If that occurred, the Mongols promised to killevery single soul inside the city, a fate that numerous towns and citiesacross Asia faced.With such tactics, it is no surprise that theMongolswereable tosnowball throughAsia,creating theworld’s largestempire.StoriesofMongolatrocitiesprecededthehordesofwarriorspouringoutof Central Asia. From Iraq to China, those in the way of MongolexpansioncommonlychosesubserviencetoMongoloverlordsratherthanfacethewrathoftheKhan.TheMuslim state that touched thebordersof theMongolEmpirewas

theKhwarezmianEmpire.Thisempirepickedupmanyof thepieces leftbythedemiseoftheSeljukEmpire,unitingmostofPersiaundertheruleofShahMuhammad(r.1200–1220),amanwithTurkicancestrybutraisedinPersian court culture.Duringhis reign, theAbbasid caliphs,whohadbeen essentially powerless since the mid-tenth century, began to exertmoredirectauthority.Thecaliphal-NasirwasthefirstAbbasidtoleadanarmy out of Baghdad in centuries, as he consolidatedmost of Iraq andpartsofPersiaunderhisrule.ShahMuhammadwasnotreadytoacceptacaliphatewith real sovereignty just as hewas expanding his own powerthroughout theMuslimworld.Naturally, thismeant conflict between thecaliph’syoungstateandtheKhwarezmianEmpireofMuhammad.Perhapsit was because of this conflict, or perhaps it was Muhammad’s over-reliance on overworked slave soldiers, but the Khwarezmians were notpreparedwhenGenghisKhan and his fearsomewarriors arrived on theMuslimfrontierin1219.TheKhwarezmians,however,decidedtopickafightwiththeMongols.

When merchants from the Mongol Empire entered the Khwarezmiandomain, theywere put to death as spies.Needless to say,GenghisKhan

waslessthanpleasedwiththisdevelopment,especiallysinceheseemstohave desired peaceful relations with the Muslim state. He sworevengeance,andthenextyearMongolarmiesarrivedinMuslimlandsforthefirsttime,beginningaperiodofdestructionforMuslimcivilizationinPersia, Iraq and Syria. The Mongols combined their superior fightingabilitywith siege enginesbrought in fromChina toquickly conquer themajorcitiesofeasternPersia.Bukhara,thecityforeverassociatedwiththegreathadithcompilationofal-Bukhari,wascompletelydestroyed.AncientBalkhcametoasimilar fate,andits libraryof thousandsofmanuscriptswasdumpedintotheOxusRiver.TheMongoldrivehadnouseforbooksortheacademicachievementsofMuslimcivilization.Theywerenomadicwarriors,andtheironlybusinesswasconquestandpillage.Astheypushedintomodern-day Iran andAfghanistan, someof themajor urban centerswere reduced to nothingness. Muslim historians of the era claim theMongols massacred 1.7 million people in Nishapur and over 2 millionpeople inHerat.Thesenumbersmayormaynotbeaccurate,butwhat isclearisthattheMongolsraineddeathanddestructionwherevertheywent.Islamiccivilizationthathadtaken600yearstobuildwasbeingerasedinamatterofweeks.TheKhwarezmianEmpirewasessentiallydestroyedby1222 after a short but destructive conflict. Genghis Khan chose not tocontinueintotheheartoftheMuslimworld;heretiredbacktoMongoliawherehediedin1225.After the death of Genghis Khan, the Muslim world experienced a

welcome reprieve fromMongol attacks. The new Khan, Genghis’s sonOgedai, chose to focus on crossing theUralMountains and conqueringEurope.TheMongolsdidthiswithincredibleefficiency,asalways,and,in1237, led their armies acrossmodern-day Russia and intoHungary andGermany.ChristianmonarchsacrossEuropewereterrifiedattheprospectof these heathen Mongols decimating their land as they did to theKhwarezmiandomain.YetjustastheMongolincursionintoMuslimlandsendedabruptly,theMongolsabandonedtheircampaignsinEuropein1241whenOgedai died. At this point, Christian Europe was still very muchenchantedwiththeideaofCrusadingintotheHolyLandandreconqueringJerusalem.TheAyyubids,however,stillhadtherequisitepowerandabilityto resist attempts on the Holy City. If Christian Europe wanted to re-establish itself in Palestine, it needed help.Luckily for them, an alliance

with theMongolsbecamemoreofapossibilityasNestorianChristianityslowly crept into the upper echelons of the Mongol Empire, especiallysincemanyofGenghis’sdescendantshadmarriedChristianwomen.Afterrepeated embassies sent by European monarchs requesting a MongolinvasionintoMuslimlands, theMongolsfinallymobilizedanarmywiththeaimofcompletelyobliteratingIslamicpoliticalpowerin1255.

“TrulytheDayofJudgmenthasbeenheldinBaghdad…ThefamilyoftheProphetandthehouseholdoflearninghavebeentakencaptive,andwhom,thinkyou,aftertheirloss,willcitiescontain?”

–Isma‘ilibnAbil-Yusr,acontemporarypoet

The leader of this Mongol army was Hulagu, a man whose stanceagainst Islam was clearly influenced by his Christian and Buddhistadvisors. The army was probably the largest theMongols ever fielded,over100,000 strong.Troops fromChristianArmenia and the remainingCrusader states also joined in. The Muslim world was ill-prepared forsuch an onslaught. TheKhwarezmianEmpirewas dispersed and greatlyweakenedbytheinitialMongolinvasionthirtyyearsbefore.TheAbbasidcaliphate barely controlled Iraq and was in constant struggle with theHashashin sect for power.Meanwhile, theAyyubidDynasty of Salah al-Din’s descendants was overthrown in 1250 by its own slave soldiers,knownasMamluks,whoestablishedtheMamlukSultanateinEgypt.Onceagain, a disunited and weak Muslim world faced an invasion from aforeignlandand,onceagain,disasterwouldensue.

In 922, theMuslim traveler and jurist Ibn Fadlanwrote the earliestexistingrecordoftheVikings.

The Mongols swept into Persia, where they made an overwhelming

assault on theHashashin.Their stronghold ofAlamut,which had for solongeludedconquestbySunnis,wasdestroyedbyHulaguin1256.BeforeSunniscouldcheerthefinaldownfalloftheHashashin,however,HulagusethissightsonBaghdad,whichhadbeenthecapitalofthecaliphatesince750. The caliph al-Musta‘sim refused to surrender and accept Mongolauthority.NeverbeforeinIslamichistoryhadthecaliphateitselffallen,orhad the capital been taken. Even in the face of Fatimid and Crusaderinvasion,circumstanceshadalwaysworkedoutinawaythatthespiritualleadership of the Muslim world was spared. Perhaps this history hadcausedal-Musta‘simandothersinBaghdadtohopethatsomethingsimilarwould happenwhen theMongols came in 1258. This time, however, nomiraculousvictorycame.NogreatallianceofMuslimstateswasforgedtodefend the caliphate, andno amountof individualbravery in the faceofMongol aggression could save the city. After a siege of just a week,Hulagu’sarmycapturedthecapitalofthecaliphateon10February1258.The conquest of Baghdad was one of the most devastating events in

Islamichistory.TheusualMongolmassacresoonfollowedthecity’sfall.Its entireMuslim population, with estimates ranging from 200,000 to 1million,waskilled.Onlythecity’sChristiancommunitywasspared.Theancient House of Wisdom that was established by al-Ma’mun to pushscientificlearningtonewfrontierswasrazedtotheground.Itsbooksweredumped into the Tigris River, the ink from hundreds of years ofscholarshipturningtheriverblack.Thousandsofworksonmath,science,geography, history, theology and jurisprudence were lost forever. Suchwasthislossthattodayweonlyhaveafractionoftheworksofthegreatscientists of the Golden Age such as Ibn al-Haytham, al-Biruni and IbnSina.What other discoveries theymay have had thatwe are unaware ofbled into the Tigris, never to be read again. As hundreds of years ofknowledgewasbeingdestroyed,thecaliphhimselfwastakenbyHulagu,wrappedinoneofhisluxuriouscarpets,andtrampledtodeathbyMongolhorsemen.TheAbbasidcaliphatewouldhaveceased toexisthadanothermemberoftheAbbasidfamilynotbeeninstalledinCairoascaliphsoonafterthemassacre.TheAbbasidcaliphateinEgyptlasteduntil1517underMamluk authority, but the caliphs were nothing more than figureheadswhoneveragainheld realpower.ThedestructionofBaghdadwasmorethan the conquest of a city. It was the end of a political, scientific and

religious center that the Muslim world at that time never could haveconceivedof.The Mongols of course had no intention of stopping at Baghdad.

Hulagu continued his advance into Syria. Aleppo and Damascus weretaken, much to the delight of Christians in the region, especially theCrusaders. A Christian mass was held in the Umayyad Mosque ofDamascus, once the largest and grandestmosque in theworld. It wouldseemthatnothingwasgoingtostoptheMongolsfrommovingsouthintoEgypt,destroyingIslamiccivilizationthere,andeffectivelyerasingIslamfromtheworldjustasfastasitrose600yearsbefore.Butthatwasnottobe. The youngMamluk Sultanate halted theMongol advance in 1260 innorthern Palestine. Sultan Baybars led the Mamluks in a pitched battlewhereheused theMongol’sowncavalry tacticsagainst them, leading tothe firstMongol defeat since they arrived inMuslim lands. The victorymeantEgypt,andperhapsIslamitself,wassavedfromMongolatrocities.Follow-up invasionswere also futile, especially since aMongolkhan inRussia,Berke,hadconvertedtoIslamandalliedwiththeMamluksagainstHulagu.ThisMongolcivilwarbetweentheMuslimBerkeandthePaganHulagumeanta temporary reprieve for theMuslimworld.Furthermore,in the late 1200s, the entire Mongol Empire was divided into separatestatesandexpansionwashalted.IslamiccivilizationsurvivedtheMongolassault, but only a shadow of the former glory of the Islamic worldremained.PersiaandIraqwereessentiallydestroyedpolitically.Syriawasravaged by warfare. The holy cities of Mecca and Medina had onlynarrowlyavoidedcapturebypagans.ForMuslims,itwasoneoftheworsttimes in Islamic history. Some even lamented that the end of the worldmustbenear.As a result of the destruction of the thirteenth century, serious

theological questions arose.Muslims of the era had trouble reconcilingtheirbelief that Islam is theperfect religionwith thedestruction thathadbefallen it. The caliphate, the special institution that was inaugurated byAbuBakrafterthedeathoftheProphetwasnomore.MillionsofMuslimsouls perished under the swords of the invaders, and, worst of all, theMongolswereoverwhelminglyheathenpagans;theywerenotevenPeopleoftheBook.ForIslamtocometosuchafateatthehandsoftheMongolswas problematic. Some began towonder if therewas somethingwrong

withIslam.Muslim theologians rose to combat this idea, led by Ibn Taymiyyah

(1263–1328).Heargued that therewasneveranythingwrongwithIslam.The problem, according to him, was that Muslims digressed from thecorrectpracticeofit,andthattheMongoldisasterwasaresultofMuslimslosingtheirway.Muchlikeal-Ghazali200yearsbeforehim,hesoughttopurge Islam from what he saw as innovations that ran contrary to theexample of Muhammad. Although he was a Sufi, he denounced theexcessivemysticalphilosophyofsomeSufibranches,believingthat theyultimatelyledtopolytheism.Atthesametime,herejectedthelegitimacyofMuslimleaderswhodidnotupholdIslamiclawandconductthemselvesinanIslamicfashion.ThisbroughthimintoinevitableconflictwithbothMongol and Mamluk rulers, leading to numerous imprisonments andeventualdeathinthecitadelofDamascus.Hisideashelpedspawnhopeformany in the Muslim world that if they simply adhered to a pure andunalteredversionofIslam,theycouldonceagainriseuptobecomeworlddominators.Islamiccivilizationwouldinfactexperiencearebirth,butnotin the traditional heartland of Islam between the Nile and Oxus Rivers.Instead, thisrebirthbeganinthenorthwestfrontierof theMuslimworld,where the nomadic warrior society of the Turks clashed with theestablishedandurbanByzantineEmpire.

7

AL-ANDALUS

InthestoryofIslamandtheMuslimpeople,attentionisusuallyfocusedonthecoreregionoftheMuslimworld,stretchingfromtheNiletotheOxusRivers, including Egypt, Syria, the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq and Persia.However,itisalsoimportanttocontextualizeIslamichistoryintheregionwhereMuslimcivilizationdirectlybordered the restof theworld. In theIberian Peninsula, home today to Spain and Portugal, Islam interacteddirectlywithChristianEurope.AcomplexanddiversesocietydevelopedherethatwasbothMuslimandWesternEuropean.

EstablishmentofIslaminSpain

AftertherapidconquestofNorthAfricainthemid-seventhcenturybytheUmayyads,Muslim conquest slowed for a time. TheAtlanticOcean andMediterraneanSeaseemedanaturalbordertothenewMuslimempire,andthe late 600s were dedicated to consolidating the conquered land andincorporating its people into the Muslim world. But the floodgates ofconquest opened again in the 710s, whenMuslim armies began to pourinto the IberianPeninsula, addingyet another distant land to theMuslimdomain.The reasons for the rapid conquest of the peninsula have long been

debated.Tothepeoplewhowitnessedthecampaign,onbothsides,itwassimplyamanifestationofGod’spleasureordispleasure.FortheMuslims,theconquestwassofastandeasysimplybecauseGodhadwilledthatthisland would enter into the Muslim empire. For the Christians, theyexplained their massive loss by claiming that God was upset with theimmoralbehaviorof theVisigothsandthusHesent theMusliminvadersaspunishment.Thereareofcoursemoreconcrete factors tounderstand.Firstly, the unpopularity ofRoderic and theVisigothicmonarchy due topre-existingpoliticalconflicts.Somearistocratsfailedtosupportthekingin the face of invasion fromAfrica and during the Battle ofGuadalete,desertion by soldiers and nobles helped turn the tide. The fact that the

Visigothswereunpopular isevidencedby thefact thatafter theclimacticbattle,fewcitiesputupanyresistancetotheMusliminvaders.Infact,themainresistancewasseeninthenorthernmountainsandwasnotledbytheVisigoths,butbypoliticalseparatistsfightingforindependencebeforetheMuslim invasion. The main cities of the Visigothic realm quicklycapitulated to theMuslimswhopromised favorable surrender terms andlocal autonomy. The relative freedom granted by the Muslims to thegeneral population must have contrasted sharply with an unpopularVisigothicregime.Afterthequickconquestwasover,thesettlementofthelandbyMuslims

began. Unlike the settlement pattern in parts of the Middle East, wherearmiessettledingarrisontownsorganizedbytheRashidunandUmayyadauthorities, in al-Andalus, settlement was mostly unorganized andhaphazard. The Muslims did not confine themselves to garrison towns,choosing instead to become property owners throughout the peninsula.The Berber immigrants tended to settle in the north and west, seekingpastoralenvironmentssimilar towhat theywereusedto inNorthAfrica.TheArabtribesthatcametoal-AndalusweremostlyfromYemenandhada long history of settled farming.As a result, they settledmainly in thefertileregionsofthesouthandthecountry’smaincitiessuchasCordoba,Valencia and Zaragoza. Both Arabs and Berbers regularly intermarriedwith the local population, eventually creating a new unique society thatincorporatedaspectsofArab,BerberandHispanicculture.

UmayyadRule

ForthefirstfewdecadesofMuslimrule,al-Andaluswaslittlemorethanadistant and uneventful province of the vast Umayyad Caliphate. Thatchanged in the 750s, when the Abbasids succeeded in overthrowing theUmayyad family. In Syria, most members of the Umayyad family werejailedorexecuted.OneyoungUmayyadmanaged toescape thecarnage,however. ‘Abd al-Rahman, a twenty-year-old prince, escaped fromDamascus in 750 just ahead of the Abbasid army, and began an epicjourneyacross theMuslimworld in searchofhelpandsupportafter therestofhisfamilyhadperished.HismotherwasaBerber,sohenaturallysoughtaid in theBerberhomelandinNorthAfrica.Always justonestep

ahead of the pursuing Abbasid agents, he finally found support for theUmayyadfamilyinal-Andalusin755.Here,heestablishedhimselfastherulerofanUmayyadstate,withCordobaasitscapital,politicallyseparatefromtheAbbasidsbasedinfarawayBaghdad.His journeyfromSyria tothisdistantwesternlandgavehimthenicknameal-Dakhil,theimmigrant.TheUmayyadEmirateestablishedby‘Abdal-Rahmanal-Dakhilbecame

aculturalmeltingpotduringthecenturiesafterhisrule.Peoplefromtherest of the Muslim world continued to immigrate to this distant land,carryingwith them aspects of their home cultures. In addition to that, alargeportionof thenativeHispanicpopulationconverted to Islamin thelate800sandearly900s.By950,abouthalfofthepeninsula’spopulationwaslikelyMuslim,andbythe1100s,Christianswouldmakeuponlyabout20 per cent of the population. Arab, Berber and Hispanic Muslimscombined to create a unique Andalusian culture that brought togetherdiverse backgrounds and traditions under the banner of Islam. EvenChristianslivinginal-AndalusadoptedIslamiccultureandbeganadoptingArabiclanguage,artandcustoms.This influencecultureandlanguageisstill seen today in the Spanish language, which retainsmany loanwordsfrom Arabic. Jews also benefitted greatly from Andalusian society.Throughout therestofEurope,Jewswerebarely tolerated in theMiddleAges,andpogromsagainstthemwereaconstantthreat.InMuslimSpain,however, Jewswere given the freedom to practice their religion as theypleased andbecame integral parts of society. Jewish philosophy reacheditszenithinMuslimSpain,producingscholarssuchasMaimonides,whoisknowntothisdayasoneofthegreatestJewishphilosophersofalltime.

TheGreatMosqueofCordobawasbuiltovera200yearperiodintheUmayyadcapital. Itexhibits856columns,manyofwhichoriginallycamefromolderRomanruins.

The peakof theUmayyad state inSpain occurred during the reign of‘Abd al-Rahman III, from912 to 961.During his almost half-century inpower,hedeclaredhimselfascaliphoftheMuslimworld.Althoughhedid

nothaveanypoweroutsideoftheIberianPeninsula,hisclaimtotherolehisUmayyadancestorsheldintheseventhandeighthcenturieswasmeantto combat the growing power of the Fatimids in North Africa. TheAbbasid caliphs of Baghdad were by now ineffectual prisoners in theirownpalacesunderthecommandofvariousTurkicdynastiesandtheShi‘iFatimidswerearealthreattothecontinuedexistenceofSunniIslamasapoliticalforce.‘Abd al-Rahman IIIwas a true patron of the arts and sciences, on the

same level as the earlier Abbasid al-Ma’mun and the later OttomanSuleimantheMagnificent.Over600librariesdottedCordoba,thecapital.Its largest library boasted a collection of over 400,000 books in amultitudeoflanguages.Shopswerenumerousinthecity,producinggoodsthatwerevaluedthroughoutEurope.Leather,silk,paper,woolandcrystalwereallproducedinCordobaandtradedthroughoutEuropeaswellastheMuslimworld. Itwas aworld-class city that served as a bridge betweenundeveloped,generallyilliterateEuropeandthegreatculturedcitiesoftheMuslimworld.IfaEuropeanwantedtobewell-educated,theywouldtraveltoal-Andalustobeinthepresenceofitsgreatscholarsandlibraries.Evenatenth-centuryleaderoftheCatholicChurch,PopeSylvesterII,studiedinal-Andalus in his youth, and was mesmerized by the scientificachievements of Muslim civilization. In later centuries, when the firstuniversitiesopenedupinItaly,FranceandEngland,muchoftheirlibrarieswere made up of Latin translations of the works in Cordoba’s library.MuslimSpainwasthemainthoroughfarethroughwhichtheaccumulatedknowledgeoftheMuslimworldmadeitswayintoEurope,helpingsparktheRenaissanceinthe1400s.Cordoba’s magnificence was not limited to its knowledge. ‘Abd al-

Rahman and earlier rulers of al-Andalus emphasized their power andwealth through elaborate and beautiful mosques and palaces, the bestexamplebeingtheGrandMosqueofCordoba.Originallybuiltby‘Abdal-Rahmanal-Dakhil,itwasexpandednumeroustimesinthe800sand900s,eventually becoming a vast building capable of holding thousands ofworshippers. Its trademark forest of columns topped by two levels ofarchesmade of alternating red and white stonemade it an architecturalmarvel that was rivaled in Europe only by the Hagia Sophia inConstantinople.Unlike the paintings and statues that abound inChristian

churches,calligraphyandgeometricdesignwerethemainformofartisticimpressionthroughoutthebuilding.VersesfromtheQuranwrittenintheangularkuficscriptofArabiccalligraphywrappedaroundthewallsofthemosque,invokingtheIslamicbeliefthattheQuranwasthehighestformofliterary expression and thus deserved to be in Islam’s most beautifulmosques.Architectural achievements alsooccurred in the secular realm,when ‘Abd al-Rahman III built a giant palace city outside of Cordoba.Madinat al-Zahra, the Beautiful City, was the Versailles of its time,captivatingvisitors fromdistantstateswhocameondiplomaticmissionsto al-Andalus’ capital. All this contributed to Cordoba’s nicknamethroughouttherestofEurope:TheOrnamentoftheWorld.Unfortunately for the people of al-Andalus, however, the beauty and

emphasis on knowledge in al-Andalus had some negative consequences.TheearlyenthusiasmforwarfarethatwasseenintherapidconquestofthepeninsulaandinvasionsintoFrankishterritorysubsidedascitizensbeganto live more comfortable lifestyles. The Cordoban rulers had troublerallyingmen from thecities and thecountryside to join imperial armiesdestined to battle the Christian kingdoms of the north. The Andalusianswerecontent,complacentandunwillingtoleavethecomfortoftheirlivesforthedefenseofMuslimSpain.Thelethargyofthepopulationcreptintotheupper-echelonsofpower.Bytheearlyeleventhcentury, thebattleforcontrolamongmembersoftheUmayyadfamilyandtheirsupporterswascommon. Rather than focus on external enemies, the elites aimed theireffortsateliminatingrivalfactionswithinCordoba.Groupscompetingforpowerwereall tooeagertoenlistChristiansfromthenorthandBerbersfrom Africa to support their causes. In 1009, Suleiman II overthrewanother member of the Umayyad clan with an army composed almostentirely of Castilians and Berbers by attacking Cordoba and declaringhimselfcaliph.This led toa reprisalattackonCordoba thenextyearbyanotherfactionandareprisalattackforthereprisalattackbySuleiman’ssupporters the year after that. The tolerant and stable society of tenth-centuryCordobawas quickly sinkingunder themudof power-strugglesandcivilwar.Throughoutthe1010sand1020s,al-Andalus’politicalunitydissolved into numerous competing states, with each state known as ata’ifa.

TheTaifaPeriodandBerberReformers

The Taifa Period of al-Andalus lasted for the majority of the eleventhcentury. The word ta’ifa (plural tawa’if) itself comes from the Quran,whichexhortsMuslimstomakepeacebetweentwocompetingtawa’if,orfactions, that come to blows. Yet peace was a rare luxury during thisperiod.EthnicrivalriesbetweenArab,BerberandIberianMuslimsbecamea focus of conflict as petty kings throughout the peninsula competed toreplacethefallenUmayyads.Citiesthathadoncebeenimportantpiecesofthe Umayyad state such as Cordoba, Seville, Toledo, Granada andZaragoza devolved into small, independent kingdoms constantly at war.Once-prosperous al-Andalus quickly fell into ruin as decades of warravagedthecountry.ContemporariessuchasIbnHazm,ajurist,historianand philosopher, mourned the destruction of country estates and quietvillagesbycompetingarmies.IfMuslimta’ifakingsfoughttogainpoweroveral-Andalus,theresult

was regrettably ironic for Islam in Iberia. The only victors of the TaifaPeriodweretheChristianstatesofthenorth.SincetheoriginalconquestofIberiaintheearly700s,thenorthernmostreachesofthepeninsulaeludedMuslim control. Small Christian states were established there in theaftermathoftheconquest,protectedbythemountainousterrain;theywereeasilykeptatbaywhenal-Andaluswasoneunitedpoliticalentity,butwhenit fractured into competing states, the Christian kings took advantage.Numerous Taifa kings enlisted the help of Christian armies in theirconflictsagainstfellowMuslims.Suchactionswouldhavescandalizedtheearly Muslim community and pious contemporaries, but for the Taifakings,powerandcontrolweremostimportant,regardlessofideology.Byinterferingininter-Muslimwarfare,ChristianstatessuchasCastile,Leonand Navarre managed to expand their own wealth and territory at theexpense of the Muslims. In one example, the Taifa of Toledo paid anenormoussumto theKingdomofNavarre to invadeZaragoza,which inturn paid Castile to raid the Toledo countryside, depopulating it andseizingmuchofitswealth.MuslimspaidChristianstoattackandweakenotherMuslimsin thisdarkchapterofal-Andalus’history.Theresultwasthe loss of huge tracts of land throughout thepeninsula and themilitaryand economic growth of Spain’s Christian states. The fall of Toledo in

1085toCastilewasanimportantsymbolicandstrategicloss.Locatedrightin the center of Iberia, its fall meant that Christian power could nowdirectlythreatenanyoftheTaifastates,eveninthefarsouth.ItwasonlyatthispointthattheTaifakingsrealizedtheycouldnotholdoutagainsttheChristian kings for long, and began to look to the rest of the Muslimworldforhelp.Thathelpcamein theformofapuritanmovementfromAfricaknownastheMurabitun.The Murabitun movement was founded in the desert landscape of

Morocco,alongthetraderoutesthatlinkedNorthAfricawiththewealthykingdoms of West Africa. The people there were Berbers who hadconvertedtoIslamduringthecenturiesaftertheMuslimconquestofNorthAfrica in the 600s. By the eleventh century, almost all theBerber tribeswere Muslim in name, but many held onto pre-Islamic beliefs andpractices.Thepre-Islamictribalallianceswereparticularlystrongandnotunlikethepre-IslamicArabtribalrivalriesoftheArabianPeninsula.OneBerber theologian, ‘Abdullah ibn Yasin, sought to bring Berber societymoreinlinewithtraditionalIslaminthemid-eleventhcentury.HenamedhismovementtheMurabitun,meaning“thosewhoholdfast”,alludingtoaversefromtheQuranrequiringthatMuslimsholdfasttothepathofAllah.SpanishandEnglishcorruptedthenameintotheAlmoravidDynasty—thenamebywhichtheyaremostknowntoday.Themovementwassimpleinessence, which added to its popularity. Ibn Yasin declared that theMurabitun have three main goals: promoting righteousness, forbiddinginjustice,andeliminatingun-Islamictaxes.

“Andiftwofactions[tawa’if]amongthebelieversshouldfight,thenmake settlement between the two. But if one of them oppresses theother, then fightagainst theone thatoppressesuntil it returns to theordinanceofAllah.”

–49:9

TheMurabitunmovement grew exponentially throughout the eleventhcentury,andnotbyconquest.Thebasicmessageandsimplelifestyleofthe

MurabitunwasattractivetotheBerbertribes.Itrecalledthesimplicityandstraightforwardness of the Prophet Muhammad’s original message.SimilartohowmanyArabsvoluntarilyacceptedIslaminseventhcenturyArabia, many Berber tribes voluntarily joined the Murabitunconfederation.Bythe1180s,themovementextendedfromNorthAfricatothewealthyterritoriesofGhanainWestAfrica.ItsrapidgrowthoutoftheSaharaDesertmeant itwas fundamentally different fromMuslim Spain.Whereas settled Muslim civilization had existed in al-Andalus forhundredsofyears,theMurabitunwereuntaintedbythewealthandluxuriesofcitylife.TheBerberwarriorsweretoughandreadytofight,aqualitythatdidnotgounnoticedbythepettyTaifakingsofal-Andalus.When the Christian Reconquista threatened the existence of Muslim

Spain,theTaifakingscalledontheMurabitunforhelp.LedbyAlfonsoVIofCastileinthelate1000s,theReconquistareachedthewallsofSeville,amajorcenterofpolitical Islam inSpain.Thus, theTaifakingofSeville,alongwithsomeoftheotherquarrelingMuslimleadersinIberia,sentfortheMurabitun in the nameofMuslimunity against a commonChristianenemy.In1086,theMurabitun,ledbyYusufibnTashfin,crossedtheStraitof Gibraltar with 12,000 soldiers. Ibn Ziyad crossed the same strait tobringIberiaunderMuslimcontrol375yearsearlier.Now,IbnTashfinwasdoingthesametoensureitremainedso,buthemadeitclearthiswasnotacampaign of conquest. Ibn Tashfin was coming at the request of theexistingkingsofal-AndalusandseemstohavehadnointerestinannexingtheregiontotheMurabitunEmpire.Thus,hisarmymetupwiththearmyofSevilleandclashedwithAlfonsoattheBattleofZallaqainOctoberof1086nearBadajoz.Theresultwasadecisivevictoryover theCastilians.AlfonsowasforcedtoretreatfromhisadvanceonMuslimlandsandforthe time being, what remained ofMuslim Spainwas safe. Although IbnTashfinhad theupperhand,hechosenot to followuphisvictorywithacampaign of conquest in the peninsula. Instead he retreated with themajority of his army back to North Africa, where the politicalcomplexitiesofal-Andalus’Taifaswereabsent.

Despite being a foreign minority ruling over al-Andalus, the

Murabitunwerewell-acceptedearlyintheirreign.Theirrelianceonlocal scholars of Islam as government officials and lower tax ratesledtowidespreadsupportfromthegeneralpopulation.

TheMurabitun could not stay out of the politics and conflicts to thenorth.Yusuf ibnTashfinwascalledback toal-Andalus in1088 to aid inanother campaign against Alfonso. Ostensibly, this was to be a unifiedMuslimforcebringingtogethervariousTaifasandtheMurabitun.ButibnTashfin’s experience on this expedition was less than uplifting. Thecampaign was constantly hampered by rivalries among the Taifa kings,whoregularlycomplainedto ibnTashfinabouteachotheranddistrustedanyonebut theirclosestsupporters.Thecampaignresultedinfailureandibn Tashfin returned a second time to Africa, determined not to getinvolvedinAndalusianpoliticsagain.TheinherentweaknessofTaifaal-Andalusandtherivalriesofthekings

meant that Alfonso VI would once again become a threat to thecontinuation of Islam in Iberia, and yet again, ibn Tashfin and theMurabitunwerecalledontosavetheday.Uponhisthirdentranceintoal-Andalus, ibn Tashfin came armed with a fatwa (religious ruling) fromnone other than Imam al-Ghazali, declaring that the Taifa kings werecorrupt, unfit to rule and should be removed from power. In 1090, theMurabitun conquest of al-Andalus commenced, with ibn Tashfinpersonally leading thecampaign toend theTaifaperiod.ThepettyTaifakingswerenotwilling togiveup their realms to theBerbers, and someeven pledged allegiance to Christian kingdoms in order to resist theMurabitun.SuchactionsonlyconfirmedthesuspicionsoftheAndalusiansand the Islamic scholars that the Taifa kings were concerned only withthemselvesandtheirpower,andnotwiththedefenseoftheMuslimworld.Popular uprisings in support of the Murabitun erupted throughout al-Andalusledbyscholarswhodemandedthereturnofpastglory.YusufibnTashfin’s takeoverof theMuslim territoriesofal-Andalus thusendedupbeing relatively bloodless. As Taifa kings were overthrown, they wereexiled one by one to North Africa, where their petty disputes could nolongercausedivision inal-Andalus.Within tenyears,all theTaifastates

hadcapitulatedtotheMurabitun,withtheexceptionofZaragoza,butevenits kingwaswise enough to acknowledge the superiority of theBerbersand signedanalliancewith them.Yusuf ibnTashfin,withanempire thatstretched3000kilometersfromal-AndalustoGhana,wasoneofthemostpowerfulpeopleintheworldattheendoftheeleventhcentury.TheAndalusianacceptanceofMurabituncontroloveral-Andalusmay

initially seem surprising. Nomadic Berber warriors with a strictinterpretationof Islamconquering and annexing an almost 400year-oldestablished and settled civilizationwould normally be resisted. But hereoneoftheuniquerepeatingthemesofIslamichistoryisseen:whenapartof the Muslim world is politically fractured, and external invasion isimminent,rallyingaroundoneleaderunderthebannerofMuslimunityisusuallytheonlypathtosafety.Theexampleofthisfar-westernoutpostofIslam was repeated in the unity of Egypt and Syria under Salah al-DinduringtheCrusadesandtheabsorptionoftheTurkishbeyliksinthe1300sby the Ottomans. For the Andalusians, BerberMuslim rulers with theirforeign culture, language, and ideas were more tolerable than theencroachmentoftheSpanishChristians,whoseemeddeterminedtostampoutIslamitselfintheIberianPeninsula.Addedtothis,thesimplemessageof theMurabitun—ofgettingback topure Islamas itwas intended tobepracticed—andremovingunfairlawsandtaxeswascertainlyattractivetotheAndalusians.Despitetheirpopularityandsuccessinal-Andalus, theMurabitunwere

not immune to the natural rise and fall of dynasties. Under Yusuf ibnTashfintheyhadexpandedgreatlytoabsorbmostoftheMuslimlandsofIberia into an intercontinental empire, but they failed to regain territorypreviouslylosttotheChristians.Toledo,theoncegreatMuslimcity,wasgoneforever,andtheChristiankingdomswereonlyhalted,notdestroyed.IbnTashfin’sson,‘Ali(r.1106–1143),lackedthedesertupbringingofhisfather, and although he seems to have been awell-intentioned leader, hedid not have the ability to expand the empire through warfare that hisfatherhad.When theMurabitunfirstenteredal-Andalusat theendof theeleventh century, their popularity stemmed from the fact that they werecapable of finally defeating the encroaching Christian armies. As themilitarymight of theMurabitun declined and Christians began to scoremajorvictoriesagainsttheMuslimsonceagaininthetwelfthcentury,their

purposeinal-Andaluswascalledintoquestion.RebellionevenbrokeoutinCordoba, theoldUmayyadcapital,where thepeoplewerefedupwiththeinaccessibleandforeignMurabitunwhoruledthecity.But the actual fall of theMurabitun would come from North Africa,

wheretheygotstarted.AnotherBerberMuslimreligiousmovementbegantogrowintheAtlasMountainsthattoweredovertheMurabituncapitalofMarrakesh. They called themselves the Muwahhidun, meaning themonotheists.Theleaderofthisnewmovement,IbnTumart,preachedthattheMurabitunhadstrayedfromthecorrectpracticeofIslamandthat theluxuries of al-Andalus had corrupted them and made them complacent.TheMuwahhidunMovement also took a very strong theological stance,arguing that religious innovations were rampant throughout al-Andalusand North Africa. Berber tribes that had previously supported theMurabitun switched allegiances and joined with the new Muwahhidunmovement throughout the 1120s and 1130s. In 1147, theywere powerfulenough to challenge the Murabitun in the open, descending from themountainstosuccessfullyattackMarrakesh.Withinayear,allofMoroccohadsuccumbedtotheMuwahhidun.The preoccupation of the Murabitun with the growing Muwahhidun

Movement in Africa led to al-Andalus being neglectedmilitarily by theMurabitun. That, coupled with the popular discontent of the Andalusianpopulation, led to the emergence of a second Taifa period, starting in1144.Onceagain,rivalfactionsaroseintheIberianPeninsula,allseekingtogainpowerattheexpenseofotherMuslimstates.Theonlywinnersinthis conflict were the Christian kingdoms which were able to takeadvantage and increase their own territories through war against theMuslims. The general population supported the overthrow ofMurabitunruleinal-Andalus,butdonotseemtohavebeenabletoprovideaviablealternative. They were still not willing to pick up arms and join jihadarmiesinanycase,solikeinthefirstTaifaPeriod,theTaifakingshadtorelyonmilitaryassistancefromChristiankingdoms,whichcameatacost.FollowinginthefootstepsofYusufibnTashfinandTariqibnZiyad,the

Muwahhidun,nowledbyIbnTumart’ssuccessor,‘Abdal-Mu’min,enteredal-Andalus in 1145, seeking to annex the territory just as the ChristianSpanishandPortuguesebegantoadvanceontheMuslimTaifas.Withinayear,MalagaandSevillewereannexed.By1150,CordobaandJaenwere

takenfromtheirTaifakings.Bythetime‘Abdal-Mu’mindiedin1163,allthat remained of Muslim Spain was part of the Muwahhidun Empire.Unfortunately for Spain’s Muslims, however, all that remained was thesouthernpartofthepeninsula.ThecentralplainsoftheIberianPeninsulaand the Eastern Coast were firmly under the control of the Christiankingdoms, ledbyCastile,Portugal, andAragon.Thegreatachievementsand empires built by Spanish Muslims during the Umayyad era werememories that could no longer be replicated. Itwas clear bynow to theAndalusians that the momentum on the peninsula was in favor of theChristiansandtheirmainprioritywouldnolongerbetobuildlargecitiesandadvanceknowledge,buttomerelysurviveinthefaceoftheChristianonslaught.ThearrivaloftheMuwahhidunspurredanIslamicrevival.Andalusians

refocused themselves on their practice of Islam. The emergence ofnumerousscholarsinthepeninsulaatthistimetestifiestothis.PerhapsthemostnotableamongthemwasibnRushd(1126–1198),knownasAverroesin the rest of Europe. Reminiscent of earlier Muslim scholars of theGolden Age, he was a polymath who wrote on subjects ranging fromphilosophytophysicstopsychology.Hismostlastingcontributionwashisworkinfiqh.AlthoughhewasafolloweroftheMalikischooloffiqh (asweremostNorthAfricansandAndalusians),heauthoredanencyclopediaof comparative fiqh, entitled The Distinguished Jurist’s Primer (BidayatAl-MujtahidWaNihayatAl-Muqtasid).Centurieslater,itcontinuestoliveon as one of the premier books of fiqh, detailing the differences ofopinion of the numerous schools of jurisprudencewithin Islam.MysticssuchasIbn‘ArabiandAbual-Hasanash-ShadhilialsoemergedduringtheMuwahhidun Dynasty. They sought to spiritually inspire Muslims toimprove their relationshipwithGod,nodoubtpartlyasa reaction to thebleakpoliticalclimateinal-AndalusandNorthAfrica.TheMuwahhidun largely followed the same pattern as theMurabitun.

TheybothemergedoutoftheharshdesertenvironmentofMorocco.Theybothsoughttofixwhattheysawassocialillsandpoliticalweaknessintheregion.TheybothhaltedtheChristianReconquistainIberia,andtheybothweakenedovertimeassuccessivegenerationslostthedriveandwillpowerthat their forefathers cultivated in the deserts of North Africa. TheMuwahhiduninal-Andalusdeclinedasfamilyconflictsoverpowercame

totheforefront.Thelatetwelfthcenturysawtheemergenceofcivilwarinal-Andalus,coupledwiththecontinuedadvanceoftheChristiankingdoms.This time,however,nonewBerberreligiousmovementemergedtotaketheirplace.

Granada

Astheyhadbeendoingforhundredsofyears,theChristiansofSpaintookadvantageofMuslimweaknessanddivision.PopeInnocentIIIevencalledfor a pan-European Crusade to attack the Muwahhidun, and in 1212,Spanish, Portuguese, French and English knights assembled near theSierraMorenamountainrangethatservedastheborderbetweenChristianandMuslimcontrolinIberia.LedbyAlfonsoVIIIofCastile,theCrusademadeitswaythroughapassinthemountainstoattackthemainbulkoftheMuwahhidunarmy.At theBattleofLasNavasdeTolosa,oral-‘Uqabasthe Muslims called it, the Muslim forces were totally decimated. Over100,000 casualties for the Muslims meant that the backbone ofMuwahhidunpowerinal-Andaluswasbroken.Thereasonsforthelossofthebattlearenotasimportantastheresults

ofthedisaster.WithnoabilitytoresisttheChristians,majorMuslimcitiesbegan to fall one by one. Between 1228 and 1248, Valencia, Seville,Badajoz, Majorca, Murcia, Jaen, and others all fell to the Christianonslaught. In1236,Cordoba fell to theCastilians.ThehistoriccapitalofearlyMuslimSpain,withitsmonumentalGreatMosque,libraries,palacesandgardenscouldnotresisttheCastilianarmy.ThemosquewasforciblyturnedintoaCatholiccathedral,withagiantchapelbuilt in thecenterofthe building.The layout of the building, its niche facingMecca, and theQuranicinscriptionsonthewallsallremained,surroundingtheChristianchapel, and ironically testifying to its history as a Muslim house ofworship.Later,asixteenth-centuryHolyRomanEmperorwoulddecryitsconversiontoacathedral,remarkingthatabuildingsouniquelybeautifulwasconvertedintosomethingordinaryandcommon.Butnotallofal-AndaluswaslostafterthefalloftheMuwahhidun.The

Emirate of Granada, along the southern coast of Iberia, remainedindependentofChristiancontrol.There,anArabdynasty,theNasrids,tookpowerandmanagedtoholdonfortwomorecenturies.Theytracedtheir

descent back to Banu Khazraj, one of the two tribes that welcomed theProphet inMedinaafterhewasexiledfromMecca in622.Similarly, theNasrids welcomed the followers of Muhammad who were exiled fromChristianIberia600yearsafterthehijra.ThehijraofMuhammadsignaledthebeginningofanewMuslimstateandaneweraofMuslimpowerintheArabianPeninsula.ThearrivalofMuslimsinGranada,however,signaledthebeginningoftheendofMuslimpowerintheIberianPeninsula.ItwasthelastremainingMuslimstateofal-Andalus.But the Nasrids of Granada were never truly independent. They only

managed to escape annexation by becoming a tributary state to Castile.After the fall of the Muwahhidun, the pattern of messy Taifa politics,whichpittedMuslimstatesagainstoneanotherinastruggleforsurvival,had reappeared. With such disunity, it was only because of Granada’sutilityintheeyesoftheCastiliansthattheymanagedtoescapeannexation.They promised military aid to the Castilians along with regular tributepaymentsofgold,whichcamefromtherichminesofMaliinWestAfrica.ThissystemcontinuouslystrengthenedtheSpanishChristiansofthenorthwhile reducing the relative power of the Muslim states throughout al-AndalusandNorthAfrica.Infact,theNasridsaidedsomeoftheChristianconquests of other Andalusian cities in the mid-thirteenth century.Furthermore,outsidersdominatedtheeconomyofGranada,asmerchantsfromthe rising Italiancity-statescontrolledexports toEurope.Two-waytradewiththerestoftheMuslimworldwasalmostnon-existent.EuropeanChristians were the only ones who benefitted as Granada’s resourcesslowlydriedup.Suchasystemwasobviouslynotsustainableforlong.EvenasIslamclungtothesouthernedgeofIberiaattheendofthelong

and tumultuous decline of al-Andalus, theMuslim tradition of grandeurandbeautyinarchitecturemanagedtoerectonelastmonumenttoMuslimSpain. TheAlhambrawas a fortification, located on a cliff overlookingthecityofGranadathathadbeeninuseasthecity’scitadelforhundredsofyears before the rise of the Nasrids. The emirs of Granada took toexpandingandbeautifyingthefortressasapalace,and,withtheinfluxofMuslimsfromtherestofal-Andalus,thepalaceperfectlyexemplifiestheentire artistichistoryofMuslimSpain.The famoushorseshoe archesofthe Umayyads and the geometric patterns of the Murabitun andMuwahhidun,alongwithnewGranadaninnovationsandSpanishChristian

architecture,combinedtocreateauniquecapstone.Thegardens,fountainsand porticos created an environment reminiscent of the great Muslimpalaces in fallen Andalusian cities like Cordoba and Seville. But theAlhambra was more than just a replica of earlier monuments: it alsocreatedanewstyleentirelythatwasinturnimitatedinbothEuropeandtheMuslim world. The Alcazar of Seville, built as a royal palace by theCastilianssoonaftertheAlhambra,directlycopiedthestyleoftheNasridpalace,includingitsgardens,courtyardsandarches.Schoolsandmosquesthroughout North Africa also drew inspiration from the Alhambra,leading to an architectural legacy that spans centuries. Perhaps themoststrikingfeatureof theAlhambra is themottoof theEmirateofGranada,whichisplasteredalloveritswalls:Walaghalibillallah,meaning“Andthere is no victor except God”. It was a fitting slogan for a state thatrepresented theonlyvestigeof theonce-greatMuslimcivilizationof al-Andalus. Even as enemy forces surrounded the vulnerable Granada, theslogan reminded the faithful of their belief in an Omnipotent God thatcannot be defeated, regardless of the political decline in the peninsula.Perhapsmostironicallywasthefact thatthesloganaboutGod’sultimatevictory remained on the walls of the palace, even as the victoriousChristiankingsoccupieditafterthefallofthecityin1492.EvenasGranadausheredinthefinalculturalgoldenageofal-Andalus,

itssurroundingpoliticalenvironmentweakeneditovertime,leadingtoitsultimatedemise.TheperennialthreattotheNasridsfromtheCastiliansinthe north remained a problem. The yearly tribute only strengthened theChristian nation while continuing to weaken Granada. Meanwhile, theBerberMarinidDynasty that ruledoverNorthAfrica also emerged as athreat,effectivelysurroundingGranadawithhostilestates.Despite theunfavorablesurroundings,Granadacouldhaveheldsteady

in the face of the Christian advance. It had a very strong defensiveposition,beingshieldedbymountainrangesandnumerousfortressesthatdotted its territory. It was because of this that the Emirate of Granadamanagedtoescapetheconquestthatbefelltherestofal-Andalus.YetitwasnotexternalinvasionthatbroughtaboutthefinalendofMuslimSpain,itwasinternaldisagreements.The1480swasadecadeofcourtintrigueandfamilyconflict,astheemirofGranada,Abul-Hassan,wasoverthrownandexiledbyhissonAbu‘AbdallahMuhammadXIIin1482.MuhammadXII

(whowasknownasBoabdilbytheSpaniards)wasdeclaredarebelagainstGod by the scholar class of Granada, and indeed his actions led to thecontinueddeclineofpoliticalIslamintheIberianPeninsula.Asheralliedarmiestofightagainsthisfather,theCastiliansdidnotlet

up their encroachment on Granada. Muslim disunity coupled withadvancedartilleryinthehandsoftheChristiansledtothequickcaptureofstrategically-important fortresses throughout Granadan territory. Just afewdecadesaftertheOttomansusedcannontoconquerConstantinoplein1453 and launch Islam into Eastern Europe, Christian armies used thesame technology to eliminate it from Western Europe. Furthermore,throughoutthehistoryofal-Andalus,wheneverthetideturnedinfavoroftheChristians,NorthAfricanMuslimswould ride to the rescue of theircoreligionists. But the late fifteenth century saw no such rescue. Civilunrest inNorthAfricameant therulerswerepreoccupiedwith theirownproblems, and Castilian diplomatic efforts effectively kept them out ofAndalusian affairs. The Mamluks of Egypt were called upon by theGranadans for help, but were only able to offer symbolic support.Granadahad to find away to hold off theChristianswhile dealingwithinternalcivilwarontheirown.Intheend,suchamomentoustaskprovedimpossible.Muhammad XII’s leadership only added to the woes of Granada; the

Castilians captured him in 1486, and during his captivity his father wasabletoretakethethrone.Afterbeingheldcaptiveforayear,Muhammadwas released upon his pledge of allegiance to the Christian state. Witharms and soldiers supplied by the Castilians, he managed to establishhimselfonceagain as the emirofGranada, leading to another roundofcivilwar,thistimeagainsthisuncle.HepromisedtostayoutoftheragingwarbetweentheCastiliansandhisuncle,duringwhichmostoftheEmirateofGranadawas conquered by theChristians.By 1490,Granadawas theonly Muslim-ruled city left in the Iberian Peninsula. At this point,MuhammadXII’salliancewithCastilewasirrelevant.ThefamousCatholicMonarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, united the kingdoms of Castile andAragon, paving the way for modern Spain. They had no interest inallowingGranadatocontinueasanindependentMuslimcityinthemidstofaunitedChristianSpain,despitetheirpastaidofMuhammadXII.In1490and1491,duringtheleaduptothefallofGranada,theSpanish

slowlyclosedinonthelonecity.Resourceswerecutoff,refugeesfloodedthecity,andasenseofdespairpermeatedthepopulation.Onitsown,andwithnohelpcomingfromtheMuslimsofNorthAfrica,itwasimpossiblefor Granada to hold out against the numerically and technologicallysuperiorSpanish,andMuhammadXIIknewit.On25November1491,hesenthisviziertonegotiatetermsofsurrenderwiththeCatholicMonarchs.On1January1492,thecityofGranadawasofficiallyhandedovertotheSpanish.MuhammadXIIhandedoverthekeystothecityandtheAlhambratotheconquerorsearlythatmorning,sothatwhentheresidentsofthecityawoke, they saw that the flags declaring “And there is no victor exceptGod” that flewover theAlhambrawere lowered for the last time as theCastilian flag took their place. To the Christians, it was the joyousfulfillment of a centuries-long struggle to make the Iberian PeninsulaChristian.TotheMuslims,itwastheendofalongandimportantchapterofIslamichistory,onethatsawsomeofthemostenlightened,wealthy,andpowerfulstates theworldhadeverseen.For thevanquishedemir,whosepoliticalincompetencedirectlyledtothelossofthelastbitofal-Andalus,exileawaitedhim.Legendhasitthatonhiswayoutofthecity,helookedback at it one last time and began to cry. His mother reproached him,utteringthefamousline,“Donotcrylikeawomanforwhatyoucouldnotdefendasaman.”

TheMoriscos

Thepoliticalhistoryofal-Andalusendedin1492.Butthatwasnottheendof Spain’s Muslim population. There were still between 500,000 and600,000Muslims(outofatotalpopulationof7–8million)throughouttheIberianPeninsula,withmostofthemintheformerEmirateofGranada.Itwouldnothavebeenpossible for theCatholicMonarchs toexpel suchalarge portion of Spain’s population immediately. Many territoriesthroughouttheIberianPeninsulastillreliedontheirMuslimpopulationtorunthelocaleconomies.Furthermore,theSpanishdidnothavethehumancapital to immediately fill up depopulated cities. Instead, Ferdinand andIsabellainitiallyadoptedatolerantapproachtotheMuslimminority.TheMuslims thus lost some social standing now that the rulerswere not oftheirsamereligion,buttheyweregivenfreedomtocontinuetoworshipas

theypleasedundertheSpanishmonarchy.

In1492, theSpanishgovernmentexpelledallJewsfromtheir lands.Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II ordered his military and governors towelcome any Jewish refugees from Spain. A sizeable JewishcommunitydescendedfromtheseSpanishJewsremainedinIstanbuluntilthetwentiethcentury.

That does not mean that the Christians did not attempt to convert theMuslims to Christianity. Any Muslim that voluntarily chose to convertwouldbeshoweredwithgifts,gold,horsesandothervaluables.Thisledtoa number ofMuslim conversions to Christianity in the years following1492.TothesurpriseanddisheartenmentoftheChristians,aftercollectingtheir gifts, most of those “converts” would be found soon afterwardsworshipping in mosques and reading the Quran again. With Muslimstaking advantage of the incentives offered to them and not sincerelyconverting to Christianity, the Catholic Church decided to take a morehardlineapproach.FranciscoJiménezdeCisneros,aCatholicarchbishop,wasappointedin1499tospeeduptheconversionprocessbyharassmentofSpain’sMuslims,persecutionandarbitraryimprisonmentofthosewhochose not to convert. In his own words, he declared, “if the infidelscouldn’tbeattractedtotheroadtosalvation,theyhadtobedraggedtoit.”The result was an expected rebellion by Spain’s Muslims against theoppression. The Muslims of Granada, who had endured eight years ofChristian rule but would not endure oppression by the new archbishop,barricadedthenarrowstreetsofGranadaanddeclaredtheirdefiancetotheeffortsofdeCisneros.The revolt gave the Catholic Monarchs the excuse they needed to

admonishSpain’sMuslimcommunity.TheMuslimrebelsweregiventwooptions:thedeathpenaltyorconversiontoChristianity,whichwouldleadto an official pardon. Pragmatic as ever, Granada’s Muslims choseconversion, and a huge wave of baptisms in the predominantlyMuslimcitycommenced.Furtherrebellionsflaredinthesurroundingcountryside,

but themorepowerfulSpaniards eventuallyput themdownwithin a fewyears. By 1502,when the rebellionswere over, theChristian authoritieschose to outlaw Islam throughout Spain. All Muslims were given theoptiontoconvert,leaveSpainordie.LikethepeopleofGranada,Muslimsthroughout Spain chose conversion, and soon, the Catholic MonarchscouldboastthattheyhadconvertedanentirenationtoChristianitywithinafewyears.The reality,however,was that Islamcontinued to liveon inSpain,but

underground.Thesupposedly formerMuslims,knownby theSpanishasMoriscos, professed Christianity to avoid continued persecution, whilecontinuing to live as Muslims in the privacy of their own homes. TheSpanishauthorities,perhapssuspectingthattheMoriscoswerenotsincereintheirconversiontoChristianity,institutednumerouslaws,aspartoftheSpanishInquisition,throughouttheearly1500sto“cleanse”theMoriscosof their Islamic past. Butchering animals according to Islamic law wasbannedin1511byroyaldecree.Womenwerebannedfromcoveringtheirfaces in 1513. Muslim-style clothing in general was banned in 1523.Furthermore,Moriscoswerebannedfromusingbathhousesorclosingthedoors to their homes on Fridays in an effort to ensure that no onewassecretlypracticingIslam.Weddingshadtobeattendedby“OldChristians”to ensure that Islamic nuptials were not being practiced. In 1526, evenspeaking Arabic was outlawed, and Moriscos were forced to speakCastilian at all times, including when at home. These efforts to rid theMoriscos of both their religious and cultural heritage only pushed themfurther underground and caused them to clingmore vigorously to theirbeliefs.Overall,theInquisitionfailedtoremoveIslamfromtheheartsofmost

Moriscos; instead, it forced them to be more creative about how theyworked around the laws. Numerous Muslim scholars wrote fatwas,allowing Muslims to practice their religion in nontraditional ways toavoiddetectionbyauthorities.Forexample,thefamous1502fatwabythemuftiofOran,inpresent-dayAlgeria,allowedMuslimstoperformritualcleansingbeforeprayerwithoutwaterbytouchingacleanwall,toprayatnight instead of five times a day, and to eat pork if forced. Religiousinstruction was restricted to the home, as mosques and schools wereclosed or converted to Christian churches. But the Arabic language

survivedbehindcloseddoors,asparentsmadesuretoteachtheirchildrenIslamic rites and verses of the Quran. Moriscos with Christian nameswouldgotochurchonSundays,worshipaccordingtoCatholicrites,thencome home, be referred to by their secret Muslim names and read theQuranandprayaccordingtotheIslamicfashion.ThekingsofSpainwereneverfullyignorantofthesecretbeliefsofthe

Moriscos.Evenonehundredyears after the conquestofGranada, itwascleartotheSpanishmonarchyandtheCatholicChurchthattheattemptstoconvert the Moriscos to Christianity were failing. More and moreMoriscos continued to be caught in the middle of Islamic acts by theInquisition,andthepunishmentsdoledout to thosecaughtdidnothing todeter others. King Philip III, heavily influenced by hardline Catholicpriests, decided in April 1609 to expel all the Moriscos left in Spain.DespiteprotestsfromaristocratsthroughoutSpain,whosawtheexpulsiontheMoriscosasdetrimental to theeconomy, theroyaldecree tookeffectlaterthatyear.Entire Morisco villages were depopulated, with their citizens being

forcedtothecoastwhereshipsfromalloverEuropewaitedtotakethemtoNorthAfrica.TheMoriscoswereallowedtotakewhatever theycouldcarrywiththem,buttheSpanishconfiscatedtheirproperty.Childrenundertheageoffourwereexemptfromtheexpulsion,andweretakenfromtheirfamilies toberaisedasChristians. In thesouthofSpain, rebellionsonceagain arose. The expulsion meant that Moriscos who had beenmasqueradingasChristianshadnothingtolosebycomingoutasMuslimsandleadingonefinaldefenseofIslaminthepeninsula.Forthefirsttimein over one hundred years, the Muslim call to prayer rang out in thevalleysandhillsofSpain.Publiccommunalprayer,unseensincetheyearsafter the fall of Granada, was once again convened. The glory days ofIslam in Spain were long gone, but the rebels, despite being quicklydefeatedbytheSpanish,managedtorevivethememoryofal-Andalusandits800-yearhistoryone last time.By1614, theMoriscoswere all gone,and the rebellionsallputdown. Islamwasgone fromSpain.TherewerereportsthatsomeMoriscoshadmanagedtosomehowstayinthecountry,and continued practicing Islam in secret for centuries.But this truncatedMuslim community was nothing more than a shadow of al-Andalus.DespiteitscontributionstothehistoryoftheIberianPeninsulaandtherest

ofEurope,IslamwasabsentfromSpain.ButasIslamfellinthiswesternoutpost, itwasjuststartingtoberevivedintheEast,wheretheOttomanswouldre-introduceIslamtoEuropeandpresideoveranewgoldenage.

8

THEEDGE

Far too often, the “Muslimworld” is thought of as theMiddle East andnothingbeyondit.IslamofcoursebeganintheArabianPeninsulaandsawitsgreatestempires rise in theregionbetween theNileandOxusRivers.But by only focusing on this region, some of the richest history of theMuslimworld isneglected. It is in the furthest reachesof Islam, inSub-SaharanAfrica,ChinaandinSoutheastAsiathattherelationshipbetweenIslamtherestoftheworldcanbeseeninallitscomplexity.

WestAfrica

WhenIslamarrived inNorthAfrica in thedecadesafter thedeathof theProphet, it generally clung to the coast. Much like the Romans andByzantines before them, the Muslims chose to settle in cities along theMediterraneancoastlineforpracticalreasons,includingtheconnectiontoMediterraneanshippingand the fact that further inland theSaharaDesertprevented anymajor settled civilizations from thriving. The civilizationthat flourished in North African cities such as Qayrawan, Tripoli andTangierwasamixofArabandBerberinfluences,broughttogetherunderthebannerof Islamandclosely connected toMuslimcivilizations in theMiddleEastandal-Andalus.FromthisurbanhubalongtheMediterraneancoast,Islamslowlybegan

to diffuse southward across the Sahara Desert. In West Africa, thelandscapeisdominatedby theSavannahandtheNigerRiver.SustainablesettledcommunitiesaredifficultintherollinggrasslandsthatevolveintotheSaharaDesertnorthoftheriver,aswellasinthedenseforeststothesouth. As a result, most West African kingdoms, before and after thearrivalofIslam,tendedtoclusteraroundtheNigerRiver,particularlytheinland delta that provided rich farmland. A nomadic group of MuslimBerbers, the Tuareg, dominated the trade routes that led from NorthAfrican cities, across the desert wasteland, and into the West AfricanSavannah.The kingdoms that developed in this region relied heavily on

the trans-Sahara trade,whichprovided amarket for their goods, chieflygoldandsalt.That same trade broughtmore than justwealth toWestAfrica, it also

brought Islam. Muslim merchants who made the trek across the desertbegan to settle in West Africa, and by the eleventh century, immigrantMuslimcommunitiescouldbefoundinmanycitiesandtownsacrosstheSavannah.SincethebulkoftheMuslimsinWestAfricawerebusinessmenand notmissionaries, Islam spread slowly among the local populations.WestAfricanswouldcommonlyconverttoIslamandyetholdontopre-Islamic beliefs in spirits and sorcerers for generations.Unlike inNorthAfrica,whereIslamcameinasastrongpoliticalforceallatonce,IslaminWestAfricaslowlydiffusedintothelocalculture,acceptingnewMuslimswithout requiring them to adhere to all Islamicbeliefs immediately.Theonly exception to this was theMurabitunmovement, whichmanaged toconquerlandinWestAfricaforabriefdecadeintheeleventhcentury,butdoesn’tseemtohavehadalastingimpact.The first native Muslim kingdom of West Africa was Mali. It was

foundedinthe1200sbythemythicalcharacterSundiataKeita,apartiallyIslamizedruleroftheMandinkapeople.NicknamedtheLionKing,hewassaid to have been exiled by an evil ruler, rallied support among theMandinkapeoplewhileinexile,camebacktotakehisrightfulthrone,andtookthetitleMansa,MandinkaforKingofKings.Thedetailsofthestoryhaveprobablybeenblurred throughgenerationsof oral storytellers, butwhat is known for sure is that the empire that Sundiata founded inWestAfrica in the Inner Niger Delta region soon grew to be one of thewealthiestandmostpowerfulstatesoftheage.ThewealthofMaliisbestseeninthereignofMansaMusa,whoruled

from 1312 to 1337. After taking power when his brother, the formermansasailedwestacrosstheAtlanticinsearchofnewlands,MansaMusatookholdofwhatwasprobablyoneof thewealthiestandmostpowerfulMuslim empires of the day.While theMiddle Eastwas dealingwith theconsequencesof theMongol invasionandal-Andaluswasreduced to theEmirateofGranada,MaliroseintheSavannahsouthoftheSaharaDeserttobecomethepremierMuslimpoliticalentity.YetitwasfarawayfromtheeyesoftherestoftheMuslimworld,whichwasrelativelyunawareofthisdistantMuslim state. Most of what we know aboutMali from this time

comes from accounts ofMansaMusa’s epic 1324 hajj toMecca, whichserved to showcase Mali’s wealth and power to the rest of the Muslimworld.MansaMusa’shajjcaravandeparted theWestAfricaSavannahwithan

entourageofover60,000people.Thekingwas accompaniedby12,000,eachdressed in valuable silk robes and carrying twokilogramsof goldextracted fromMali’s famous gold mines. Camels also carried bags ofgold dust,whichwas distributed to the poor along the route.Numeroustownsandcitiesalongtheroutemarveledatthegrandprocessioncomingfrom the unknown West African kingdom. When Mansa Musa reachedEgypt, which was then ruled by the Mamluk Dynasty, Mansa Musa leftquiteanimpressiononthelocalMamlukofficials.Theyrecordedthathewas exceptionally devout, nevermissing a prayer andwith amastery oftheQuran.InEgypt,Musawassaidtohavegivenoutsomuchgoldtothecities’locals,thatunintendedinflationwreckedtheeconomy,andwhenthefamousNorthAfricantravelerIbnBattutavisitedEgypttenyearslater,henoticed that the local economy had still not recovered from the giantinfluxofthevaluablemetal.PerhapsmoreremarkablethanhisjourneytoMeccawasMansaMusa’s

returntoMali.GiventhatMaliwasstillinthemiddleofalongprocessofIslamization and local indigenous beliefs still mixed with Islamicorthodoxy, Mansa Musa saw a need for more qualified Islamicscholarship.Usinghisconsiderablewealthasa toolfor theadvancementof Mali, he paid for some of the best scholars, teachers and artists toaccompanyhimbacktoWestAfrica.Arabs,PersiansandAndalusiansallcame toMaliwithMansaMusa in the1320s,creatinganAfricansocietywithclearinfluencesfromtherestoftheMuslimworld.Furthermore,thehugeinfluxofscholarshelpedcatapultMalitotheforefrontofknowledge.Halfacenturyafter theMongoldisaster thatdestroyedBaghdad’sHouseofWisdom,anewhubofscholarshiparoseintheWestAfricanSavannah.

Intheearly1400s,ascholaroffiqhfromtheHijaz,‘Abdal-Rahmanal-Tamimi, traveled to Timbuktu only to realize that the level ofscholarshipwassohightherethathewouldhavetogotoFezfirstto

takeprerequisitecoursesbeforehecouldstudywithMali’sscholars.

ThecenterofMali’sknowledgewasTimbuktu.AbouttwentykilometersnorthoftheNigerRiver,TimbuktuliesontheedgeoftheSaharaDesertandwas amajor stop along the trans-Sahara trade. It cameunderMali’scontrolduringthereignofMansaMusa,andimmediatelybenefittedfromhis importation of scholars. Libraries,mosques, and universities sprungupalloverTimbuktu,givingthecityadistinctlyIslamiccharacter.OneofthepeopleMusabroughtbackwithhimtoMali, theAndalusianarchitectAbuIshaq,wascommissionedbythesovereigntobuildpalaces,mosquesand schools throughout Timbuktu in the hope that it could rival other,older urban Islamic centers.Musa also sent scholars fromMali north tothemore established educational institutes inMorocco to be educated inadvanced concepts in Islam so that they could come back and serve theMaliancommunityinTimbuktu.BothMaliandtheSonghaiEmpire,whichreplaced Mali in the late 1400s, granted special benefits to Islamicscholars,commonlygivingthemtractsof landandchartersofprivilege.Through the importation of scholars from the Arab world and theintellectual growth of the native African community of Timbuktu, itbecameoneoftheleadingcentersofIslamicknowledgeintheworldatatimewhenMuslimcivilizationwasonthedeclineinitstraditionalcenters.

EastAfrica

TheEastAfricancoastdidnothave towait long tobeexposed to Islam.Before Muhammad undertook his hijra to Medina, a group of hisCompanionsescapedMeccanpersecutionandsettled inAksum(modern-day Ethiopia) for a few years, where a Christian king welcomed them.ImmigrationalsowentintheoppositedirectionandBilal,aCompanionoftheProphetwhowouldcommonlyrecitethecalltoprayerinMedina,wasa former slave from Ethiopia. This was not strange considering thatbefore Islam arrived in the seventh century, trade links between theEastAfricanCoastandtheArabianPeninsulaalreadyexisted.AshadoccurredinWestAfrica,itwasthroughtraderoutesthatIslamwouldspreadalong

theIndianOceancoastofAfrica.

In the early nineteenth century, a Muslim slave in America, BilaliMuhammad, wrote a thirteen-page manuscript about Islamic lawbasedonWestAfrica’seducationalcurriculumtoteachfellowslavesonhisplantation.

Merchants from the Arabian Peninsula, in particular the region ofHadramawtinYemen,begantosettleincitiesalongtheEastAfricanCoastin the centuries following Yemen’s conversion to Islam. The earliestartifactsattestingtoIslam’spresenceinEastAfricadatefromthelate700sand early 800s. Evidence shows that Islam was incorporated into EastAfricanlifefirstinthenorthernmostpartsofthecoast,whichwerenearesttoArabia.Mosquesdatingfromthe tenthcenturyhavebeenexcavated inKenya, about 2500 kilometers south of the birthplace of Islam. By thethirteenth century, Islam had taken root even further along the coast inwhat is now Tanzania. Themain avenue throughwhich Islam spread inEastAfricawascommerce.AsarichIndianOceantradedeveloped,EastAfrican city-states welcomed Muslim merchants. It was through theseareasthatIslamdiffusedintothecoastalregion.The pattern of conversion along the coast is unique in the Muslim

world. East Africa was distant enough that no large-scale populationmovements occurred, yet accessible enough that a sizeable number oftraders were able to regularly visit the coast, and in some casespermanentlyrelocate.Wealthymerchantswhosettledinthecitiesalongthecoast intermarriedwith localAfricanwomen, assimilating into the localculture,butwiththeadditionofIslam.Thesewerenotsettlercommunitiesof Arabs and Persians who dominated the local Africans. This was agenuine intermixing of cultures that led to the development of a newhybridculture,withIslamatitsheart.Swahili,aBantulanguagenativetoEastAfrica,became the linguafrancaof thecoastal regionasmerchantstravelled from city to city, tying the region together culturally andlinguistically.BecauseofvisitingArabmerchants,Swahiliadoptedmany

Arabic loanwords,butat itscore, it remainedanativeAfrican language.Similarly,AfricansintheportcitiesadoptedaspectsofArabandPersianculture.Ashasbeenseeninallpartsof theworldthatadoptedIslam,thearrivalof thenew religiondidnotmean theeliminationof thepreviouscultureandtraditions.AsthelocalpopulationsadoptedIslam,powerfulMuslimtradingstates

developed along the Swahili coast. Themost reliable information aboutthem comes from the same Ibn Batutta who visited West Africa in thefourteenthcentury.Accordingtohim,thesecity-statesalongthecoastwerenotjustcommercialcenters,butalsoreligiousones.IbnBatuttacommentsthat the sultanofMogadishu (inpresent-daySomalia)would relyonhisreligiousadvisors,thechiefofwhomwasbroughtfromEgypt,intheday-to-dayaffairsofhisstate. InKilwaandMombassa,heremarksabout thereligiouszealof theirpeoplesand the large,well-keptmosques in thosecities.He is especiallypraisefulof theSultanofKilwa,whowouldgivespecialtreatmenttoreligiousscholarsanddescendantsoftheProphet,andregularlyatemealswiththecity’spoor.BesidesanecdotesabouttheIslamiccharacteroftheEastAfricancoast,

itisimportanttorecognizetheassimilationofIslamintothelivesof theSwahili. Islamwasnotseenasanoutsider religion imposedon the localAfricans by Arab and Persian immigrants; Islam was seen as a nativeAfricanreligion.StoriesoftheAfricanCompanionoftheProphet,Bilal,and thepresenceofMuslim refugees inAbyssiniawere important to thelocals as they created a sense of identity that was entirely Islamic andentirely African. There were external cultural influences, chiefly fromsouthernArabia,PersiaandIndia,broughtbytradersfromthoseregions.Butmuch likeotherparts of theMuslimworld, a culturedeveloped thatwas based on the pre-Islamic character of the region,modified to fit inwithIslamiclaw,butnotabsentofinfluencesfromthevarietyofpeoples,alltiedtogetherbycommonfaith.

AfricanSlaveryandtheAmericas

The Islamization of Africa would lead to the eventual spread of Islamacross theAtlanticOcean inNorth and SouthAmerica.Once the era ofEuropean colonizationof theNewWorldbeganwithColumbus’voyage

across the Atlantic in 1492, a pressing need for labor developed inEurope’s American colonies. The original plan of enslaving NativeAmericans proved inefficient. Native Americans were decimated byEuropean-introduceddiseasesanddiedbythemillionsintheearlydecadesof the 1500s. European colonists looking for a better solution lookedsouth to Sub-Saharan Africa and its black population for slave labor.European slave-traders arrived at ports along the West African coastlookingtobuyslavesbythehundreds.TheydealtwithlocalAfricankingswhowouldcapturefellowAfricansinwarandsellthemtotheEuropeansinexchangeformoreweaponsthatcouldbeusedtocapturemoreslaves.This destructive cycle led to the complete political destruction of theregion and the depopulation of large areas ofWest and Central Africa,whose peoples were forcibly taken across the Atlantic in inhumaneconditionstoworkasslavesintheNewWorld.Ofcourse,largepartsofBlackAfricahadacceptedIslambythe1500s,

and a significant number of the slaves taken toAmericawereMuslims.Estimates vary, but of the 15–20 million Africans brought to Americathrough the slave trade, between three and six million may have beenMuslims. Their experience in America was one of humiliation andsubjugationtoEuropeancolonists.Therewereusuallynolawsregulatinghowslavescouldbe treated,soslaveownerswerefree tobeat,abuseorkill their slaves however they saw fit. Slaves generally worked onplantations in the American South, the Caribbean and South America,unprotectedfromtheelementsandforcedtoworklonghours.Whippingsandotherformsoftorturewerecommonpunishmentforslaveswhodidnotworkup theexpectationsof theowners,ordefiedorders.Furtheringthehumiliationoftheslavepopulation,itwasnotuncommonforaslavetobegivenjustonesetofcoarse, tatteredclothing,orevenbeforcedtoworkentirelynaked.While all slaves sufferedat thehandsof slaveownerswho refused to

see them as equals, Muslim slaves experienced unique difficulties.Breakingfromworkfivetimesadayforprayerwasrarelypossible,andtravelling toMecca to perform the hajj was totally out of the question.Furthermore, avenues to learnmore about Islamwere few. Some slaveswhoalreadyhadtheQuranmemorizedbeforetheircaptivitywereabletorevisetheirmemorizationandteachsomepartsoftheQurantoothers,but

noeducational institutions existedwhich couldhelppreserve the Islamictradition. Thus, as the generations went on during the sixteenth throughnineteenth centuries, the knowledge of Islam amongMuslim slaves andtheir descendants slowly decreased.Attempts to secure importedQuransfromEurope,boughtwithmoneymadedoingextrawork,helpedslowthedeclineofIslamicknowledge,butitwasnosubstituteforthegreatcentersofIslamiclearningofWestAfrica.

In the1800s inRiode Janeiro, therewas suchahighdemand fromMuslim slaves in Brazil for Arabic Qurans that one booksellerimported over 100Qurans per year to sell to the local slaves. Theslaveswouldspendyearsdoingextraworktopayforthem.

African Muslim slaves also had benefits that other slaves did not.UniqueamongtheslavepopulationintheAmericas,Muslimslavestendedtobeverywell educated, in somecasesmore so than their owners.ThetraditionofemphasisoneducationamongMuslimsingeneralandinWestAfrica specifically led to a class ofMuslim slaves in theAmericaswhowere literate,unlikemostnon-MuslimslavesandevenEuropeans.Whilein some cases their higher level of education gave Muslim slaves theopportunity to do less demanding work such as accounting andmanagementforplantations,italsogavethemtheabilitytoorganizeandleadrevolts.AnotableexampleoccurredintheBrazilianstateofBahiain1835.Muslimscholarswhohadbeen taken toBrazilasslavesused theirknowledgeandpositionsofleadershipinthesizeableMuslimcommunityof Salvador to plan an organized rebellion against their masters. Noteswritten in Arabic were passed among slaves, detailing the plan and itsobjectives.The revolt,which involved about 300 slaves, ended up beingunsuccessful asBrazilian soldiers brutally put down the activities of theMuslim slaves. But it did instill enough fear of Muslim slaves amongBraziliansthatmanyMuslimsthroughoutBrazilweresentbacktoAfricainhopesofavoidinganotherrevolt.Thecenturiesof servitude inflictedonMuslim slaves in theAmericas

wasnotwithoutconsequence.ThroughoutIslamichistory,regionsdistantfromtheArabianPeninsulaalmostalwayshadsomekindofintellectualoreconomic connectionwith the birthplace and central areas of Islam. ForMuslims in theAmericas before themodern era, however, being so farremovedfromtherestofMuslimworldgeographicallyandintellectuallymeant the eventual disintegration of that Muslim community. Eachsuccessive generation inherited less and less of the original Islamicknowledgeandpractice that the firstgenerationslaveshad. In theUnitedStates, by the mid-1800s, there were almost no Muslims left who hadknowledgeofIslam,andbythe1900s,onlyafewgrandchildrenofslavescould recall their ancestors practicing foreign rites different from themainstream Christianity of most African Americans. A revival of thememory of Islam among the descendants of slaves came about in thetwentieth century, however. The Nation of Islam, a syncretic religionbringing together Christian and Islamic rites and beliefs formed as aracial-religious organization aimed at the advancement of America’sblack community. By the 1960s, however, former Nation of Islammembers such as Malcolm X and W.D. Muhammad led thousands ofAfricanAmericansawayfromtheNationandbacktoamoremainstreamunderstandingofIslam,onethathadbeenslowlyerasedfromthelivesoftheirancestorscenturiesearlier.

China

AftertheestablishmentofIslamduringthe600sand700sintheregionthatstretchedfromSpaintoIndia,variousculturesbeyondthebordersoftheIslamic empire slowly adopted Islam and eventually became Muslim-majorityregions.ExamplesincludeEastandWestAfrica,CentralAsiaandSoutheast Asia. Islam also slowly spread into China at around the sametime. Unlike those other regions, however, China never wholly adoptedIslam, and the Muslim community remained a minority. Despite this,MuslimsplayedanintegralpartinChinesehistoryforcenturies.Islam’soriginsdateback to the caliphateof ‘Uthmanbin ‘Affan,who

sent another early convert to Islam, Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas, as anambassador to theTangDynastyofChinaaround theyear650.Muslimswere capable of reaching out to the distant Far East just decades after

Muhammadledthemeteoricriseofthereligioninthe600s.Butitwasnotuntilthe700swhenapermanentMuslimpresencewasfeltinChina.Itwasinthe750swhenMuslimsoldierswereinvitedbytheTanggovernmenttoserveintheChinesemilitary.GroupsofMuslimwarriorsmadethetrektoChina, and joined themilitary and bureaucratic structure of theChinesegovernment. Encouraged to intermarry with local women and settlepermanentlyinChinesecities,MuslimsfoundastableandprosperousroleinChinesesociety.GovernmentandmilitaryworksoonbecamethenichethatMuslimsoccupied.MuslimpursuitofcareersinthosefieldscontinuesinChinatothisday.Despite their role in the upper echelons of Chinese society, there

remained many barriers between Muslims in China and native Chinesepeople. The eastern religions popular in China, namely Buddhism andConfucianism,areaworldapartfromIslam.WhileMuslimsinChristianareas furtherwest in theMuslimworld could relate to others through asharedhistoryaboutAbraham,MosesandJesus,theMuslimsinChinahadno such luxury.Thus,Muslim communities tended to be separated frommainstream society. Special enclaves developed that keptMuslims apartfromotherChinese,buttheyalsoservedasportalsofIslamicknowledgethat connected Chinese Muslims with their distant coreligionists in theArabandPersian lands.Throughsuch isolatedcommunities in themidstofChinese cities,Muslimswere able to retain their Islamic identity andpracticeseventhousandsofkilometersawayfromtherestoftheMuslimworld.But that isolation would end during the Mongol conquests of the

thirteenth century. The Mongols’ vast empire included Muslim lands inCentralAsiaandPersiaalongwithChina.Thedestructionofentirecitiesand regions in the Middle East meant the wholescale movement ofpopulations.WithpoliticalunitylinkingtheheartlandoftheMuslimworldwithMuslimcommunitiesinChina,anewavenueforcontactbetweenthetwo regions opened up. Furthermore, massmigrations byMuslims intoChina meant a huge boost to the Chinese Muslim population. Just asimportant was the Mongol policy of assimilating Muslims intomainstream Chinese culture. Muslim communities no longer served asisolated enclaves surrounded by non-Muslims. They were insteadencouraged to takeonmorepublic roles in society, andwere especially

usefulasadministratorsinaMongolEmpirethatencompassedMuslimsinitseasternandwesternends.

In the 1300s, the Hongwu Emperor wrote the “Hundred-wordEulogy”,whichpraisedthecharacteristicsoftheProphetMuhammad.CopiesofitweredistributedtomosquesthroughoutChina.

During Mongol rule over China and the succeeding Ming Dynasty,ChineseMuslimsbecamefullyassimilatedintoChineseculture.Theywerenolongerseenasforeigners,butratherasChinesecountrymenwiththeirown identity—Hui. The Hui were no different from the Han, China’smajority ethnic group, other than when it came to religious identity.FinallyconsideredtobefullyapartofChinesesocietyafterlivinginthecountry for hundreds of years, Muslims in Ming China were able toassimilate into the local culture, adopting Chinese customs and evennames, all the while continuing their tradition of serving the imperialgovernmentascivilservantsandmilitaryleaders.Itwasduring this time thatperhaps themost famousChineseMuslim,

ZhengHe(1371–1433),becameoneofChina’sgreatestexplorers.AHuifromtheYunnanregioninthesouth,ZhengHewasfavoredbytheMinggovernment and was given command of a fleet of treasure ships.Commandinghundredsofships,somelargeenoughtocarryall threeofColumbus’shipsalone,andtensofthousandsofsailors,hewasgiventheresponsibility of trading with distant lands and establishing diplomaticrelations between themandMingChina.His voyages toucheddozens ofmodern-daycountries throughoutAsia, theMiddleEastandevenAfrica,butheisperhapsmostfondlyrememberedinSoutheastAsia,whereheisrevered as a figurewho helped spread Islam in theMalayArchipelago.Mosquesthroughouttheregionarenamedafterthefamedadmiral,knownlocallyasChengHo.ButZhengHemanagedtocrossoverfrombeingjusta notable Muslim figure to one who is celebrated among non-MuslimChineseastheirnation’sgreatestexplorer.ZhengHeisemblematicofthenature of Islam in China: fully Chinese yet fully Muslim with no

contradictionbetweenthetwoidentities.

India

AfterMuhammadbinQasim’sexpeditionintotheIndusRiverValleyintheearly700s,IslamdidnotpenetratemuchfurtherpoliticallyintotheIndianSubcontinent.AfootholdwasestablishedinSindh,butdue to itsdistancefromtheMuslimcapitalatDamascusand thenBaghdad, furthermilitaryexpeditionswereimpracticalandprobablyfinanciallyuntenable.The arrival of the Turks in theMuslim world pushedMuslim power

furtherintoIndia.OfparticularnoteisMahmudofGhazni(r.997–1030),aTurkicsultanwhowasthefirsttoleadmilitaryexpeditionsdeepintoIndia.By establishing himself as the leader of an autonomous state based inGhazni in theAfghan highlands, hewas close enough to India to focusmuch of his attention on the subcontinent. His seventeen militarycampaigns into northern India served as the basis of his rule, bringingwealthandpower tohimandhis empire.Whilehis raidswerenodoubtdetrimental to local power and rule in India, he also established majorcultural centers and helped spread Persian culture throughout his reign.The legendary Persian poet Firdawsi, who perhaps did more to reviveancient Persian culture than any other person after the country’sconversion to Islam, and al-Biruni, a scientist, historian, geologist andphysicist,werebothmainstaysofMahmud’scourt.BecauseofhisstatusasapatronoftheartscoupledwithhisruthlessraidsintoIndia,MahmudofGhazni’s legacy inIndia today iscoloredbymodernpoliticsasmuchasanyoneelse.

Inaddition tohis scientificdiscoveries,al-BiruniwrotevolumesonIndianhistoryandsociety.TranslationsofhishistoryofIndiaservedasthemainsourceofknowledgeaboutIndiainMedievalEurope.

Regardless of his legacy, Mahmud and the Ghaznavid Dynasty hefoundedlaidthefoundationforMuslimconquestinIndia.Thesucceeding

dynasty,theGhurids,alsoruledoutofAfghanistan,andmanagedtopushtheirbordersevenfurtherintoIndia,capturingDelhiin1192.TheGhuridsrelied on slave soldiers of Turkic origin who formed the core of theirarmy,much like the contemporaryAyyubids furtherwest in theMuslimworld. Like their counterparts in Egypt, who established the MamlukSultanate, the slave soldiers in India eventually overthrew their mastersandinauguratedtheirowndynasty:theDelhiSultanate.TheDelhiSultanateruledoverpartsofIndiafrom1206untilthearrival

oftheMughalsin1526.Fiveseparateslavedynasties—theMamluk,Khilji,Tughlaq,SayyidandLodhi—ruledfromDelhiduringthesultanate’sthreecenturies. The exact political successions and conflicts are not vitalenough tomention in detail, but there are important political trends thatcharacterizetheDelhiSultanate.Firstly,theSultanatewasruledasaTurkicslavedynasty,notunliketheMamluksofEgypt.Powerwasrarelypasseddownfromfathertoson.Instead,whenasultandied,anewgeneralwouldbeelectedbynotablesoftheempiretotakehisplace.Asultancouldevenbe recalled and removed frompowerbyhis subordinates if he failed tofulfillhisdutiesasheadofstate.Thisallowedthesultanatetostaveofftheculture of complacency that plaguesmany hereditary dynasties after thefirstfewgenerations.Furthermore,thevastmajorityofDelhi’ssultansdidnotclaimthetitleofcaliph.TheyrecognizedtheultimateauthorityoftheAbbasidsasleadersoftheMuslimworld,andsawthemselvesassubjects.EvenafterthedestructionofBaghdadandtherelegationoftheAbbasidstonominal figureheads in Cairo, the Delhi Sultanate regularly sentemissariestothecaliphseekinghisapprovalandpermissiontoruleunderhisauthority.Despitebeingseparatedby thousandsofkilometersandthehigh Himalayan and Hindu Kush mountain ranges, the Delhi SultanateattemptedtokeepIndiatiedtogetherwiththerestoftheMuslimworld,atleastbyname.TheDelhiSultanateeraisalsonotableforthespreadofIslamwithinits

domains. Islamhadof coursebeenpresent in India since theearly600s,whenArabmerchants appeared in trading ports along the IndianOceancoast.ButitwouldtakepatronagefromaMuslimpoliticalentitytotrulyspreadIslaminlandamonga largeportionof theIndianpopulation.TheDelhi Sultanate provided that opportunity. Sufi orders enjoyed royalsponsorship and were able to travel throughout India preaching to all

social classes of people. Sufism, with its spiritual focus, found fertileground in thesubcontinent,whereapolytheisticnativepopulationwouldhavetroubleacceptingthestrictmonotheismofIslamwithoutaninward,spiritualdimension.Itinerantscholars,manyofwhomcamedirectlyfromArab and Persian lands, preached spiritual fulfillment and a newconnectionwithGodwhichhelpedthemgainhugefollowingsduringtheirtravels.Furthermore, theegalitariannatureof Islam,exemplifiedbestbythe Prophetwhen he declared all believers are equal before the eyes ofGod, offered an escape from Hinduism’s caste system, known for itsrigidity and inequality. Exact numbers are impossible to come by, butthrough the combined preaching of wandering missionaries and thecontinued Indian Ocean trade that brought merchants to areas such asGujarat and Bengal, Islam managed to find a solid foothold in Indiansociety throughout much of the subcontinent, even though the MuslimpopulationneveroutnumberedtheHindu.

SoutheastAsia

Theinfluenceoftravellingmerchantsandpreachersinconvertingalocalpopulation was magnified further east in the Malay Archipelago. Thisregionhadlongservedas thecrossroadsof trade,connectingmerchantsbased in India with those based in China. The Chinese, with their fixedbureaucracyandimperial traditions,werelesscapableofspreadingtheirown culture and government ideas in the archipelago than the moreflexible Indians.Thus,before the turnof the firstmillennium,BuddhismandHinduism, exported from India, heldmajor sway in SoutheastAsia.The Buddhist Srivijaya Empire, based on the island of Sumatra and theMedang Kingdom based on Java, were among the numerous kingdomsthatspreadIndianinfluenceintheregion.ButonceIslamhadestablisheditself among India’s coastal communities, the opportunity arose formerchantsandpreachersbasedinIndiatospreadanewIslamicinfluenceinSoutheastAsia.Onceagain,commerceplayedamajorroleinthespreadofIslamina

landfarawayfromtheArabiandesertswhereIslamwasborn.Conversionto Islam was attractive to local kings partly because of the economicopportunities it presented. Islam provided the glue that held together an

IndianOceantradethatspannedfromEastAfricancity-statestoArabiatocoastalIndia.SharedbeliefsandArabicasalinguafrancafacilitatedtradebetweenregionsthatwouldotherwisenothavemuchincommon.Ifakingin Southeast Asia converted to Islam, he could also join this lucrativeeconomic community. Once local rulers in the archipelago began toconverttoIslamaroundthe1100s,powerfulMuslimempiresaroseintheregion,builtontheeconomicopportunitiesthatIslambrought.Itwasthroughtheserulers thatIslambegantospreadamongthelocal

population of the Malay Archipelago. Traditional stories in the regioncommonlystate thatakingwas thefirst toacceptIslam,followedbyhiscloseadvisorsandfamily,andthatIslamwouldtrickledownintosocietyfrom the top. These kings probably provided the opportunity formissionaries from furtherwest,many ofwhom preached Islam throughSufism, to come and spread their beliefs among the locals, spreadingIslaminmuchthesamewayastheDelhiSultanate.Anotabledifferenceisthat, while in northern India there was a heavy Persian element to thespreadofIslam, inSoutheastAsia themissionaries tendedtocomefromthe Indian Ocean rim, particularly Yemen. Thus, the school of fiqh thatbecamemost prominent inEastAfrica, coastal India andSoutheastAsiawas that of Imam al-Shafi‘i, due to Yemen being a center for Shafi‘ilearningaswellasakeyhubintheIndianOceantrade.NorthernIndia,onthe other hand, was more influenced by the Hanafi school which waspopularinPersiaandCentralAsia.TheMuslim kingdoms that arose during and after the Islamization of

SoutheastAsiaweretiedinwiththerestoftheMuslimworldthroughtheIndianOcean tradenetwork.ThefirstMuslimstate,Pasai, locatedon theislandofSumatra,wasconvertedatleastbythe1200s,whenMarcoPolovisiteditandattestedtotheIslamiccharacterofitsportcities.IbnBattutacommentedacenturylaterabouttheorderofthekingdomandthepowerof its ruler. From Pasai, Islam spread eastward to the Kingdom ofMalacca,whichwasestablishedaround1400.Locatedonthestraitthroughwhichvirtuallyall shippingbetween IndiaandChina travels, its locationmade it one of the most important states in the region. Buoyed by theimmense trading wealth from the ships that passed through its waters,Malacca exerted huge influence on the surrounding areas. Its Malaylanguage and customs were adopted throughout nearby kingdoms,

culturally linking the entire region including parts ofmodernMalaysia,Indonesiaand thePhilippines to thepowerful tradingempire. Itsculturalinfluence served as a vehicle carrying Islam aswell.Malay identitywaslinkedwithMuslim identitysomuchso thatwhensomeoneconverted toIslam, itwas said that he or she had “masukMelayu”,meaning “enteredthis realm of theMalays”. This Islamic identity interwovenwith cultureandethnicitywouldspreadeastwardsfromMalaccathroughouttheMalayArchipelagoandsurvivenumerousinvasionsandoccupations,firstbythePortugueseandlaterbytheDutchandEnglish.

9

REBIRTH

According to the fourteenth century historian and philosopher IbnKhaldun, dynasties have a natural lifespan.The early years of a dynastyarecharacterizedbyexpansivegrowth,a“desert toughness”,anethosofhardworkandlittledesireforworldlyluxuries.Thesecondgenerationofthedynastycontinues in the legacyof the founders,butgrowth slowsasleadersbegintoplacemoreemphasisontheluxuriesofurbanpalacelifethanonadministrationand leadership.By the thirdgeneration, thedecayofthedynastyiscompleteastheleadersandviziersaresoconsumedbyluxury and pleasure that the state cannot protect itself from internal orexternalthreatsduetothenegligenceoftherulers.Atthatpoint,thecyclebegins all over again as a newdynasty rises to replace the old, decrepitone.In this framework, the Muslim world in the mid- to late-thirteenth

centurywas clearly in the third phase of IbnKhaldun’s dynastic theory.Incompetent leadership, the apathy of the warrior class and excessivewealth and luxury helped contribute to the Muslim world’s inability todefendagainstexternalattack.InkeepingwithIbnKhaldun’sphilosophy,anew dynasty arose to replace the old order. The house of Osman, aTurkish warrior in western Anatolia, would rise in the fourteenth andfifteenth centuries to become the premierMuslim power and usher in aneweraof stability,growthandculturalmagnificence.ButcontradictingIbnKhaldun’sphilosophy,thisnewempirewouldlastfarlongerthanjustthreegenerations.ItwouldcontinuetobeaworldpoweruntilitsfallintheFirstWorldWarintheearly1900s.

“Son! Be careful about the religious issues before all other duties.Thereligiouspreceptsbuildastrongstate.”

–Osman,speakingtoOrhan

OttomanOrigins

DuetotheMongolonslaught,familiesofTurksfledCentralAsiatofindrefuge in the borderlands of the Muslim world. The Turks, beingtraditional nomads, were capable of quickly and easily adapting towhatever lands they entered, including former Byzantine domains. EversincetheSeljuksdefeatedtheByzantinesattheBattleofManzikertin1071,Anatolia had been open to Turkish conquest and settlement. When theMongolsentered the region in the thirteenthcentury, the remnantsof theSeljuk domain were crushed for good, and Anatolia was ruled bynumerous Turkish dynasties scattered throughout the peninsula. Thesesmall states, known as beyliks, were usually based around charismaticmilitaryleadersknownasbeys.Onebey,Osman,managedasmallwarriorstateontheveryedgeofthe

ByzantineEmpire.Out of the numerousbeyliks inAnatolia, hiswas theone thatwould rise to become aworld power. The reasons for this aredifficult to ascertain, but the fact that hisbeylik bordered the crumblingByzantine state was important. The Byzantines were a shadow of theirformer selves. The oncemighty empire only controlledConstantinople,Greece and parts of the Balkans by the early 1300s. They were stillrecoveringfromthedisastrousLatinruleofConstantinoplefrom1204to1261, which effectively ended Constantinople’s reign as the world’slargest and greatest city. Osman was able to take advantage of theByzantines’ weaknesses and aimed at constant expansion of his domainintoByzantine lands. He was further aided in his quest by the fact thatrefugees from the rest of the Muslim world were fleeing Mongolslaughter,providingavaluablesourceofmanpowertothesmallbeylik.Inthis context, the idea of external jihad against the perceived enemies ofIslam was revived as Osman led his soldiers in raids against the sameenemywhom the Rashidun, Umayyads andAbbasids had fought againstcenturiesbefore.The traditional establishmentof theOttoman state (“Ottoman”beinga

corruption of “Osmanli”, the Turkish name for Osman’s empire) is

consideredtobe1299,althoughthisdatemaybearbitrary.Astheroamingband of warriors led by Osman and his son Orhan acquired moreByzantinetowns,theOttomanbeylikbegantoresembleastablestatemorethan the territory controlled by a band of nomadic Turks. By the timeOsman died in 1326, the Ottomans had captured their first major city,Bursa,whichbecamethefirstOttomancapital.Orhancontinuedinthegazitraditionofhisfather,leadingwarriorsagainsttheByzantinesallthewayup to the shores of the Sea ofMarmara, less than 100 kilometers fromConstantinople. He also began to adapt the Turks to a more sedentarylifestyle.TheByzantine cities inAnatoliawere establishedurban centerswith strong fortifications. The Ottomans could no longer rely on thetraditional raiding tactics that had been so beneficial to the Turks forhundredsofyears. Instead, theybegan to laysiege tocities, surroundingthem and aiming to squeeze them into surrender. TheByzantines, beingpreoccupiedwithcivildisturbancesintheBalkansintheearly1300s,wereunable toprotect their last remainingoutposts inAsia,and theOttomansquicklyexpandedtheirdomain.AstheByzantinesweakened,theOttomansstrengthened.Inthefirstfewdecadesofthe1300s, theyhadgonefromasmalltribalbandofwarriorstothemostpowerfulbeylikinAnatolia,andaseriousthreattothecontinuationoftheByzantineEmpire.TheyweresomuchofathreatthattheByzantineemperorAdronicuswasforcedin1333to meet with Orhan to discuss tributary payments to the Ottomans inexchangeforthesafetyofsomeofthelastremainingByzantinefortresses.As the fourteenth centurywore on, theOttomans continued to expand

intoterritorythathadnotseenMuslimarmiessincetheUmayyadraidsonConstantinople almost 700 years before. In the 1350s, the Ottomanscrossed the Dardanelles Straits into Europe for the first time. TakingadvantageofByzantinedisunityintheregion,SultanOrhan,andlaterhisson,MuradI,wereable tofirmlyestablishOttomanauthority inpartsofThrace.TheTurks,with their nomadic history,managed to easilymoveentirefamiliesandtribesintothenewEuropeanfrontierandestablishnewtownsthroughouttheconqueredlands.Thishugedemographicmovementgave theOttomans stability in an area thatwould have otherwise been achallengetomanage.TheremarkablegrowthoftheOttomanstatefromatinyTurkishbeylik

to a regional power in the fourteenth centurywasmade possible by the

unique intellectual tradition that the Ottomans built on. To the earlyOttomans,theirwaragainsttheByzantinewasareligiousduty.Theghazis(warriors of the faith) that fought under Osman, Orhan and Muradbelieved themselves to be continuing in the tradition of centuries ofMuslim warriors who picked up arms against the Byzantines. Islamprovided a unifying force for the Turks of Anatolia to rally under. Byprofessing tobeprotectors of the faith, theOttoman sultansmanaged togetthousandsofTurkishwarriorstofightundertheircommand.Withtherecent (and still ongoing) Mongol disaster in the Middle East fresh ontheirminds,thepromiseofbeingabletobringglorytoIslamonceagainmusthavebeenamotivatingfactorfortheTurks.Islamwastheonlyforcecapable of bringing together a disunited, nomadic and diverse group ofpeoplelikethefrontierTurksofthefourteenthcentury.With theOttomans placing such an emphasis on Islamic tradition, the

Muslimrulesofwaralsoapplied.Backinthe630s,whenCaliphAbuBakrsent an expeditionary force north to face the Byzantines, he gave themstrict rules about not harming civilians or private property, and onlykillingenemysoldiers.ThattraditioncontinuedundertheOttomans,whoseemedtohavebeenremarkablytolerantofnon-Muslimsundertheirrule.As theOttomanarmiesadvanced intoEurope,villagersweremostly leftalonesolongastheydidnotactivelyrebelagainstOttomanauthority.Thefreedom that the Ottomans gave Orthodox Christians contrasted greatlywith thebehaviorof theLatinCrusadersacenturyearlier that raped andpillaged Byzantine territory for decades. In comparison, the Ottomanswere lenient and fair conquerors. Furthermore, the aristocratic class ofsoutheasternEuropewasgenerallyeagertoseekhelpfromtheCatholicsof theWest in the face ofOttoman invasion.But the general populationwasnotreadytoseeLatindominationoftheirlandsonceagain,andtheyseem tohave supported theOttomans inmanycases, once they receivedpromises of religious toleration. Thus, for both practical and religiouspurposes, theOttoman policy of religious tolerance seems to have beentheruleastheyexpandedintoChristianEurope.The greatest period of early Ottoman expansion occurred under the

fourthOttomansultan,Bayezid I (r.1389–1402).His soldiersnicknamedhimYıldırım,meaning“Thunderbolt”,due tohisability toquicklymovehisarmybackandforthbetweenEuropeandAsia.Theyearlymigration

ofhisarmymeantthathalftheyearwasspentexpandingtheempireintoChristianEuropewhile the other halfwas spent inAsia fighting againstrival Turks and the partially Islamized Mongols. In Europe, he addedterritories thatwould remainunderOttomansovereigntyuntil awaveofEuropean nationalism swept through the empire in the 1800s. Heconquered Serbia, Bulgaria and, Greece, and was the first Ottoman tocrosstheRiverDanubeintoWallachia.ConstantinopleitselfwasbesiegedbytheThunderbolt,althoughtheOttomanshadneitherthetechnologynorthenumbers tobringthatcity to itskneesyet.Evenwithout that imperialcity,theOttomanswereoneofthemostpowerfulempiresinEuropeandtheMuslimworld.ThatpowerattractedtheattentionofanotherMuslimrulerseekingtobe

the next great world conqueror. Timur, a Mongol ruler whose domainincludedCentralAsiaandPersia,sought to reestablishMongolauthorityin Anatolia in the face of Ottoman expansion. Although Timur was aMuslim,hisactionsinwardidnotdifferfromhisnon-Muslimancestorswhohadravagedtheregion100yearsbefore.HewantedtobringbacktheMongol Empire founded by Genghis, which meant the transcontinentalOttoman state would have to be eliminated. At the Battle of Ankara in1402, the twogreatmilitary leadersBayezidandTimursquaredoff.TheOttomans,despitebeingreinforcedbysoldiers fromtheChristianvassalstatesofEurope,weredecisivelydefeated.ThegreatThunderbolthimselfwas captured in battle and taken to Timur ’s capital at Samarkand. TheOttoman realm,meanwhile,wasdividedbetweenBayezid’s four sonsbythe victoriousTimur,whohoped theywould fight each other enough tobringabouttheendoftheOttomanEmpire.

Coffeewas first introducedbyYemeniMuslims in the1400s.Whenthe Ottoman Empire grew to encompass the Arabian Peninsula,coffeespreadnorthtoIstanbul,andfromtheretotherestofEurope.

Forthenextelevenyears,theOttomanEmpirewasinastateofconstantcivil war. Bayezid’s sons Isa, Musa, Suleiman and Mehmet raised rival

armiesandmeteachothermanytimesinbattleinEuropeandAsia,eachseekingtobecomethesoleinheritoroftheirfather ’sempire.TheOttomanInterregnum,asitiscalled,showcasesoneoftheinherentproblemsinthedynasty. There never existed a formal succession procedure by whichsultanscanbechosen.TheOttomansseemtohavebelievedthat themostablesonwouldalwaysarisesomehowtowinthethroneafterhisfather ’sdeath.Thiswouldensure thatonly thebestof thedynastywouldbecomesultans, leading toaneternallypowerful state. Inpractice,however,whatthistraditionmeantwascivilwarbetweenbrothersthatcommonlyeruptedafterthedeathofasultan.ThiswouldcontinuetobeaproblemuntilSultanAhmad I formulated an official succession policy in the seventeenthcentury.Intheearly1400s,however,thesonshadtofighttothedeath.By1413,

Mehmetemergedas thevictoroverhisbrothersandmanaged to reunitehisfather ’slandsunderhiscontrol.Howhewasabletodothismilitarilyis not as important as why the Ottoman Empire was capable ofreconstituting itselfafterelevenyearsofcivilwar.ThemainreasonwastheinstitutionsthattheOttomansestablishedthroughouttheirrealminthefourteenth century. Above all, the Ottoman emphasis on Islam as aunifyingfactorhelpedbringTurkishleadersbackunderOttomancontrolwhenMehmetwonthecivilwar.AstheprotectorsofIslam’sfrontiers,theMuslimpopulationofAnatoliaandtheBalkanslookeduptotheOttomans.ThedivisionoftheempireamongfoursonsmeantthatunityandstrengthinthefaceofByzantinepowerwascompromised.WhenMehmetemergedasthevictor,theMuslimsoftheregioncouldonceagainunite,astheyhadpreviously,underastrongIslamicstateinoppositiontotheByzantinesandother Christian nations. Furthermore, economically, the OttomansestablishedaguildsystemthatalsomadeuseoftheTurks’Islamicidentity.Throughout theOttomanstatea loose systemofguilds,knownasakhis,regulatedmanufactureandbusinesspractices.TheakhiswerecommonlyintertwinedwithSufiordersandplacedasmuchemphasisonthespiritualadvancement of their members as they did on business and trade. Thisprovided an economic basis from which the Ottoman Empire couldreconstitute itself after the Interregnum.Military traditions also played ahugeroleinthereunificationoftheempire.DuringOrhan’sreign,anelitecorps of soldiers was recruited that served directly under the Ottoman

sultan. These troops are known as the janissaries, a corruption of theTurkishyeniçeri,meaning “new troops”.By the time of SultanBayezid,the janissary corpsnumbered in the thousands, recruitedprimarily fromtheChristianpopulationsoftheBalkans.Sincethejanissariescamefromdiverseethnicbackgroundsbutwereallincorporatedintoaunifiedcorpsloyal to theOttoman state, they served to unify the various cultures andbackgrounds that lived under Ottoman sovereignty. Greeks, Serbs,Albanians, Bulgarians and others contributed to one of the mostprestigious institutions of the Ottoman Empire, something that rarelyhappenedwiththeGreekByzantinesorCatholicLatins.Inall,onceMehmethad reunited theempire in the1410s, itcontinued

with little residual hangover from the Interregnumperiod.Under SultanMurad II (r. 1421–1444 and 1446–1451), the Ottoman state continued toannexByzantine territory, until all thatwas left of itwasConstantinopleand its environs.Murad attempted to capture Constantinople and finallyeliminatethelastremnantoftheByzantineEmpire,buthissiegefailedtodefeatthecity’smassivewalls.Thechallengeofconqueringtheseeminglyunconquerablecitywould fall tohis son,Mehmet II,whosenamewouldgodowninhistoryasoneofIslam’sgreatestmilitaryleaders.

TheTriumphoftheOttomanEmpire

BythetimeMehmetIItookthethronein1451atagenineteen,theOttomanEmpirewasbyfarthepremierpowerinsoutheasternEuropeandAnatolia.Itwasmulti-ethnic,flexibleandpowerful.Therewasperhapsnomanwhobetter represented that empire thanMehmet.Hewas fluent in at least sixlanguagesthatwerespokenthroughouthisdomain.Specialemphasiswasplacedon Islamandscholarsweregreatlyprized.TheEmpire—literallyandfiguratively—bridgedthegapbetweenEuropeandAsia,andMehmetplaced much emphasis on bringing together the intellectual legacies ofboth. During his reign scholars of traditional Islamic sciences werepatronizedalongwithEuropeanChristianartists.MehmetwasreminiscentofearlierMuslimleaderssuchasHarunal-RashidandSalahal-Din,whoweremastersofknowledge,leadershipandmilitaryprowess.ButthereweretwomajorthornsinMehmet’sside.Onewashisrelative

inexperience. He was young when he took the throne, and was thus

naturallydistrustedbyelderstatesmenthathadservedunderhisfather.Infact,Mehmetbrieflyheldpoweroncebefore,at theageof twelve,whenhisfatherabdicatedtoliveapeacefullifeofretirement.Butthatfirstreignendedwhenhisowngrandvizier,whobroughtbackhisfather,overthrewhim.WhenMehmetcametopowerasecondtimeafterhisfather ’sdeath,doubtsaboundedingovernmentandsocietyabouthisabilitytoholdontothe throne. In order to prove his worth as sultan of themighty empire,Mehmetrealizedhehadtoridhimselfofthesecondthorn:Constantinople.Thecitywassituatedalmostexactlyinthemiddleoftheempire.Althoughitwasnolongernearlyaspowerfulasitoncewas,itstillhadtheabilitytoharass Ottoman trade and military movements. From a practicalstandpoint,ithadtobeeliminated.Buttherewasalsoareligiouselementto the city. The ProphetMuhammad had predicted 800 years before thatMuslimswouldonedayconquer it,and that the leaderand thearmy thatdid so would be wonderful indeed. Soon after taking power, Mehmetbegan making preparations to fulfill that prophecy. Doing so wouldstrengthentheOttomanEmpireandhisownpositionasitssultan.Despite Constantinople’s relative weakness, it was still a fortress that

hadneverbeenbreached. Itsdefenseswere seemingly impenetrable.Thecitywassurroundedonthreesidesbywater.ItslandsidewasdefendedbytheenormousTheodosianWalls,builtinthe400sasasetoftwowallsthatwereashighastwelvemetersandasthickassixmeters.Intheirthousandyears,Constantinople’swallshadseencountlessarmiesdisintegrateinitsshadow,includingtheearliestUmayyadsiegesinthelateseventhcentury.More recent attemptsbyBayezid I andMurad II alsoended in failure. IfMehmetwantedtobetheleaderthatMuhammadhadspokensohighlyof,heneedednewtechniquesandnewarmiestogetthejobdone.Afewkilometersnorthofthecity,hebuiltafortressonthebanksofthe

BosphorusStrait,acrossfromanearlieronebuiltbyhisgreatgrandfatherBayezid I. The dual fortresses became a chokehold on the waterway,preventing the Byzantines from seeking reinforcements from the BlackSearegion.Tocombatthecity’smassivewalls,MehmetcommissionedaHungarianengineertobuildthelargestcanontheworldhadyetseen.TheOttomans were familiar with gunpowder, which made its way into theMuslimworldfromChinainthepreviouscenturies,butithadneverbeena decisive element in previous conquests. Mehmet’s canon was over 8

metersinlengthandcouldlauncha250kilogramball1.5kilometers.Theworld’sstrongestwallneededtheworld’smostpowerfulcanontobringitdown.Ontopofthat,MehmetrecruitedanarmyfromOttomanforcesinEurope and Asia that numbered over 100,000 soldiers, includingChristiansfromvassalstates in theBalkans.Mehmetwasgoingall inonhisgamble.Withsuchpreparations,failuretotakethecitycouldresultinthedisintegrationoftheOttomanEmpireitself.Within Constantinople, divisions were arising that would play out in

favoroftheyoungsultan.TheByzantineEmperorConstantineXIbelievedthey could only survive the coming siege by seeking the help of theCatholicChurch.Many inConstantinoplehoweverwere stillbitter at thedestructionthecityexperiencedat thehandsofCatholicCrusaders in thethirteenthcentury,andafactionofOrthodoxChristiansarosethatopenlyopposedanycooperationwiththeWest.DespitethecontingentsofItaliansoldiers thatmade their way to Constantinople to aid in its defense, theinherentdisunity in thecitywouldprove tobeoneof thereasonsfor itseventualdownfall.

Although he tookConstantinople by force,Mehmet did not imposeIslamonthecity’sinhabitants.Theywerefreetocontinuetopracticereligionastheydidbeforetheconquest.

InAprilof1453,Mehmet’sarmyarrivedat thewallsof the legendarycity.The few thousanddefendersof thecitymanaged toputupavaliantdefensefrombehindthemassivefortifications.Butintheend,theconstantbombardment, repeatedattemptsatgoingoveror through thewalls, andan ingenious strategy that involvedcarryingseventyOttomanshipsovertwo kilometers of land and into the city’s harbor all led to eventualcapture.On29May1453,aMuslimarmyfinallyconqueredthelegendarycity. Mehmet, thereafter known as “the Conqueror”, made the city hiscapital. The Ottoman Empire no longer had a thorn in its side andMehmet’sfamespreadthroughouttheMuslimworldasthepowerfulrulerofanupstartempirethatfinallyfulfilledthe800year-oldprophecy.Atthis

point, there was no doubting the Ottoman Empire’s position atop theMuslimworld.AfterthedestructionofBaghdad195yearsearlier—whichplungedtheMuslimworldintoitsdeepest lowsinhistory—Muslimshadrisenagaintoexpandtheirbordersandreachintonewfrontiers.The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople was more than a military

victory over an old enemy. It also symbolized the resurgence of theMuslimworldasanimperialandmulticulturalforce.Ithadbeencenturiessince the conquests of the Rashidun and the Umayyads opened up newlands to Islam. In those earlyyears, asMuslimsconqueredancient citiessuchasDamascus,Ctesiphon,andToledotheycreatedanewamalgamatedculture,whichbrought togetherIslamandlocal traditions.TheOttomansin Constantinople, which became popularly known as Istanbul, broughtthatpracticeback.InthenewOttomancapital,theculturaltraditionsoftheByzantines,Romans andGreeks found new life in an Islamic context.AprimeexampleoftheseculturesmixingremainsvisibletodayinIstanbul’sskyline.TheancientHagiaSophiaChurch,built inthe500sbyByzantineemperor Justinian, was for centuries a symbol of Christian Byzantinepower.After theOttoman conquest, itwas converted into amosque, butremainedthecenterpieceofthecity,withitsgiganticdomeservingasaninspiration and a model for Ottoman architects. Imperial mosquescommissioned by sultans such asMehmet II, Suleiman, andAhmed I allborrowedthemotifofagiantcentraldome,althoughadaptedforIslamicuse with tall, thin minarets and Arabic calligraphy inside instead ofChristianfiguralart.LikeinearlierIslamichistory,conquestdidnotmeanthereplacementofonecivilizationwithanother,butthecreationofanewonebasedontheculturesofboth.

TheOttomanGoldenAge

TheConqueror continued to expand theOttoman realmmilitarily.Soon,theOttoman flag flewovermore territories inSerbia,Bosnia,MoldovaandAlbania.Inhislastyears,anexpeditionaryforcewassenttoItaly,withtheaimoftakingRomeitself,althoughthisplanwasaborteduponnewsofhis death in 1481.Military and economic expansion continued under hissuccessors, sultans Bayezid II and Selim I. During the brief, eight-yearreignofSelimfrom1512to1520,theOttomansdefeatedthenewSafavid

DynastyofPersiaandannexedtheentireMamlukSultanateofEgypt.ThetraditionalheartlandoftheMuslimworld,includingSyria,EgyptandtheHolyCities,cameunderOttomancontrol.Assuch,thedynastytookonanincreasingly religious role. Protection ofMecca,Medina and Jerusalemfell to the Ottoman sultans. Furthermore, the Abbasid caliphate, whichexistedinnameonlyunderMamlukprotectioninCairo,officiallycametoan end as Sultan Selim I inherited the title as the first Ottoman caliph.AlthoughOttomansovereignsusedthetitlesparingly,theimplicationsofbeingthemostpowerfulstatecoupledwiththeseatofthecaliphatemeanttheOttomanswereexpectedto takeontheroleofprotectorofIslam.Assuch,theOttomansaidedMuslimscombatinggrowingEuropeanpowerasfar away as North Africa and Indonesia throughout the sixteenth andseventeenthcenturies.The nature of the Ottoman Empire as a Muslim state did not mean

oppressionandsubjugationofnon-Muslims.InkeepingwithIslamiclaw,non-Muslims were allowed to practice their religion freely, but theOttomansalsowentastepfurtherandallowedChristiansandJewswithintheempiretoformsemi-autonomouscommunities.Inwhattheycalledthemillet system, non-Muslims were allowed to elect their own leaders torepresent them in the Ottoman government. These leaders served asintermediaries between the Ottoman sultans and the various faithcommunitieswithintheempire.Eventually,dozensofmilletswereformedto represent the numerous Christian churches present in the Ottomanrealm. For an empire that had a non-Muslim majority, including andintegrating that population was of the utmost importance. Unlike manyother European empires of the time, ethnic and religious homogeneitywithin itsborderswasnotapre-requisiteforstabilityandpower. Infact,part of what made the empire so great was its ability to host variouspeoplesandbenefitfromwhateachcouldprovidefortheempire.ThegoldenageoftheOttomanstatewasnodoubtduringtheillustrious

forty-six-year reign of Sultan Suleiman from 1520 to 1566. During histime, the Ottoman Empire reached its maximum size. The BalkanPeninsula, the Arab world including the Arabian Peninsula and NorthAfrica,andpartsof theCaucasMountainsandPersiafellunderOttomancontrol. The energetic sultan personally led assaults on previouslyunconquerable strongholds inRhodesandBelgrade,but failed ina1526

siege of Vienna, which set the border between Christian and MuslimEurope during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Continuedexpansionmeantfurtherspoilsofwar,fuelinganalreadystrongeconomybased on lucrative trade routes through the empire. The immenseeconomicpoweroftheempirealsoledtogreatculturalachievements.

As part of his administrative reforms, Suleiman lowered taxes onpeasantsinhisempire.ThisledtoimmigrationofChristianpeasantswholefttherestofEuropetoliveandworkintheOttomanEmpire.

With unrivaled political,military and economic power, SuleimanwasabletomakemajorchangestothelegalsystemoftheOttomanstate.WithhisgrandmuftiEbussuudEfendi,thehighestlegalofficialintheempire,he rewrote the entire lawbook of the empire.As in almost all previousMuslimstates, thehighest setof laws remained theunchangingshari‘ah,theIslamiclawsbasedontheQuranandhadith.But theempire’ssecularlaws,institutedbyprevioussultans,hadtobeexaminedtomakesuretheydid not conflict with each other or with the shari‘ah. Outdated,contradictory or un-Islamic laws were eliminated. The result was astreamlinedandstraightforwardlegalcodethatwouldservetheOttomanEmpire for hundreds of years. For this, his subjects affectionately knewhimasKanuni—“thelawgiver”.WhenSuleimandied in 1566, powerwent toSelim II.Unlike the first

Selim, Suleiman’s favorite son was not nearly as effective as anadministratorormilitaryleader.Anill-advisedinvasionofCyprusin1571prompted a united Christian front against the Ottoman Empire. At theBattle of Lepanto in that same year, Christian Europe finally won adecisive victory over the Turks, and Ottoman navel supremacy in theMediterraneanwasforevergone.ButtheOttomanEmpirewasnotafeeblehouseof cards inmortaldanger after a single loss. It remainedamajorEuropeanpowerforhundredsofyearsafterSelim’sreign.However, theageofOttomanconquestswasoverby the late sixteenthcentury.Europewas finally catching upwith theMuslimworld both technologically and

socially, just as the Ottomans were learning what the limits of theirmilitary and political power were. It would take another few centuriesbeforethebalanceofpowerwouldfullyshift,butthelong,slowdeclineoftheOttomanstatehadbegun.

TheSafavids

SoonafterthemeteoricriseoftheOttomanstateinthefifteenthcentury,anew empire formed in the east as a rival to the Turks. The SafavidEmpire’s origins are similar to the Ottomans’ in many ways, but theworldview it espoused and its religious structure were fundamentallydifferent. The conflict between the two great empires in the sixteenththrough eighteenth centuries helped define the Middle East’s religiousmakeupforcenturies,theresultsofwhicharestillvisibletoday.

As early as the eleventh century, windmills in Persia were used topumpwaterforirrigation.

AfterthedeclineandfallofTimur ’sempireinthe1400s,Persiaenteredaperiodofpoliticalanarchy.Noonegroupwasable toexercisecontrolover the entire region, and various petty principalities appeared,seemingly always in conflict with each other.With no central authority,diverseandsometimesunorthodox ideaswerefree to flourish.AlthoughPersia had been mostly Sunni since its conquest in the 600s, a Shi‘amovement began to flourish in the north, led by a Turkic Sufi orderknownas theSafavids.Theorder traced itsorigins to thechaoticperiodafter the Mongol invasion in the 1200s, and over time became moremysticalandmorehereditarythanotherSufipaths.Eventually,itadoptedthe Twelver branch of Shi‘ism as its official creed. Shi‘a empires hadcome before the Safavids, but they had never been Twelvers. This wasbecauseacorebeliefoftheTwelverbranchisthattheTwelfthImamisinhiding and will only come back at the end of times as the savior ofhumanity.Most Twelvers thus believed that political activism should be

halted until the Imam returns.TheSafavids got around this by implyingthattheleadersofthegroupweredescendantsof‘Aliandwereincontactwith the Hidden Imam himself, giving them legitimacy as a hereditaryShi‘apoliticalgroup.With such a fusion of political and religious legitimacy, the Safavids

wentaboutcreatinganempireinthelate1400s.MuchlikeOsmanandhisdescendants, the Safavids led armed incursions intoChristian-dominatedlands, particularly the Caucasus, north of their base in Azerbaijan. Thegrowing power of the Safavids in the late 1400s coupled with theirheterodox religious views led to opposition and oppression from theSunniprincesofPersia.In1488,theleaderoftheSafavidswaskilled,andcontrol of the group went to a two-year old boy called Isma‘il.Throughout his childhood, he was in hiding, protected by a group ofwarriors loyal to him known as the Qizilbash (Turkish for redheads,referring to the distinctive red hats theywore).When Isma‘il eventuallycameof age, heproved to be an ablemilitary commander as he led theQizilbash to victory over the Turkish princes of Azerbaijan, eventuallycapturingthecityofTabriz,whichwouldserveashiscapital,in1501.Thefollowingyearsbroughtmorevictories,andby1510,mostofPersiawasunderhiscontrol.Isma‘il’sexpansionof theSafaviddomain isdue tomore than justhis

militarycapabilitiesandPersia’srelativedisunity.Isma‘ilalsotappedintoa long-dormant but powerful sense of Persian nationalism that lay justunder the surface of Persian society. Since the Muslim conquest in the600s,PersiahadnothadanativePersiangovernment.TheArabsandlaterthe Turks and Mongols dominated the region, even while the generalpopulationclungtotheirpre-IslamicPersianidentity.Isma‘ilbroughtthatidentity back to the forefront. He declared himself Shah, a pre-Islamicterm meaning king that brought back memories of the great PersianEmpiresof thepast.Persianbecamethelinguafrancaof thegovernmentand the people. Tomake theEmpire evenmore uniform, Isma‘il joinedtogether Persian nationalism with Twelver Shi‘ism. His branch of theShi‘a movement became the official religion of the empire and washarshly imposed on the population. Sunni Islam was outlawed, and thepopulation was given the choice to convert, flee or die. Shi‘a scholarswere brought in from outside the empire, notably Iraq and Lebanon, to

educate themasses in theirnewbeliefsanderadicate the legacyofSunniintellectualism.ThelandofgreatSunnischolarssuchasAbuHanifa,IbnSinaandal-BukhariquicklybecamethecenteroftheShi‘amovement.ButIsma‘ilwasnotcontentcontrollingonlythebeliefsofPersiansandhopedtonotonlyconvertpeopleinsidehisborderstoShi‘ism,butoutsideofitaswell.Missionarieswere sent intoAnatolia to encourage thepeople toadoptShi‘ismandriseupagainsttheSunniOttomans.Unluckily for Isma‘il, the Ottoman sultan in power during the 1510s

when thismissionaryworkwasgoingonwasSelim I,whosenickname,Yavuz,meantgrim.Needlesstosay,YavuzSelimwasnotonetositidlybyas outsiders interfered in his empire, especiallywhen they promoted anunorthodoxversionofIslam.In1514,SeliminvadedtheSafaviddomain,seeking to crush Isma‘il and his army. The two sides met at Chaldiran,near the capital, Tabriz. In a fight that pitted Ottoman canons and gunsagainst Safavid religious fervor, theOttomans came out on top. Isma‘ilfled,with his supernatural aura forever tainted.He supposedly lived therestofhislifeindepressionandalcoholism,neverhavinggottenoverhisdefeat at the hands of the powerful Sunni empire. His empire remainedintact, though.SelimwasunabletoannexSafavidterritory,andthebattleservedmoretoformalizetheborderbetweentheSunniOttomansandtheShi‘a Safavids than to end the dynasty. That border remained generallyunchangedthroughthecenturiesandlivesontodayastheborderbetweenSunniTurkeyandShi‘aIran.TheempireofIsma‘ilreacheditszenithunderhisgreatgrandsonShah

AbbasI,whoruledfrom1587to1629.WhentheborderwiththeOttomansbecamemoreconcreteandwarfarelesscommon,theSafavidswereabletofocusmoreonarealrevivalofPersianculture.Paintinghumanfigures,whichwasgenerallydiscouragedbySunnischolars,flourishedinSafavidPersia. The Persian miniature became the dominant form of artisticexpression and heavily influenced art in neighboring Muslim states aswell. Unlikeworks of the contemporary European Renaissance, with itsfocusonrealisminpainting,Persianminiatureswerenotmeanttodepictrealistic scenes. They were usually used to illustrate illuminatedmanuscripts,andthusservedtosupplementagivenstory.Alongwiththeminiatures, theartofPersian story tellingexperienceda revival aswell.The old pre-Islamic epics found new life alongside newerworks telling

thestoryofthePersianpeople.TheShahnama,aninthcenturyepicpoemtelling the history of pre-Islamic Persia achieved special notoriety as itencouragedpeopleunderSafavidcontroltoembracetheirPersiancultureandhistory.Thegreatest testament toSafavidpowerandculturecame inthe form of Persian architecture and urban planning. In Isfahan, ShahAbbas I’s capital, elaborate public buildings and mosques wereconstructed.Supplementedbyvast opengardens and complexgeometricmosaics and calligraphy, the structures in the imperial city stand as atestament to the wealth and power of seventeenth-century Safavid Iran.Safavid architecture of the erawas so enchanting that a commonphrasedevelopedtospuronthecity’sfame:“Isfahanishalftheworld”.

TheMughals

The third great Muslim gunpowder empire came about in the East, inIndia. Here, the Delhi Sultanate had ruled over the northern part of theIndiansubcontinentsincetheearly1200s.ThefusionofArab,PersianandTurkiccultureswithnativeIndianculturesslowlyforgedanewanduniqueIndianMuslimcivilization.Bytheearly1500s,MuslimpoliticalpowerinIndiawaswaning,butenoughofthepopulationhadbecomeMuslim—andaccustomedtoMuslimculture—thatanewMuslimdynastywouldbeabletoeasilytakeholdinthesubcontinent.TheMughalEmpirewasfoundedbyaTurkicconquerorfromCentral

Asia,Babur(1483–1530).HeclaimedtobeadirectdescendantofGenghisKhan andTimur, and believed that his genealogywas a sign that he toowould lead a great empire. However, his early years as ruler of hisfather ’s small state in modern-day Uzbekistan proved to be relativelyunsuccessful.Helostcontrolof themajorcityofSamarkand,alongwithhis ancestral homeland in the FerganaValley, andwas forced into exilewith a small band of followers.He eventually established himself as therulerofthecityofKabul,intheAfghanhighlands,bytakingadvantageofdisunityandanarchyin theregion.FromthisbaseheattemptedonmanyoccasionstoconquerhishomelandinCentralAsia,attimeswithSafavidhelp, but was ultimately unsuccessful. Instead, he turned his attentionacross theHinduKushMountainsand intoIndia. In1524,heattacked theDelhiSultanate,atthetimeunderthecontroloftheLodhiDynasty.Atthe

BattleofPanipat in1526,Baburdecisivelydefeated India’s loneMuslimstateandenthronedhimselfinDelhi.Asthesixteenthcenturyworeon,theMughalEmpireextendeditsreachovermostoftheIndianSubcontinent.Inmanycases,localrulerswereleftinplaceinreturnfornominalloyaltytotheMughals. Ina landasdiverseanddisjointedas India,suchapoliticalarrangementwasnecessarytothestabilityoftheimperialstate.

Urdu,a languagecommonamongIndia’sMuslims,exhibitsArabic,Persian, Turkic and Indian influences. Its name derives from theTurkicword“ordu”,meaningarmy,since itwasat theTurkicarmycampsthatthesefourlanguagesintermingled.

UnlikehisancestorTimur,whoraidedintoIndiabutneverestablishedalastingempire,Babur ’sstateinthesubcontinentwouldlastforcenturies.Itwascalled theMughalEmpire,a reference toBabur ’ssupposedMongolheritage,butMongolcultureand traditionplayeda relativelysmall role.Instead, the Mughal Empire served as a fusion point for Arabs, Turks,Persians and Indians.Much like the contemporary Ottoman Empire, theMughalEmpirebroughttogetherdiversepeoplesandtraditions.ItwasnotuncommonforaHinduintheMughalEmpiretoreadandwriteinPersian—the literary languageofmuchof theMuslimworld—or for aPersianMuslimarchitecttobeinspiredbylocalIndianHindubuildings.Astudentof the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan travelled to the MughalEmpire to takepart in theconstructionof the legendaryTajMahal. Indiawasparticularlyattractive toMuslimreligiousscholars fromotherpartsof the Muslim world who saw in India an opportunity to spread Islamthroughmissionarywork.The atmosphere ofmixing cultures and ideas reached its peak during

thetimeofMughalEmperorAkbar(r.1556–1605).Consideringhimselfapatron of the arts and an intellectual, he was keen to support scholarsregardless of their cultural or religious background.Hewas known forhostingdebates anddiscussions at his court between scholarsofvariousfaiths.Hindus,Buddhists,Christians,andJewswereall invited todiscuss

their varying concepts of God and religion with Muslim scholars.Eventually,Akbarwentontoformulatehisownreligioustheories,whichinhismindbridgedthegapsbetweenthevarioustraditions.HecalledhisnewreligionDin-eIlahi,meaning“ReligionofGod”.MonotheisticIslamand polytheistic Hinduism are not naturally compatible theologies. As aresult,Akbar ’sreligiontendedtofocusonpersonalbehaviorrather thandivinity.TraditionalMuslimscholarswerescandalizedbyAkbar ’sactions,declaring them blasphemy and beyond the borders of Islam. In the end,Din-e Ilahi was never particularly popular. Adherents seem to havefollowed it simply togain favorwith the emperor, and thenew religiondidnotlastafterAkbar.Itsshort-livedexistencetestifiestothehighlevelofcultural,socialandevenreligiousmixingpresentinadiverseMughalIndia.ThesucceedingemperorschartedapathbacktotraditionalIslam.This

culminatedwithAurangzeb(r.1658–1707),thesixthMughalEmperor,andthe one who ruled over its apogee. His imperial title was Alamgir, theWorldConqueror, on account of hismilitary expeditions all over India.His forty-nine-year reigncanbecharacterizedby the increasingmilitaryactivitiesoftheMughalEmpireandhispersonalpietyandsponsorshipofIslamic knowledge. He famously disagreedwith his father Shah Jahan’sconstructionof theTajMahal,anelaborate(andexpensive) tombforhismother,whichAurangzeb saw aswasteful and against the spirit ofwhatProphetMuhammadhadpreached.Healsofeltthatacomprehensiveguidefor Islamic law tailored to theneedsof IndianMuslimswasneeded,andthusbrought togetherhundredsofscholarsof Islamic law toworkoutasolution.TheresultwasthemonumentalFatawa-eAlamgiri(theReligiousDecreesofAlamgir),acollectionofreligiousdecreesbasedontheHanafischool of Islamic law, which he used as the official legal code for theempire.HearkeningbacktothatfirstMuslimstate inMedina,Aurangzebthus established Islamic shari‘ah as the law of India. This ended upincreasinghispopularitywithhissubjectsthroughoutIndia,aspreviously-established taxes not in linewith Islamic lawwere abolished, lighteningthefinancialloadonhissubjects.With regards to relationswith non-Muslims, EmperorAurangzeb has

achievedamodernreputationasabigottedandintolerantsovereign.Hislegacyisindicativeoftheimpactthatmodernpoliticshasonhowpeople

understandthepast.WorthyofparticularscrutinyisthefactthatnumerousHindu temples across India were destroyed during his reign. Thathistorical fact, coupledwith his intense devotion to Islam, has ledmanyhistorians andwriters in themodernera to refer tohimas an intolerantand oppressive ruler. But the reasons behind his destruction of Hindutemplesmustbeanalyzed tounderstandwhatkindofarulerhewas,andmore generally, the nature ofMughal rule itself.During the seventeenthcentury,templesinIndiawerecommonlyusedaspoliticalcentersaswellasplacesofworship.TempleleadersregularlyservedtheMughalEmpireas political officers in their respective jurisdictions, helping maintainorder and imperial control. The temples destroyed by AurangzebcorrespondtopoliticalrevoltsagainstMughalruleledbytempleofficials,atrendthatincreasedduringhisreign,especiallywiththecreationoftheMarathaConfederacythataroseinthelate1600s.Thus,intheeyesoftheMughalEmpireintheseventeenthcentury,destroyingatemplewasnotanact of religious oppression, but of political survival. In fact, duringAurangzeb’s reign, numerous new temples were built throughout India,and many of his top advisors were Hindus. One of the dangers of asuperficial study of history that has to be avoided in today’s politically-charged world is the imposition of modern political conflicts onto thelegacyofancientfigures.

TheThreeGunpowderEmpires

Together, the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Empires are known as theGunpowderEmpires.TheyreignedoveraneworderintheMuslimworld.BornoutoftheashesofthedevastatingMongolinvasion,theyrepresentedtherebirthoftheMuslimworld.Despitespanningvastlydifferentregions,having opposing political goals, and the occasionally difficult religiousdifference between them, they shared a common core culture based onIslam that made the three empires more alike than different. They allshared a religion that originated in theArab lands, a court bureaucracyand culture based on the Persianmodel, and Turkic ancestry.AMuslimcouldconceivablytravelinthe1600sfromtheBalkanPeninsula,throughtheArabheartlandinto theIranianhighlands,andacross theHinduKushinto the Indian subcontinent without feeling particularly out of place. A

newculturalunitydevelopedthat tied togethera largerpartof theworldthan theancientGreekandRomanEmpireseverdid.Furthermore, therewasahighdegreeof technicalcooperationbetween them.TheOttomanswere the first toadopt theuseofgunpowderandcanononawidescale,andtheSafavidsandMughalssoonfollowed.ThedegreeofscientificandtechnicalachievementwascertainlynotontheleveloftheAbbasidgoldenage of science, but this time marked the final era of Muslim technicalsuperiority. Soon the European nations would gain the upper hand,eventually decimating all three empires in the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies.Most significantly for the modern Muslim world, the idea of pan-

Islamicunitywasseenasnolongerfeasible.TheUmayyadsandAbbasidshad ruled over an empire that stretched from Spain to India, but thatpoliticalmodelnolongerseemedfeasible.ThecaliphatewasinthehandsoftheOttomans,butsomescholarsofIslamiclawfloatedaroundtheideaofeachregionhavingitsowncaliph.TherewereeventimeswhenlettersfromtheOttomansultansaddressedtheMughalEmperorsbythecaliphaltitle,Amir al-Mu’mineen, meaning “Commander of the Faithful”. Therewere later attempts at a symbolicpan-Islamicunity,mostnotablyduringthereignofOttomanSultanAbdülhamidII in the latenineteenthcentury,but by the time the gunpowder empires rose, the practicality of a pan-Islamicempirewasallbutgone.

10

DECLINE

ProblemsWithTheOttomanEmpire

Islamichistoryseemstogoincycles.Intheseventhandeighthcenturies,IslamsprungfromthedesertsofArabiatocreateempiresthatweresomeof the most powerful in the world. The devastating period of invasionfromtheeleventhtothirteenthcenturiesreversedthat,leavingtheMuslimworld politically, economically, and socially disjointed. The rise of theOttoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires in the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies signaled the rise, once again, of Muslim power on the worldstage.TheOttomans,bythe1520s,hadmanagedtoeventouchtheedgeofcentral Europe atVienna, and although they failed to take that city, theywereEurope’spremierempire.The Ottoman Empire’s rapid rise was followed by a long, slow

stagnation and decline. The beginning of this stagnation can be said tohave started at the endofSultanSuleiman’s reign in 1566.Although theOttomanswerestillthemostpowerfulEuropeanempireatthetimeofhisdeath, and would continue to be so for at least a few decades, severalfactorsplayedintotheoncomingdeclineoftheOttomanstate.CoincidingwiththedeclineoftheOttomanEmpirewastheriseofWesternEuropeanstates, particularly France and England, which soon filled the powervacuumleftbytheOttomansastheyretreatedfromtheworldstage.ThefirstandmostobviousreasonforOttomandeclinewasthatitwas

nolongerabletowindecisivelyonthebattlefield.Earlyinitshistory,theOttoman Empire had a clear technological advantage over its enemies,being the first to employ large cannons to knock down city walls (likethoseofConstantinople),aswellassmaller,moreportableweapons thatwouldlaterevolveintorifles.ItdidnottakelongfortherestofEuropetoadoptthesimilartechnology,takingawaytheadvantagetheOttomanshadonthebattlefield.Inconjunctionwiththis,thezealouswarriorattitudethatOsmanbuilthissmall-scalebeylikonfadedawayastheempiregotbiggerandmore stable. The janissary corps,which had proven instrumental in

many victories early on, succumbed to corruption and bureaucracy, andceasedtobeaneffectivefightingforcebythe1600s.More importantly for the empire, however,was that it had reached its

naturalmaximumsize.ThetraditionofyearlycampaignsthatsetoutfromIstanbul every springmeant thatOttoman armiesweremost effective inareas they could reachbefore theonsetof the coming fall, especially inmorenorthernareasoftheempirethatgotcolderfaster.Aprimeexampleof this was the 1529 siege of Vienna. Ottoman armies left Istanbul inMayand trekked across the Balkans throughout the summer, reachingVienna’swallsinlateSeptemberwhichgaveSuleimanonlyafewweekstoconduct his siege before returning to Istanbul. This logistical problemmeant thatOttoman armies couldnot advance any further thanHungary,leaving the German-speaking lands of Central Europe out of Ottomanhandspermanently.AnotherattemptatVienna in1683similarlyended infailure.ThelimitsofOttomanmilitaryabilitybecameclearwiththeTreatyof

Karlowitz in 1699. After a devastating fourteen-year war that pitted theOttoman Empire against much of Europe, the Ottomans were forced toconcede territory through a treaty for the first time in their history.Hungary,whereSuleimanhadmarchedvictoriousOttomanarmiesinthe1500s, was ceded to the Austrians along with Transylvania. Parts ofUkraineinhabitedbytheCrimeanTatars,MuslimvassalsoftheOttomans,weretakenbyPoland.Eventhecity-stateofVenicemadegains,acquiringOttoman lands in southern Greece and along the Adriatic coast in theBalkans.Mostsignificantly for laterOttomanhistory, theOttomansultanwasforcedbythetreatytorecognizeandprotectChristiansintheempire.TheOttomanshadalreadybeendoingsoinaccordancewithIslamiclawand themillet system.Whatwas importantabout this stipulationwas thattheprotectionofChristianswasbeingforcedupontheempirebyoutsidepowers. During the 1700s and 1800s, European nations would use thissame concept to further disintegrate the Ottoman realm as it tumbledtowardsitsfinaldissolution.The inability of the Ottomans to succeed militarily had huge

ramifications for other aspects of the empire. At its core, the OttomanEmpirewasamilitarystate.Conquestbroughtinmorewealth,peopleandterritory that would strengthen the empire and help it launch further

military campaigns.During the unrestrained growth of the empire from1300 to the mid-1500s, the militaristic nature of the Ottoman state paidhuge dividends economically and socially, creating a pan-ethnic empirethat benefitted from huge spoils of war. With the end of conquest, theOttoman government would have to find new foundations on which tobuildtheOttomaneconomy.Suchafundamentalchangeinthenatureofanempire would always be difficult to manage, but compounding theproblem was the decline in the quality of leadership that the empireexperienced.From the timeofOsman in the early 1300s to theGoldenAgeof the

empire under Suleiman in the mid-1500s, the Ottoman sultan was theultimateexecutiveoftheOttomangovernment.ThesultanwasexpectedtoguidetheOttomanarmyinbattle,leadthegovernmentthroughnumerousviziers,dictatetheempire’srelationswithotherstatesanddefendIslamasthe caliph of the Muslim world. After Suleiman, however, there was adefinitechange in thenatureof thesultanate itselfand therole thesultanplayed in the government. Startingwith Selim II, Suleiman’s son,manysultanspreferredtospendtimeenjoyingtheluxuriesofthepalaceinsteadof engaging in the governance of the empire itself. Sultans once led thearmiesinbattleandfoughtalongsidetheirtroops,boostingmoraleastheOttomansoldiersmarchedthroughAnatolia, theBalkans,andthedesertsof theMiddle East.Beginning in the late 1500s, however, sultanswouldappoint deputies to lead the troops while they enjoyed the comforts ofIstanbul.SultanAhmed I (r. 1603–1617) cemented the lethargy of the sultanate.

Heofficiallyendedthe300year-oldOttomantraditionofprincesfightingforthethrone.Whereaspreviouslysultanscouldnotallowtheirbrotherstolivelesttherebeaninsurrectionagainsttheirrule(asoccurredduringthe reign of Bayezid II), now all members of the Ottoman family wereallowed to survive, but were forced to live in seclusion in the palace’sharem.Whenasultandied,governmentofficialswouldgointotheharemcomplex and simply pick the oldest surviving member of the Ottomanfamily to sit on the throne. Many of these sultans only came out ofseclusionwell into theiradult lives,andhad residualeffectsofspendingdecadesaloneingildedrooms.Withoutanypriortrainingingovernance,sultans were incapable of effectively leading such a large and complex

empire. Administration thus fell to the viziers and other governmentworkers,whoheldeffectivepower,albeitinthenameofthesultan.Inthe1600sand1700s,thefortunesoftheempiredidnotrelyontheabilityofthesultans,butofthegrandviziers.AhmedI’sintentionmayhavebeentoprotect the dynasty from costly civilwars, but the results of his reformeffectivelypreventedtheOttomandynastyfromproducinganycapableoreffectivesultansduringthe1600sand1700s.FurtherexasperatingthemilitaryandpoliticalproblemsoftheOttoman

EmpireduringitsdeclinewastheeconomicsituationofEuropestartinginthe1500s.WesternEuropeannationssuchasSpain,Portugal,France,andEngland took the lead in exploring the New World, and exploiting itsresources in amercantile system that emphasized the amassing of hugeamountsofgoldandsilver.TheminesofCentralandSouthAmerica, inparticular, provided shiploads of silver thatmade itsway intoEuropeanmarkets through Spain.When this huge influx of silver hit theOttomaneconomy, the Ottoman currency was greatly devalued and inflationincreased.TheOttomaneconomywasthushitontwofronts:therewerenofurther wars of conquest that brought in booty and the rise ofWesternEuropeweakenedtheOttomanEmpirebycomparison.Intellectually the empire stagnated in the 1600s and 1700s. After

centuriesofMuslimadvancesinscience.WhileEuropestruggledthroughtheDarkAges,OttomanscholarsexhibitedacertainamountofdisdainforEuropean intellectualprogress.Theycouldhardlybeblamedfor this,asEuropestruggledtoproducescientificorintellectualcapitalsincethefallof the Roman Empire. The reality was that in the 1600s the Dark Ageswere over. The Renaissance and subsequent Enlightenment ushered in aneweraofEuropean intellectualismwhichwas ironicallyspurredby thetranslationofcenturies-oldMuslimworksinmajorEuropeancities.MostOttoman scholars failed to recognize this shift, and European advanceswere disregarded as heathen innovations. Earlier in its history, theOttoman Empire had sought to bridge the intellectual gap betweenChristianEurope and theMuslimworld.Europeanpainters, scholar, andlinguistscouldbefoundinthecourtofMehmetII.ButbythetimeEuropebegan to take a dominant role in world politics, the Ottoman Empire’smistrust of its Christian neighbors led to an anti-intellectualism thatpreventeditscontinuedgrowth.

Thehuge influxofAmericansilvercaused runaway inflation in theOttomanEmpire. In 1580, one gold coin could be bought for sixtysilverones.Tenyearslater,in1590,itwouldtake120silvercoinstobuyonegold.In1640,ittook250silvercoins.

Despite all these factors working against the Ottoman Empire, itremainedoneofthepremierempiresinEuropeandtheMiddleEastinthe1600sand1700s.Theincrediblegrowthoftheempireinitsfirst300yearswas so great that the military, economic, political and intellectualchallenges it faced in its stagnation couldnot completelyundowhat hadbroughttheOttomanstosuchdizzyingheights.Thefundamentalnatureofthe empire had to change and adapt to new geopolitical realities. Mostimportantwas the relationship between theOttoman state and the rest ofEurope. Viziers were pragmatic enough to recognize that unendingconflict with their Western neighbors would end in disaster. TheantagonisticrelationshipbetweentheOttomansandtherestofEuropethusbegan to fade as Ottoman viziers recognized the era of expansion wasoverbythe1600s.NowherewasthisclearerthanduringtheTulipPeriodthatlastedfrom

1718 to1730.During this time, thegrandvizierof theOttomanEmpire,NevşehirliDamat IbrahimPasha, charted a new coursewithEurope thatwas characterized by trade relations and cultural borrowing. Europeanartistic styles, particularly Baroque, were adopted by the Ottomans andfusedwithtraditionalIslamicstylestocreateanew,distinctivelook.Tulips(popular in the early eighteenth century in Western Europe) featuredstrongly in the art of this period.Despite the cultural flourishing of theTulipPeriod,amoresignificanttrendbegantoemergeintherelationshipbetweentheOttomanEmpireandWesternEurope.The stagnation and faltering of the Ottomans in the 1600s led to a

precipitousfall in the1700s.TheaforementionedTreatyofKarlowitzof1699 brought to light Ottoman weakness. But the subsequent wars andtreaties of the 1700smade the decline of theOttoman state clear for the

worldtosee.AnOttomanattempttoregainSouthernGreeceledtoafull-fledged war with Austria in the 1710s that ended with the Treaty ofPassarowitz, which ceded Serbia to the Austrian Empire in 1718. Anattempt to regain land that led to thefurther lossof territorywaswhollyindicativeof the situation theOttomanEmpirewas in.A fewdecadesofrelativepeacewerefollowedbyadisastrouswarwith theRussiansfrom1768to1774.TheRussiansmanagedtogaincontrolovertheCrimeaandtheNorthernCaucasus, and received vague assurances thatChristians intheOttomanrealmwouldbeprotected.Completepartitionoftheempireinthe late 1700swas only prevented by eruption of the FrenchRevolutionandEurope’spreoccupationwith it.By theendof theeighteenthcentury,theOttomanEmpirehadlosthugeamountsofterritoryinEurope.ThetidehadturnedinChristianEurope’sfavorforgood.Theeconomicandpoliticalconcessionstheywereforcedtomakewere

just as destructive as Ottoman military defeats. In what were known ascapitulations, the Ottoman government gave up effective control overhuge swaths of its own economy and society to Western Europe as itdeclined.SultansasearlyasSelimIhadsignedagreementswithFrance,whichgavetheFrenchspecialtradingprivilegeswithintheempire.Theseearly capitulations were mutually beneficial, as they strengthened thetradingtiesbetweentwoofEurope’slargesteconomies.AstheOttomansdeclined,thecapitulationstookonanewcharacter.Inexchangefordearlyneeded diplomatic support, the Ottomans agreed to give up jurisdictionoverFrenchcitizenswithintheirownborders.ThismeantthatFrenchmenwereeffectivelyimmunefromanykindofprosecutionorcontrolbytheOttoman government. By the mid-1700s, the Frenchmanaged to get allCatholicswithinOttomanbordersrecognizedasFrenchsubjects,andthusunderFrenchlaw.Furthermore,theyhadtherighttoextendFrenchlawtoanyOttomansubjecttheywanted.TheresultofthiswasthatChristiansinthe empire were given a huge economic boost; they were givenpreferentialtreatmentbytheFrench,whocoveredthempoliticallywiththecapitulationsandthenchosetotradeexclusivelywiththem.Themajorityof Ottoman overseas trade was now completely out of its control, andworse yet, the capitulations had to be renewed or even strengthenedthroughoutthe1700sastheOttomanscontinuedtoneedFrenchdiplomaticsupportinordertoavoidpartitionatthehandsofAustriaandRussia.The

factthattheOttomanEmpirewaswillingtogiveupsovereigntywithinitsownlandsisindicativeofhowtheempirehadweakenedbytheeighteenthcentury.

Sultan Abdulmecid I’s construction of extravagant palaces coupledwiththedisastrousCrimeanWarledtoadepletedOttomantreasury.Inresponse,foreignloansweretakenoutatveryhighinterestrates,furtherworseningthefinancialsituationoftheempire.

LiberalReforms

By 1800 it was clear the Ottoman Empire had to reform in order tosurvive.A series of sultans came to power in thenineteenth century thatsought toreclaimsomecontrolofadministrationfromthegrandviziersaswellasreformtheempirealongEuropeanlines.MahmudII (r.1808–1839) was the first of the reforming sultans. He reorganized Ottomangovernment to function in amore European style. Instead of competingviziers and their complex palace intrigues and bureaucracy, ministrieswere established to oversee foreign affairs, domestic affairs, justice,education, and other government departments. The janissary corps wasendedinabloodybattleonthestreetsofIstanbul,asMahmudestablishedhisNizam-iCedid (TheNewSystem),whichfollowedEuropeanmilitarypractices. Education was brought in line with European standards andFrench was taught alongside Turkish in schools. Even clothing wasreformed: the traditional turban and robe that government workers hadworn for centurieswere abolished in favor of trousers,military jacketsand leather boots. The fez became the ubiquitous headgear amonggovernmentworkersandregularcitizensalike.AsMahmudimplementedhis reforms, the expected opposition came from the religious scholarswho opposed such cultural borrowing from Europe as religiousinnovation. They were sidelined by the new, more powerful centralgovernment, which also began to exercise power in distant provinces,much to the chagrin of governors that had long experienced relative

autonomy.The reforms continued and accelerated under Mahmud’s sons,

AbdülmecidI(r.1839–1861)andAbdülaziz(r.1861–1876).Abdülmecid’sreign ushered in an era known as the Tanzimat, Turkish forreorganization.AlmostnoaspectofOttomangovernanceand social lifewasleftuntouchedbytheTanzimat.Europeannation-stateswereseenasaworthymodel to emulate, and expertswere brought in from the rest ofEurope to dictate changes that they believed were necessary for theOttoman Empire. The changes of the Tanzimat Era included a modernpostal system, a national bank, a census, tax reform, a proto-parliamentand an Ottoman national anthem. The education system was overhauledalongFrenchlines.AccordingtotheidealsoftheWest,secularscientificeducationwaspromotedover the religion-based education that had beenthenormthroughoutIslamichistory.Earlier inIslamichistory,scientificand religious research was seen as the same enterprise, and even theProphet had promoted the advancement of knowledge. But with theimpositionofFrenchsecularattitudes,scientificandreligiousknowledgewere separated, with science consideredmore valuable. As a result, thenewgenerationofOttomansprizedcareers inengineeringandmedicineovertheliberalartsandIslamicstudies,aculturalnormthatcontinuesinmuch of theMuslimworld today.According to the reformers and theirsupporters,thesewereallorganizationalreformsthatwerenecessaryfortheOttomanEmpiretofunctioneffectivelyinthe1800s.

ThesmallpoxvaccinationwasdevelopedintheOttomanEmpire.ThevaccinesubsequentlymadeitswaytoEnglandthroughthewifeofanEnglishambassadorwhoobservedthepracticeinIstanbul.

Butmore significantly, theTanzimatwas a fundamental change in theway the Ottoman Empire functioned legally. The old legal law codeestablished by Suleiman and his grand mufti in the 1500s was replacedwithanewonebasedontheFrenchsystem,whichprizedEnlightenment-inspirednaturalrightsasthebasisfortherelationshipbetweencitizensand

theirgovernment.NolongerwastheIslamicshari‘ahthebasisforlawintheOttomanEmpire. This infusion of secularism into theOttoman statewas met with opposition from more conservative elements. Since theirearliestdays,theOttomanshadpridedthemselvesonbeingrepresentativesand protectors of Islam.Osmanmanaged to become a popularghazi byleading the Islamic charge against the Christian Byzantine Empire.Mehmet II fulfilled the Prophet’s prediction of an IslamizedConstantinople. Selim I had brought the caliphate to Istanbul. Now theEmpire was shedding away that Islamic tradition in favor of a liberal,secular, Western approach that it borrowed from Europe. ThroughoutIslamic history, empires had based their rule on the Islamic shari‘ah;whether or not they actually followed it was a separate issue, but neverbefore had a Muslim empire nominally recognized secularism aslegitimatepolicy.According to thesultanandhisadvisors, the realityofthe times dictated it, and change was necessary in order to appeaseChristianEurope.AlongwiththeriseofsecularthoughtthatcamewiththeEnlightenment,

nationalismbecameapowerfulintellectualforceinthenineteenthcentury.Europeansacross thecontinentbegantoshuntheideaof traditionalpan-ethnicempires infavorofnation-states thatweredominatedbyethnicorlinguisticgroups.FortheOttomanEmpire,withitsTurks,Arabs,Kurds,Armenians, Jews, Serbs, Bosnians, Greeks and multitude of otherethnicities,theconceptofnationalismwasproblematic.WhentheGreeksmanagedtobecomeindependentoftheOttomans(withhelpfromtherestofChristianEurope)in1830,thethreatofnationalismbecamereal.Otherethnic groups within the empire could similarly seek independence,leadingtothecompletedismantlingoftheempireitself.Tocombatnationalism,newconceptsof identityandbelonginghadto

evolve within the borders of the Ottoman Empire. Some officials,particularly ones educated in Western Europe and influenced bynationalism, attempted to bind all Ottoman citizens around the idea ofOttomanism.Underthisidea,allOttomancitizens,regardlessofreligiousor ethnic affiliation, were considered equal. The Tanzimat Era’s legalreforms had already guaranteed that, but now all ethnic and religiousgroups of the empire were encouraged to identify as Ottomans aboveanythingelse.Inreality,however,Ottomanismfailedtounitetheempire’s

peoplearoundoneidentity.CapitulationtoEuropeanstatesstillmeantthatChristianshadahugeeconomicadvantagethatmostMuslimsdidnothave.NowMuslims did not even have any kind of legal or social advantageseither. Tensions between Muslims and Christians rose throughout theempire, asMuslims realized theywere fallingbehindasChristianswerebecomingmorepowerfulandinfluential.Intheend,thisattemptatunitingallOttomansasonepeopleonlyserved to increase tensionandagitationbetweenreligiousandethnicgroups.TheTanzimatEralasteduntil1876.Thereformsoftheperiodfailedto

slow the decline of the Ottoman state. Ottoman finances were still indisarray.UprisingsamongthemanyethnicgroupsoftheBalkansbecamemoreandmorefrequent.Ottomanismandreorganizationoftheprovincesfailedtoquellnationalisticfeeling.Meanwhile,WesternEuropeanpowerscontinuedtogrowinpowerandinfluenceasaneweraofimperialismandcolonialism commenced. Some Western-educated government officials,knownastheYoungOttomans,believedtheTanzimatfailedbecausetheywerenotliberalenough.TheyencouragedmoreEuropeansecularismandfurther limiting of the sultan’s powers. This powerful faction deposedSultanAbdülazizin1876andreplacedwithhisnephew,MuradV.Thenewsultanwasevenmoreincompetentthanhispredecessor,andhadanervousbreakdown after just a fewmonths in power.Hewas similarly removedandreplacedbyhisbrotherAbdülhamidII(r.1876–1909).Thisshufflingofthesultanatebythevizierswasmeanttobringforthleaderswhowouldcontinue the liberal reformsof theTanzimatEra.Abdülhamid II’s reign,however,didnotgoaccordingtoplan.

In1908,Abdülhamid II established an Islamicuniversity inBeijing,China,toserveChina’sHuiMuslims.

Pan-Islamism

Abdülhamid was probably one of the most well-prepared sultans theOttomanEmpirehadhadincenturies.Thesystemofroyalimprisonment

inaugurated by Ahmed I had faded by the nineteenth century, and, as aprince, Abdülhamid was able to travel Europe as part of diplomaticdelegationsandwasreasonablywelleducated.Inthemoldoftheclassicalera of Ottoman sultans, he was well-rounded and was an accomplishedpoet, a wrestler, and even fashioned most of his own furniture.Furthermore,unlikehisextravagantpredecessors, he shunned the luxuryof the new, expensive palaces along the Bosphorus in favor of morehumbleaccommodationatthesmallerandmoreremoteYıldızPalace.A capable leaderwas desperately neededwhen he came to the throne.

ThedisastrousRusso-TurkishWarof1877–78endedintheindependenceofRomania,SerbiaandMontenegro,andtheautonomyofBulgariawithintheOttomanEmpire.WhatwasleftofOttomancontrolintheBalkanswasslowlyslippingaway.SupportfromBritaininthe1870sheldtheOttomanEmpire together, which saw it as an effective buffer against Russianimperialism.Furthermore,theOttomanshadalreadydeclaredbankruptcyin1875andalargeportionofthebudgetwasallocatedtopayinginterestonthehugeforeigndebttheempirehadaccruedduringitsdecline.Although he had come to power promising to continue the liberal

Tanzimat reformsofhispredecessors,Abdülhamid took theempire inanewdirection.ThereformsthatattemptedtolimitthepowerofthesultaninfavorofanOttomanparliamentwereabandonedasAbdülhamidsoughtto bring back the traditional power of the sultanate. The constitutionwrittenandimplementedbyhisliberalgrandvizieratthebeginningofhisreignin1876wassuspendedindefinitelyin1878,ostensiblybecauseofthewarwithRussia.ForthefirsttimesincetheheydayofOttomanpowerinthe1500s,thesultanwastrulyinpower.Alongwith thepowerof thesultan,Abdülhamidbroughtbackanother

forgottenaspectoftheOttomandynasty:thecaliphate.TheOttomanshadheld the titleofcaliphsinceSelimIconqueredEgypt in1517,but itwasseldomused.ToAbdülhamid,however,hispositionastheinheritoroftheoffice that started with Abu Bakr was of upmost importance. It wasespecially significant becausewith the loss of somuchChristianBalkanterritory, the Ottoman Empire was now a Muslim-majority state. TheTurks,Arabs,AlbaniansandotherMuslimgroupswithintheempirewerejoined by Muslim refugees who were expelled by Christian powers inEurope—including the Circassians, who were ethnically cleansed from

southern Russia in the 1860s. Getting his subjects to unify around theirIslamicidentityandallegiancetothecaliphatewaseasierthantheinventedidentity Ottomanism promoted. Furthermore, with so many MuslimslivingunderEuropeanimperialdominationinIndia,AfricaandSoutheastAsia, he could use his position as the spiritual leader of the world’sMuslimsas leveragewhendealingwithEuropean imperialpowers.Pan-Islamism was heavily promoted during his reign as he hoped it wouldbreathenewenergyintoanOttomanEmpireonitslastwind.HopingtouniteMuslimsaroundtheideaofPan-Islamism,Abdülhamid

undertookaseriesofprojectsaimedatbringingbacktheorthodoxIslamicnatureoftheOttomanEmpirewhichhadfadedduringtheTanzimatyears.Railwayswere laidacross theempire,butof special importancewas theHijaz railway, which stretched from Istanbul to Medina. Logistically, itmadesensetolinktheOttomanEmpirewithitsfarthestprovinces,andtomakethearduoushajjjourneyeasierforpilgrimstraversingtheArabianDesert. The railway also served as a spiritual link between theOttomancaliphateinIstanbulandthelocationofthefirstMuslimstate,ruledbytheProphet.Delegationswere sent toMuslim communities outsideOttomanborders,as farawayasSub-SaharanAfricaandChina.Loyalty fromtheworld’s Muslims could be useful to a sultan dealing with the growingpowerofEurope.InoneparticularlyimpressiveactofIslamicbravado,hefamously turned downTheodorHerzl and the Zionistmovement,whichoffered to buy Palestine in exchange for paying down some of theempire’sloomingforeigndebts.Abdülhamid’s goal of pan-Islamism coincided with the non-secular

aspects of the Tanzimat, and reforms aimed at strengthening the empirecontinued. Grand viziers were appointed with the goal of reorganizinggovernment bureaucracy in the hopes of becoming more efficient andcompetitivewithEuropean powers.Revenues increased during his reignand corruption subsided slowly.Germanmilitary advisorswerebroughtintomodernizeandtraintheOttomanarmy,whilenewnavalshipswereordered from Britain, France and the United States. Education wasexpanded throughout the empire, as elementary and secondary schoolswereestablishedtocompetewiththeforeignschoolsfundedbyChristianmissionary schools. By 1895, over amillion students across the empirewereenrolledinpublicschools,leadingtoajumpintheliteracyrate.

Despite his efforts at modernizing the empire while maintaining itsIslamicandmonarchicalnature,Abdülhamidwasunabletostopthespreadof liberalism and secularismwithin his domain. The European-educatedelitesneverstoppedhopingforanewOttomanstatebasedontheidealsofWesternEurope,andin1909,AbdülhamidwasdeposedbyasecretsocietyknownastheYoungTurks.SupportedbyOttomanChristiansandinspiredby European secular liberalism, the Young Turks managed to endAbdülhamid’s thirty-three-year reign and its Islamic-orientedadministration.Theychosenottoendthesultanate,however.Forthenextthirteenyears,twomoresultanswouldreign,butonlyaspuppetswithnoauthority.RealpowerfortherestofOttomanhistorywasinthehandsoftheYoungTurks.

India

AftertheapogeeofMughalruleinIndiathatoccurredduringthereignofAurangzeb,thecentralizednatureoftheempirebegantounravel.Sinceitsearliest days, theMughal Empire had efficiently managed to turn othersovereignrulersintosubordinatesratherthaneliminatethemoutright,astheOttomanstendedtodo.Eveninitsheyday,theMughalEmpirewasanamalgamation of various kings and governors owing allegiance to theMughal emperor. This allegiance began to wane in the years afterAurangzeb’sdeath.Themainreasonforthiswasthedestabilizingwarsofsuccession that wracked the empire. His son Azam Shah ruled for onlythree months before being killed by his half-brother, Bahadur Shah, in1707,who in turn only ruled for five years before his owndeath.Moreineffectiveleadersfollowed.Inall,fiveemperorsruledinthetwelveyearsafterAurangzeb.Withcentralauthoritydescendingintoinstability,localleadersbeganto

actasindependentsovereigns.TheystillnominallyacceptedtheauthorityoftheMughalstateastheiroverlords,butinpracticalmatters,theMughalshadlittletodowithwhathappenedintheprovinces.EvenwhenEmperorMuhammadShah(r.1719–1748)managedtoprovidestabilityandruletheempire foralmost thirtyyears, local rulershad littleuse for theMughalgovernment.ThefragmentationoftheMughalEmpirehadalreadybegun.

In the early eighteenth century, India owned twenty-five per cent oftheworld’swealth.

Astheempireasawholebegantounravelandbreakupintoeffectivelyindependent states throughout the 1700s, instability reigned. Echoing theTaifaperiodofal-Andalus,pettykingdomsruledbyMuslimsandHindusarose, seeking to become the new dominant power in the IndianSubcontinent. Pashtuns, Bengalis, Sikhs, Hindu Marathas and even theBritishwereactiveinthestruggleforpowerinpost-AurangzebIndia.ThePashtunsinthenorth,ledbyAhmadShahDurrani,managedtoestablishanindependentkingdomthatwouldlaterevolveintomodernAfghanistanbytaking land from thedecliningSafavidandMughalEmpires.Sikhs,whostrongly resentedMughalauthorityafter thedeathofAkbar,managed toexercise more autonomy through militaristic domination of the Punjabregion. The Marathas, a confederacy of Hindus in the Western Deccanwere one of the biggest threats to the Mughal Empire’s continuedexistence.TheymanagedtoconquermostofnorthernandcentralIndiabythe mid-1700s, only to be eventually marginalized by the Afghans andSafavidsintheNorth,andtheindependentstateofMysoreinthesouth.As states rose and fell in their quest for power in eighteenth century

India,Britainentered thefray.TheBritishEast IndiaCompany,a tradingentity that had been doing business in India since the early 1600s, useddisunity throughout India to expand its own control in the subcontinent.Beginninginthe1740s,theBritishcompanybegantogetinvolvedinthewarsintheDeccan,offeringfinancialsupportandtroopsinexchangeforexclusive trading privileges from local rulers. From the Britishperspective,thishadthedoublebenefitofexpandingtheirowneconomicopportunities in India, while simultaneously pushing French merchantsout.Withindecades,theBritishmanagedtoleveragetheirpositioninIndiato obtain trading rights throughout much of the country as well asauthority as tax collectors and government advisors along much of theIndianOceancoast.TheBritishevenmanagedtoinstalltheirownfavored

governmentinBengalin1757byusingpartypoliticsintheregiontotheiradvantage.Bythe lateeighteenthcentury, theBritishEast IndiaCompanyhadrisenfrombeingonepoweramongmanyinadisjointedIndiatotheleadingpoliticalforce,with itsownindependentadministration,military,economicandpoliticalgoals.SeveralfactorsmadetheEastIndiaCompany’speriodofruleonethat

wasdisastrous for India,particularly the subcontinent’sMuslims.Firstly,thepurposeofanycompanyisnottoruleaccordingtolawandorder,butrather tomakemoneyforstockholders.Thuscompanyrule in Indiawashorribly exploitative, evenby the standardsEuropeangovernmentswereestablishing in the eighteenth century throughout the world. British freetrade rights devastated economic competition from local merchants,leading to monopolies over many goods and crafts wherein the Britishcouldexploitlocalpopulationsforrevenue.TheCompanywasespeciallydisastrous forMuslims.TheBritish,keen tomake sure that theMughalsremained unable to rise again as amajor power, tended to favorHindumiddlemenoverMuslimones.Hindus thushadhugeadvantagesopen tothem that Muslims were generally excluded from. Furthermore, theMuslim-ruled areas in the north were fertile ground on which Britishpowercouldgrow,incontrasttotheHindusouth,whereMysoremanagedtoholdoffBritishadvancesinthe1700s.JustlikeintheOttomanEmpire,thenineteenthcenturysawthecomplete

domination of India byWestern powers, namely Britain. Officially, theEastIndiaCompanydidnothaverealsovereigntyovermostofIndia,andonly exercised control through the myriad local rulers for whom theyservedasadvisorsandtaxcollectors.ThatchangedwhenIndiansoldiersserving in the Company army, known as sepoys,mutinied in 1857. ThesparkthatlittheSepoyRebellionwastheirdiscoverythatthegunpowdercartridgestheyhadtobiteontoopenweregreasedwithpigandcowfat,whichwasobjectionabletobothMuslimandHindusoldiers.Therebellionexhibited a deep-seated resentment of the British, who were plunderingIndia as part of their global empire. In any case, the rebellion ended infailurefortheIndians,butitalsoprecipitatedintheendof theEastIndiaCompany’s rule over the subcontinent.TheBritish government chose toconfiscatecompanylandsandruleIndiaasanimperialentityknownastheBritishRaj.AlthoughbothMuslimsandHindusparticipatedintherevolt,

Muslims were given most of the blame, and their social status in Indiacontinued to sink as a result.Furthermore, theMughalEmpire,which atthispointonlyexistedasanominalentityundertheBritish,wasofficiallyabolished as punishment forEmperorBahadur Shah II’s support for therebellion.Itwouldnotbeuntil1947andtheestablishmentofPakistanthatMuslimswouldonceagainruleintheIndianSubcontinent.

Africa,CentralandSoutheastAsia

European imperialism managed to take a more direct role in the landsfurtherawayfromthetraditionalcentersofMuslimpowerinIstanbulandDelhi.TheOttomanandMughalEmpiresmanagedtoretainautonomyforawhilebecauseoftheironce-greatpower,butsmaller,independentstateson the edges of the Muslim world stood no chance in the face of theoncoming European onslaught. Britain, France, Russia and theNetherlands managed to conquer Muslim populations and add them totheirexpandingimperialdomains.TheMediterraneancoastofNorthAfricahadbeennominallyOttoman

since the sixteenth century. Its influence and control here nevermatchedwhatitexercisedintheBalkans,AnatoliaandmostoftheMiddleEast,butlocal governors still owed their allegiance to the Ottoman sultanate,especially since Ottoman navies had helped defend North Africa fromSpanishencroachmentinthe1500s.Inthesubsequentcenturies,atraditionof raids and counter raids existed in the Mediterranean between theMuslimsofNorthAfrica and thegrowingnaval powersofEurope.TheEuropeansviewed theNorthAfrican raiders,based inportcitiessuchasAlgiers, Tunis and Tripoli, as uncouth pirateswho preyed on Europeanshipping(thewordbarbarianevenderivesfromthenativepeopleofNorthAfrica, the Berbers), while the Muslim sailors viewed themselves asdefenders of the Islamic domain and the Europeans as uncivilized warfolk.Inanycase,bythelate1700s,thetidehadturnedinEurope’sfavor.European navies, buoyed by their overseas empires obtained the upperhandovertheNorthAfricans,whosurvivedmostlyonseizingEuropeanships. ThusEuropeanswere finally able to reach themainland ofNorthAfrica,bombardingitsmajorcitiessuchasAlgiersandTripoli.Eventhenewly-establishedUnitedStatesofAmericagotinontheaction,attacking

Tripoliin1805.ItdidnottakelongforNorthAfricatofalltoitsperennialenemies.The

FrenchattackedAlgiersanditssurroundingterritoryin1830,carvingoutthe colony of French Algeria. Unlike other French overseas territories,AlgeriawasashorthopacrosstheMediterraneanSea.Thus,Algeriawasnotseenasacolony,butasapartofFranceitself.Hundredsofthousandsof French people moved to Algeria, dominating its local economy andculturewhile itsnative inhabitantswere reduced to second-classcitizens.Tunisiawassimilarlyinvadedandconqueredin1881.In1911,thenewly-unified Kingdom of Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire andmanaged to wrest the provinces of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan,whichitmergedintoonecolony:Libya.Morocco,inthefarwestofNorthAfrica, managed to remain nominally independent, but was carved intozonesof influence,and laterprotectorates,bySpainandFrance.Muslimself-rule over the Maghreb, which had been unbroken since ‘Uqba ibnNafi‘ swept the region in the600s,wasover in thenineteenthcenturyasEuropeannationsscrambledtoclaimterritoryastheirown.Egypt was a unique case, separate from its western neighbors. As a

lucrativeagriculturalland,theFrenchhadtheireyesonitwellbeforetherest of North Africa. Napoleon invaded the Ottoman-controlled land in1798inanefforttoprotectFrenchanddisruptBritishtradeintheregion.Thecampaignendedinfailure,andinthepowervacuumthatfollowedtheinvasion,anOttomanmilitarycommander,MehmetAli,managedtoseizepower for himself in Egypt. While remaining officially loyal to theOttomansultanate,MehmetAliruledEgyptasanindependentmonarch.HeundertookreformsaimedatmodernizingEgyptalongEuropeanlineswellbefore the Ottomans got into the Tanzimat Era, thus leading to hugeEuropeaninfluenceintheancientland.MehmetAli’ssuccessorscontinuedhisleantowardsEurope,andEuropeansreciprocatedbyinvestingheavilyintheregion,culminatingwiththeconstructionoftheSuezCanalin1869,financedbytheFrench.ThegrowingroleofEuropeannationsinshapingEgyptledtopopulardemonstrationsinfavorofEgyptiannationalismandagainst the ruling dynasty in the 1880s. Using the excuse of protectingtheir financial investments, the British and French governments invadedEgypt in1882,defeated thenationalistsandproppingup theMehmetAlidynasty.Fromthenon,EgyptwasundermilitaryoccupationbytheBritish,

althoughitofficiallyremainedanOttomanterritoryuntil1914.

On27August1896,BritaindefeatedZanzibar in theshortestwar inhistory, lastingonly fortyminutes.The impetus for thewarwas thesuccession to theZanzibari throne of a sultanwhowanted tomoveZanzibaroutofBritain’ssphereofinfluence.

European colonialismwas not limited to the north ofAfrica. RemoteWestAfricanMuslimstatesandthetrade-basedstatesof theEastAfricancoast also fell to European encroachment.West Africa, already heavilydepopulated because of the Atlantic slave trade that began soon afterEuropeancolonizationoftheNewWorldinthesixteenthcentury,wasbythis time incapable of resisting invasion.The coastal areas,where Islamhadnotpenetratedverydeeply,wereby thenineteenthcenturydependentonEuropeantradersinthemajorportcities.Fromthesesbases,theFrenchquicklymoved inland in the late 1800s. TheMuslim states of theNigerRiverValley,longprotectedbythevastSaharatothenorthandthedenseforests to thesouth,wereunpreparedfor theFrenchonslaught.By1895,the greater part ofWest Africa was brought under French control. TheEuropeans plundered the great cities that were once centers of Islamicknowledge, in particular Timbuktu. The wealth and power of medievalMali became nomore than amemory asWest Africa was incorporatedintothecolonizedworlddominatedbycompetingEuropeanpowers.InEastAfrica,theBritishtooktheimperiallead.TheSwahilicoastwas

vitaltoBritishplanstocontrolAfricaalonganorth-southaxisfromEgyptto South Africa. But since the early 1700s, Oman, a country along thesoutheasterncoastofArabia,controlledamaritimeempire thatstretchedalongtheEastAfricancoast.ItsmainbasewasthecityofZanzibar,inwhatis now Tanzania. From here, the Omanis controlled coastal trade andexertedconsiderableinfluenceoverinlandregions.BythistimetheIndianOcean trade routes were not nearly as important as the Atlantic onesdominated by Europe. The Omanis were thus forced to deal with theBritish,whogainedinfluenceovertheOmanigovernmentthroughoutthe

1800s. When a succession crisis arose in 1856, the British forced theseparation of Oman and Zanzibar into two states, thus weakening both.Furthermore, the British banned the inland slave trade, upon which thegovernment relied forwealth, furtherweakeningMuslimcontrol inEastAfrica.When the Zanzibari government could not control its territorieseffectively,theBritishtooktheopportunitytoestablishaprotectorateovertheentireregion.Thesystemofdivideandconquer,whichworkedsowellfor European imperial powers, proved its effectiveness in reducing theonce-wealthy and powerful East African coast to just another Europeandependency.In Central Asia, the Russians took the leading role in conquering

Muslim lands. Russia had conquered the Tatar Muslims of the Volgaregionasearlyasthe1500s,alongwiththeirtraditionalcapitalatKazan.Despite centuries of oppressive policies imposed by Russia’s tsars, theTatarsre-emergedasapowerfuleconomicforcebythenineteenthcentury.TheyservedasmiddlemeninthetradebetweenChristianRussia,ofwhichtheywerecitizens,andtheTurkishlandsofCentralAsia,wheretheycouldmeetasequalswiththeirMuslimbrothers.TheTurkswere,bythis time,divided into numerous petty states scattered throughout the deserts ofCentral Asia. Despite being home to some of the greatest centers ofknowledgeinIslamichistory,suchasSamarkandandBukhara,thehomeofImamal-Bukhari,CentralAsiawasgeographicallyseparatedfromtherestof theSunniworldbyPersia.Anislandoftheirown,surroundedbythePersians and encroachingBritish in the south,China to the east, andRussiatothenorth,theTurksofCentralAsiawereinnopositiontoholdoff Russian influence. The Russians, using their economic ties with theregionasanexcusetobecomemorepoliticallyinvolved,begantoannexlands in Central Asia in the 1800s, aided greatly by new railroads thatlinked the region with the center of Russian power further west. TheRussianadvancealarmedtheBritishwhoruledoverIndia,promptingtheirincursion into Afghanistan, seeking to counter the Russians. The entireconflict and rivalrybetween the twopowersdividingupMuslimCentralAsiabetween thembecameknownas theGreatGame.By the endof thecentury,theRussiansmanagedtoconquertheentiretyoftheTurkishlandsallthewayuptoPersian-dominatedKhurasan,whiletheAfghanhighlandsformedabufferagainstRussianimperialismtothesouth.

Whileneither theRussiansnor theBritishmanaged to conquerPersiaoutright, they both exerted considerable influence in the country. TheQajar Dynasty, successors to the Safavids since the late 1700s,increasinglyfellundertheinfluenceoftheRussians,whopresseduponitsnorthernborders.Russianegotiated“treaties”withPersia thatgave themspecial political and economic privileges,much like the capitulations oftheOttomans.TheRussiansheldswayinTehran,buttheBritish,throughtheir systems of protectorates over Arab sheikhdoms along the PersianGulf coast, exercised a sphere of influence over the southern part ofPersia.PoliticalandeconomicindependenceinthePersianhomelandwaseffectivelyoverbytheendofthenineteenthcenturyasRussiaandBritaincompetedtotakeadvantageofthecountryanditsresources.The trend ofEuropean colonialism taking advantage ofweakMuslim

states continued in the most easterly of Muslim lands in the MalayArchipelago.Here, theDutch extended their trading empire inmuch thesame way as the British did in India. The Dutch East India CompanyestablishedbasesthroughoutSoutheastAsiafromwhichtheytradedspiceswith the local Muslim kingdoms. The commercial colonizers did nothesitatetousemilitarymighttoextendcommercialopportunities.In1641,the Dutch forced the Portuguese out of the important port of Malacca,which they had occupied since 1511. In 1621, the Dutch in the BandaIslands massacred over 10,000 people in an effort to solidify Dutchcontroloverthenutmegcropintheregion.Usingsuchbrutality,theDutchquickly managed to conquer most of the Malay Archipelago in thenineteenthcentury.LocalMuslimsultanatesinJavaandSumatradidnotgopeacefully,andrevoltsagainstDutchrulewereaconstantthorninthesideofcolonialcontrol.ThevasteconomicresourcesoftheDutch,combinedwith their superior technology and the lack of help from the rest of theMuslimworld, led to aDutch empire in Southeast Asia that lasted untilaftertheSecondWorldWar.

In the sixteenth century, the Ottomans sent naval expeditions to theSultanateofAcehtoaidlocalresistancetoDutchimperialism.

Overall, thenineteenthcenturysawthe lossofMuslimpoliticalpoweracrosstheMuslimworld.Britain,France,Holland,Russia,andothersalltookadvantageofEurope’sgrowingpowerrelative.ThereisnodoubtthatinmanycasesEuropeansbelieved themselves tobeworthyof ruling theworld due to their “enlightened” governments, economic power, andorganized and powerful militaries. Conquering the world and teachingnative peoples how to live in a Western fashion was the “white man’sburden”, as Rudyard Kipling so famously wrote. With this sense ofculturalandcivilizationalsuperiority,Europeancolonizersobviouslydidnot care much for local traditions or customs. This was not due to anignorance of Islamic history. In fact, the nineteenth century was whenEuropean fascination with the East reached a high tide. Books on theProphet, Islamic history and Muslim beliefs were published in all themajorcitiesofEurope.It was perhaps because of this recognition of Islamic history and the

potentialpoliticalandculturalpowerofMuslims thatEuropeans insistedon there being no native control over Muslim lands. The concept of“divideandconquer”waseffectiveduring thefirstoutburstofEuropeanimperialismintheNewWorldinthe1500s.Inthe1800sitwasusedagain,thistimetofractureaMuslimworldthathadexperiencedimmensepowerduring times of unity under the Umayyads, Abbasids and Ottomans.Arbitrary borders were drawn by Europeans which did not take intoaccount local identities or political histories in an effort to divide upMuslim political capital and make the conquered territories easier tosubjugateandrule.Piecebypiece,theMuslimworldwastakenbyEurope,sothatbytheoutbreakoftheFirstWorldWarin1914,thevastmajorityofMuslims were under foreign occupation. Major questions arose amongMuslimsduring this timeabouthowGodcouldallowthis tohappenandwhat thismeant for the futureof Islam in themodernworld.ThepeopletryingtoanswerthesequestionswouldspearheadanattemptatanIslamicrevival, aimed at pushing back the European tide and reasserting thedominanceoftheMuslimworld.

11

OLDANDNEWIDEAS

OneofthecentralthemesofIslamisitsfinalityandperfection.Somanypeople abandoned pagan beliefs and followed the Prophet MuhammadbecausetheybelievedhewasinspiredbyGodandbroughttohumanityatruereligionthatwouldrevolutionizetheworld.TheearlygenerationsofMuslimsbelievedthatIslam’searlyhistoryverifiedthetruthofIslam.ThefirsthundredyearsafterthedeathoftheProphetsawthespreadofMuslimpoliticalcontrolfromsouthernFrancetoIndia,despitecompetitionfromestablished and powerful empires. When military expansion ended,Muslimsledtheworldinadvancingsciencetonewfrontiers,influencingscientific history throughout the known world. The setbacks of theCrusadesandMongolinvasionsprovedtobenothingmorethanathorninthesideofIslamichistory,astheywerefollowedbytheriseofevenmorepowerful empires. TomanyMuslims, the proof of Islam’s truthwas itshistoricalrecord,andthemiraculousnatureofIslamichistory.ButthenthedeclineofMuslimcivilizationanditssubsequentconquest

by Europe could be theologically problematic. If Muslims were indeedfollowingatruereligion,anditshistorywasproofofthat,thenwhatcouldbemadeoftheseeminglyfinaltriumphofEuropeovertheMuslimworld?Throughout the eighteenth through twentieth centuries,Muslim scholarswouldriseuptoanswerthatquestionbytryingtoreviveIslam,inanefforttobringbackthoseglorydaysthathadsolidifiedthefaithofgenerations.No matter their location, these revivers had one theme in common: areturntoIslamicpracticewasnecessaryforanIslamicrevival.IfMuslimswould just practice Islam as the early generations had, thenGodwouldrewardthemwithsuccess.Ontheotherhand,however,anewclassofscholarsarosethatdisagreed

with the traditionalist view of those revivers. Intellectuals influenced bymodern European ideas like secularism and nationalism argued thatMuslimsshouldemulatetheWest.EuropehadgonefromtheDarkAgestoworldconquerors,sotheymustbedoingsomethingright,theyreasoned.In their minds, the Muslim world had fallen so far behind precisely

becauseitwassofocusedonreligionandbringingbacktheglorydaysofearlyIslamichistory,insteadofmodernizingaccordingtonewideasandphilosophies.These twocontradictingapproaches to revitalizingMuslimcivilization battled each other intellectually (and sometimes physically)throughout the twentiethcentury,andcontinue toaffect thewayMuslimsthinktoday.

TheWesternApproach

As theWest continued toconsolidate its controloverMuslim lands (andthe rest of the world in general), not all who were subjugated by itsimperial policies looked back to Islam’s early days to find a model toemulate. Some looked towardsWestern ideas and philosophies to find apath to independence and self-determination. The major philosophicaltrendspopularinEuropeinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,namelynationalismand secularism,were adoptedbymany in theMuslimworldwhohopedtocopyEurope’srisetopowerovertherestoftheworld.The rise of new political ideas coincided with a change in the social

lives ofMuslims underEuropean control. In the early twentieth century,thecitiesthathadonceservedasthecentersofMuslimsocialandpoliticallife—Cairo,Damascus andBaghdad—served asmeeting places betweencenturies-old Muslim and post-Enlightenment European societies.European tourists, government officials and missionaries mixed freelywith Muslim civilians, who were clearly affected by this exposure toWestern culture. Everything from European architecture to musicpermeatedArabsociety.MuslimsinhighpositionsingovernmentalreadydressedlikeWesternerssinceMahmudII’sreformsacenturyearlier,butnow they also talked, acted and lived like Westerners. European-styleorchestrasplayedWesternscores,cinemasscreenedWesternmovies,anddance clubs opened. If something could be found inParis orLondon, itcouldalsobefoundinCairoandBeirut.Evenintheconfinesofthehome,lifechanged.SpeakingEnglishorFrenchwiththefamilywasconsideredasign of high class. Consumption of alcohol—banned according to theQuranandculturallytabooforcenturies—becamemorewidespread.

The emphasis on Western modernism led to the establishment ofnumerouspublishinghouseswhichusedprintingpressesinCairo.Asa result, Egypt became a nexus of Arab culture, a position itmaintainedintothetwentiethcentury.

It is interesting to note that while Muslims, particularly in the Arablands,adoptedWesternculture,Westernerslivingamongthemfordecadesrarely adopted aspects of Arab culture. Throughout Islamic history, thecitieshadalwaysbeenthemeetingplacesofcultures,traditionsandideas.Abbasid Baghdad and Ottoman Istanbul in particular owed part of theirgreatnesstothediversepeopleslivingwithintheirwalls.Butthetwentiethcentury interaction between East andWest was different. The two sideswere not meeting on an equal footing.Western society and culture (theconquerors) were associated with power and influence. TraditionalMuslim society and culture (the conquered) were now associated withbackwardnessandimpotence.Thepolitical realityof theera trumpedtheformer greatness of Muslim civilization in the minds of many city-dwellers.ItwasonlynaturalforthemtoadoptWesterncultureandnormsinanattempttoemulatethepoweroftheiroccupiers.Withtheadoptionofnew social ideas came the adoption ofWestern ideas about politics andgovernment.Themainavenuefor theentranceof these ideas into theArabMuslim

world was through Arab Christians. Due to the capitulation agreementsthat the Ottomans had with European nations, Christian communitieswithin the empire had extensive contact withWestern European powers.Europeanmerchants,missionariesanddiplomatsworkingintheOttomanEmpire brought Christians intellectually in line with the West just asEurope was shedding its religiously-based past in favor of liberalgovernments,nationalismandsecularphilosophies.Thiswascoupledwithan awakening ofArab intellectual and literary history, asArab thinkers,especially inBeirutandCairo,capitalizedon thedesireamongArabs toachievetheformergreatnessoftheirUmayyadandAbbasidancestorswho

ledtheworldineverythingfrommilitaryexpansiontoscientificinquiry.The religious dimensions of those earlier empires were downplayed infavoroftheirArablanguageandidentity.IntheviewoftheleadersofthisArabawakening, if theArabswanted to re-establish theglorydays, theyneededtobandtogetherasArabs,notasMuslims,andunite.Furthermore,for the Arab Christians who led this movement in the nineteenth andtwentiethcenturies, thedemiseof the Islamic identity in favorof secularnationalismwouldleadtotheirownsocialelevation,astherewouldbenodifferentiatingbetweenMuslimandChristian.Thepan-IslamicfocusofSultanAbdülhamidIIinthelate1800sstifled

any sense of popular Arab nationalism. Christian Arabs could notconvincefellowArabsoftheirideassolongasthecaliphwaspromisingtoreclaimthehistoricgloryoftheIslamicempiresinthenameofIslamand not nationalism. When Abdülhamid was overthrown in 1909, theOttoman government fell into the hands of the Young Turks and theirnationalistic, secular focus. As the pan-Islamism of Abdülhamid fadedaway in favor of Turkish nationalism, the line between Turk and Arabbecamepainfullyobviousamongsubjectsof theOttomanEmpire.Arabsalready had a tough time establishing themselves politically in theoverwhelmingly Turkish empire, and the rise of the Young Turks onlymade them feelmore alienated. Thus the nationalistic ideas ofChristianArabs began to be adopted by Arab Muslims as well. Ottoman Syriabecame a hub for this Arab nationalism. Secret societies in Damascus,aimedatestablishinganArabstate,flourishedunderthenosesofOttomanofficials. By the 1910s, they were in contact with Western EuropeanpowerswhowereeagertofinallydismembertheOttomanEmpirethathadbeenthebaneofEuropeanpowersforcenturies.

TraditionalRevivalists

ThefirsttotrytorevivetraditionalIslamashesawitwasMuhammadibn‘Abdal-Wahhab(1703–1792).BelongingtoanArabtribefromthedesertsof theArabian Peninsula, he lived a lifestyle probably not too differentfromthelifestylesoftheArabsduringthelifeoftheProphet1100yearsbefore.HefollowedintheHanbalitraditionofAhmadibnHanbalandIbnTaymiyyah that stressed the superiority of authentic prophetic traditions

over all else. Despite the fact that he lived beyond the borders of theOttomanEmpire’scontrol,ibn‘Abdal-WahhabwasprobablyawareofthestagnationanddeclineoftheempireandtheriseoftheWest.Inhiseyes,thiswas due toMuslims having lost theirway and no longer practicingIslam as the Prophet and his companions practiced it. He railed againstSufis, Shi‘as,modernists and others that, according to him, had broughtun-Islamic innovations intomainstreamMuslimlife.Like theKharijisofthe 600s, ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab and his followers argued that the vastmajorityofMuslimshadfallenintodisbelief.Toredeemthemselves,theymust all go back to following a pristine, unchanged form of Islamidentical to how the early generations of Muslims, the salaf (meaning“predecessors”),practiced.ThemovementevolvedintowhatisknownasSalafism,theideathatMuslimsshouldconstantlybetryingtoemulatetheearlygenerationsofMuslimsinallaspectsoftheirlives.Ibn‘Abdal-WahhabfoundafollowerinMuhammadibnSa‘ud,aleader

ofasmallsettlement in theArabianDesert. Inexchangefor ibn‘Abdal-Wahhab’s support, ibn Sa‘ud agreed to promote his puritan ideas aboutIslamthroughouthisgrowingkingdom.Thepactremainedinplaceaftertheir deaths,with ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab’s descendants providing religiouslegitimacyandibnSa‘ud’sdescendantsprovidingpoliticalpowerfor theSaudi state. The Salafimovementmay not have hadmuch of an impactoutsidethedesertsofArabiahaditnotbeenforthemeteoricgrowthoftheSaudistate.Bytheearly1800s, theSaudishadmanagedtoconquerhugetracts of the Arabian Peninsula, including Mecca and Medina. Despitebeing expelled from the holy cities less than twenty years later, Saudicontrol over the pilgrimage sites allowed them to spread their ideas topilgrimsfromallovertheworld.Itwouldtakecenturiesbeforeibn‘Abdal-Wahhab’smovement gained real, lasting power in the 1900swith theestablishmentofmodernSaudiArabia.Whilevery fewfullyadopted theSalafi movement, the idea of an Islamic revival based on the earlygenerations of Muslims greatly influenced Islamic thinkers around theworld,especiallyinlightofthecomingWesterndeluge.Furthereast,inanunstableanddisunitedpost-AurangzebIndia,another

reformerattempted tobringbacktraditionalIslaminachangingsociety.ShahWaliullah (1703–1762)was a scholar of Islamwho feared that thedisunity of India’s Muslims, coupled with the resurgence of its Hindu

population,wouldleadtothebreakdownof traditionalsociety.Hisfocuswas on the social aspects of the shari‘ah and how it was necessary topreventthecompletecollapseofIslaminthesubcontinent.Akeenstudentofhistory, he recognized that ifMughal India continuedalongapathofdisunityandcivilwar,otherswouldrisetopowerintheirplace.Muchlikeibn‘Abdal-Wahhab,headvocatedfortherevivalofIslamictradition,butunlikehiscontemporary,hedidnotleadacalltoarmsagainstallMuslimshe disagreed with. Muslims were, after all, the minority in India, anddisunity among them could lead to their ultimate end, as it had in Al-Andalus200yearspreviously.Insteadheadvocatedabroadunity,bringingtogethervarioustraditions,ethnicities,andideasunderthebannerofIslamto at least slow down the decline of Islamic political power. While theMughals did end up falling by the next century, the Islamically-orientedsocialphilosophyofShahWaliullahplayedahugeintellectualroleintheIndian subcontinent. It was commonly called upon in opposition to theincreasingwesternization of India’s upper classes and the rise ofHindupoliticalpower.NotallreformerstotallyopposedallWesternideas.Someinfact tried

to reconcile what they considered to be beneficial from the West withtraditional Islam. During the British occupation in the late-1800s andearly-1900s, Egypt was at the front line between Islamic tradition andWestern imperialism.Al-AzharUniversity inCairo had been one of themaincentersof Islamic thought since itsconversion intoaSunni schoolbySalahal-Dininthetwelfthcentury.ButitnolongerdominatedEgyptianintellectualism. IncreasingEuropean influence—both political and social—permeatedthroughoutEgyptiansociety,especiallyduetothereformsofMehmetAli and his descendants. An Egyptian schoolteacher, Hassan al-Banna (1906–1949), sought to bring together Western modernism withtraditional Islamic values. The Muslim Brotherhood—Al-Banna’sorganization—attemptedtojoinArabnationalismwithIslamicvaluesandsocialactivism.Schools,hospitalsandsocialwelfareorganizationswereestablishedbytheBrotherhoodinanefforttoreachalllevelsofEgyptiansocietyandencouragethemtoreformtheirlivesinaccordancewithIslam.Western sciences and organizational ideas were adopted by theBrotherhood, but secularism was not. This middle ground approachprovedimmenselypopularamongEgyptians,buttheriseofstrictsecular

nationalism in the Arab world and in Egypt specifically would lead todecadesofpersecutionfortheBrotherhood.

ThePartition

UltimatelyitwouldnotbenativeAraborTurkishnationalismthatwouldleadtoanewpoliticalorderintheMiddleEast.In1914,ArchdukeFranzFerdinand ofAustria-Hungarywas assassinated inSarajevo, andEuropewasplunged into theFirstWorldWar.TheOttomangovernment, ledbythree influentialYoungTurks (Isma‘ilEnver,MehmetTalaatandAhmedDjemel) known as the Three Pashas, joined the war on the side ofGermany, against Britain, France and Russia. The Germans had beenmilitaryadvisorsfortheOttomansfordecades,andtheOttomanshopedtousethewartoreclaimsomeofitslostterritories(namelyEgypt)andwintheforgivenessofitshugeforeigndebts.TheOttomanswere in no position tomake gains. Theirmilitarywas

hopelesslyoutdatedandlackedeffectiveleadership.Ethnictensionsintheempire—including the back-and-forth conflict between Turks andArmenians—preventedtheempirefromdrawingonpublicsupportforthewar effort. Furthermore, by the time the Ottomans joined the war inOctoberof1914,itwasclearthattheirallies,theGermans,hadnohopeofsucceedingintheirconquestofFrance.Finally,backdoorschemingwouldleadtothreeagreementsregardingrebellionwithintheempireandapost-OttomanMiddleEast.Engineeredby theBritish, thesecreatedapoliticalmessthateventheywerenotcapableofhandling.AllthiswouldleadtoaneventualOttoman loss inWorldWarOne that had reverberations in theMuslimworldthatarestillfelttoday.The ethnic tensions and strains of nationalism within the Ottoman

EmpirewerewellknowntoEuropeanpowers,whohopedtoexploitthem.As early as 1915, the British were in contact with Sharif Husayn, theOttoman governor ofMecca, in an effort to encourage a general Arabrevolt. TheBritish promisedHusayn a unitedArab kingdom throughouttheArabianPeninsulaandtheFertileCrescentinexchangeforhismilitarysupportandrebellionagainsttheOttomans.Husayn,dreamingofbeingtheking of the Arabs, was not difficult to convince, and neither were theArabsoftheHijaz,whonodoubtfeltthreatenedbytheTurkishnationalist

rhetoric of theOttoman government. Buoyed byBritish arms and gold,SharifHusaynledtheArabRevolt,whichsweptupthewesternsideoftheArabian peninsula, taking cities such asMedina, Amman andDamascusfromtheOttomansandenablingtheBritishtodefendEgyptandgoontoconquer Jerusalem, which fell into non-Muslim hands for the first timesince the Crusades. In the 1910s, it seemed that Arab nationalism hadfinallybecometriumphantoverthedecayingOttomanEmpire.Arabself-determinationandpowerunderthekingshipofHusaynseemedtobecloseathand.ButtheyhadnointentionofallowingnativeMuslimrule,iftheimperial

policyoftheBritisharoundtheworldwasanyindication.Almostassoonas they concluded an agreementwith Sharif Husayn, the British enteredintosecretnegotiationswith theirFrenchallies,seekingtodetermine theshape of the post-Ottoman Middle East. The same lands that werepromisedtoHusaynweresecretlydividedupbetweentheBritishandtheFrench. France was promised control over the northern part of Syria,including the Christian-dominated Lebanon. The British were to gaincontrolofMesopotamiaandPalestine.TheSykes-PicotAgreement, as itwascalled, leftnoroomfor thepan-ArabkingdompromisedtoHusayn.The Arabs, after all, were in no position to make demands from thepowerfulWesternEuropeannations,especiallyonesknownforregularlybreakingtheirword.Theconflictingagreementsdidnotendhere.

TheBritishdesignedaflagfortheArabrebelswiththreehorizontalbarsandatriangletotheleft.ItservedasthebasisfornumerousArabflags in the twentieth century including the Egyptian, Jordanian,Syrian,andPalestinianflags.

In1917,theForeignSecretaryoftheUnitedKingdom,ArthurBalfour,sentalettertoBaronRothschild,aninfluentialJewishbanker,promisingtosupporttheestablishmentofa“nationalhomefortheJewishpeople”inPalestine.TheletterwassentmorebroadlytotheZionistMovementasawhole. Since the late 1800s, Jews across Europe had been seeking to

escape anti-Semitism by founding a Jewish homeland. Their desiredlocationwasPalestine,wheretheJewshadlivedbeforebeingexpelledin70 CE by the Romans. The Balfour Declaration pledged to support thatquest,despitecontradictingthepre-existingagreementsthatpromisedthatsame land to theArabs and theBritish themselves. Jewswould use it insubsequent decades as proof of the legitimacy of their settlement in thatlandandtheeventualstateofIsrael,whileArabsrejecteditfromthestart,insistingthelandwaspromisedtothemintheBritishcorrespondencewithHusayn. The quagmire that the British created would dominate MiddleEasternpoliticsthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.

TheRiseofNation-States

World War One brought about the final demise of Muslim politicalcontrol.TheOttomansweredecisivelydefeated;theirlandconqueredandoccupied by the victorious British, French, Russians and Italians. TheArabs,expectingtheirownkingdom,wereleftwithbrokenpromisesandEuropean control over their “independence”. It was a collapse andconquest evenmore complete than theCrusades and theMongols.Moreimportant than themilitary conquestwas the intellectual environment ofthe post-war period. The rise of Arab and Turkish nationalism coupledwith the arbitrary borders drawn by the victorious Europeans led to theriseofnation-statesthroughouttheMuslimworldthatimposedEuropeannationalismonapopulationwholly foreign to it. InMedina,Muhammadpreached the unity of all Muslims, regardless of language or ethnicidentification.HehadpairedupMeccanandMedineseMuslimsasbrothersto encourage this unity. His followers had identified themselves asMuslimsaboveallelsethroughout thecenturies.NowtheMuslimworld,particularly the Middle East, began to identify according to newnationalisticlabels.

“I thankGod that abandoning politics preventedme from reducingthe Qur ’an’s diamond-like truths to pieces of glass under theaccusationofexploitingthemforpoliticalends.”

–SaidNusri,twentieth-centuryTurkishscholar

Themostradicaljumpintotheneweraofnation-statesoccurredintheformer Ottoman heartland dominated by the Turks. After the war, theBritish, French, Italians, and Greeks occupied Anatolia. The Ottomansultanate remained intact but powerless in an Istanbul controlled by theAllied forces. To resist the foreign occupation, Mustafa Kemal, anOttoman army officer rallied together fellow Turks who had served inWorldWar One andmanaged to expel the occupiers between 1919 and1922.At theendof thisWarof Independence,MustafaKemalannouncedthe creation of a new state,Turkey, to replace theOttomanEmpire.TheOttomansultanatewasabolished623yearsafterOsmanfoundeditalongtheborderof theByzantineEmpire. InhisnewnationofTurkey,Kemalhoped to establish a secular,Western-minded nation state, free from therecentOttomanpastmarkedbyweakness,corruption,andconquest.Kemal, as the leader of the Turkish War of Independence and the

founderofTurkey,wasaffectionatelycalledAtatürk,meaning“fatheroftheTurks”.Tohim,Turkishidentitywasveryimportant,moresothananyotherqualifier.Accordingtohim,theTurkswereapowerfulnationevenbefore theybecameMuslim. Ifanything, theirconversion to Islamin the900sandthesubsequentmixingbetweenTurks,Arabs,PersiansandothersweakenedtheTurks.ThenewTurkeywastoberidofthismessyIslamicpastashesawit.OneofhisfirstactionswastoridTurkeyofthecaliphate,which had been in Ottoman hands since 1517. In 1924, the final caliph,AbdülmecidIIwasforcedtoabdicateandgointoexileinEurope.Later,hewould ban the hijab and fez, close Sufi orders, officially outlaw theshari‘ah and ban the adhan (Arabic call to prayer) that rang out frommosque towers.Atatürk thusmadeclear thatTurkeywouldno longerbetiedwiththerestoftheMuslimworld.Healsoinstitutedlanguagereform,whichwouldrid theTurksof theArabicalphabet theyhadbeenusing towrite Turkish for centuries. Instead, the Latin alphabet of Europe wasadopted, both for its ease of use and connection with Europe. Evenvocabulary was changed: Arabic and Persian loanwords were abolishedand replaced with old Turkic words from Central Asia. The language

reformsofthe1920sand1930sunderAtatürkcompletelycutoffmodernTurks from their Islamic history. No longer could the Turks read thecalligraphicinscriptionsinoldimperialmosquesoranybookspublishedintheOttomanera.NeithercouldtheyeasilytraveltoanddobusinesswiththeArabs and Persians. In Atatürk’sWest-focused Turkey, there was noroom for the relationshipswithothers basedon Islam that characterizedtheOttomanEmpire.Furthermore,otherethnicgroupswerenotwelcome.Greeks, Arabs, Kurds and Armenians within Turkey’s borders were alloppressedbythenewTurkishgovernment,whichsoughttobaseitspoweronTurkish identityalone.Non-Turkishethnicgroups threatened thisandwere not afforded the same freedoms as their Turkish neighbors. Thesecular, nationalist focus of Turkey remained in place for decades.Anyattempts to bring Islam back into public life were usually met withopposition and even coups from the military throughout the twentiethcentury.To the south, in theArab-dominated lands of the FertileCrescent, the

First World War led to the rise of various states, carved out by thevictorious Allies. Trying to mediate between the three competingagreements theyhadmade, theBritish andFrenchdividedup the regioninto mandates, generally along the lines of the Sykes-Picot Agreement.OutofOttomanSyriaandMesopotamiacamethenewnationsSyria,Iraq,Lebanon,JordanandPalestine,allwithnew,arbitrarybordersdrawnatthewhimofthewinningpowers.JewswereallowedtosettleintheMandateofPalestineasstatedintheBalfourDeclaration,muchto theantagonismofthepeoplealreadylivingthere.SharifHusaynandhischildrenweregivendominion (underBritish control) over the newly-created states of Syria,JordanandIraq,butonlymanagedtoholdontoJordanin the longterm.The political problems and conflict that erupted from the EuropeandivisionofArablandsintoarbitrarystatesarestillbeingfelttoday.Iraq’sbordersweredrawnsuchthatSunniArabs,SunniKurdsandShi‘aArabsall constituted about one-third of the population. With no one groupdominating,itshistoryinthetwentiethcenturywasmarkedbyethnicandreligiousconflictandwarfare.AsimilarsituationoccurredinLebanon,anationwithnonaturalborders.Theoriginal ideaofaChristianmajorityenvisioned by the French in the 1800s never materialized. Religiousconflict in the tiny Mediterranean state has prevented it from ever

experiencing extended periods of peace and stability, despite theintellectualandculturalimportanceofBeiruttotheArabworldingeneral.The most disastrous British experiment turned out to be Palestine.

Zionist Jewswere allowed by theBritish to settle almost unrestricted inPalestine during themandate period. In 1918, there were approximately60,000Jewswithin thenewly-drawnbordersofPalestine.By1939, therewere 460,000, mostly due to immigration from Europe. That numberjumped during the SecondWorldWar, as Jews fleeingNazi persecutionhoped to find peace in a future Jewish homeland. Needless to say, thisdemographicshiftinPalestinewasunwelcomedbytheArabslivingthere,the Palestinians. Riots erupted throughout the 1930s. Arabs viewed theBritishandtheJewsasenemiesandatotheArabnatureoftheregion.TheJews, in turn, saw the conflict as one of self-defense, colored by theirhistory of oppression in Europe. In 1948, the Jewish population ofPalestinewas large enough that theywere capable of establishing a newstate, Israel, as the British ended their mandate over the country. AcoalitionofArabnationswasunabletodefeattheIsraelis,whoaddedevenmore land to their new state. Furthermore, newly established Israel usedthe war as an excuse to expel most of the Arab population within itsborders. In 1948 and 1949, over 700,000 Arab Muslims and Christianswere forcedoutof their landandmade refugees inneighboring Jordan,Egypt,SyriaandLebanon.AsaJewishstate, Israelhad torecalibrate thedemographicstobeintheirfavor.Theonlywaytodothatwastoforcethemajority of Arabs into exile. The expulsion, called the Nakba, or“Catastrophe”,wasadisaster. It led to serious soul-searchingamong theArabs, who had not only endured European colonization, but also theestablishment of a foreign state in theirmidst. The conflict between theIsraelisandtheArabsbroughtintofocusthecompletepoliticalfailureoftheMuslimworldinthetwentiethcentury.TheIndianSubcontinentalsosawtheriseofnationstatesastheBritish

retreated.AftertheSepoyRebellionin1857andthesubsequenttighteningofBritishcontroloverIndia,resistancetoimperialismshiftedtopoliticalandnon-violentprocesses.AnIndianNationalCongresswasformedinthelate 1800s to push for greater political power in the face of Britishoccupation. Hindus dominated the congress, which was not surprisingconsidering thatMuslimswere aminority.Thus forMuslims, the Indian

independence movement in the early 1900s posed a problem. If IndiaachievedindependencefromBritain,itwouldsurelybeHindu-dominated.HundredsofyearsofMuslim rule in the subcontinentwas favorable fortheMuslims,whocouldalwayscountontheirfellowbelieversintheDelhiSultanateorMughalEmpireforprotection.ButwithMuslimruleinIndiaofficially extinguished by the late 1800s, and the demographics of theregion clearly not in their favor, the Muslim community of thesubcontinenthadtolooktoanalternativeviewofpost-BritishIndia.Thefavoredapproachwasapartitionof thesubcontinent intoseparate

Muslim and Hindu majority states. India’s leading Muslim intellectuals,including the politicianMuhammadAli Jinnah and the poet philosopherMuhammad Iqbal, led what became known as the Pakistan Movement.Their goalwas the establishmentof a sovereignMuslim state free fromany potential harassment by a future Hindu government of India. Themovement gained support throughout the 1930s and 1940s as its leaderspresentedtheideatothegeneralMuslimpopulationthroughdeclarations,resolutionsandspeeches.TheregionofIndiatargetedforthenewMuslimstatewas the IndusValley,whereMuslimpolitical control first appearedwithMuhammad bin Qasim in the 700s. Leaders of the Indian NationalCongress, particularly Mohandas Gandhi, generally did not favor anindependentMuslim state in India, seeing it as weakening Indian poweroverall.ButMuslimfearsofHinducontrolprovedtoostrongintheend,andin1947thesubcontinentwaspartitionedwhentheBritishendedtheirdirectcontrolovertheregion.Pakistan,comprisingtheNorthwest(Sindh,Punjab andBalochistan) andEast (Bengal), emerged as the newMuslimstate of Pakistan, successor to India’s greatMuslim empires of the past.Muslims, in what became the Republic of India, thus became an evensmaller minority, which ended up being ruled by the Indian NationalCongress.Pakistanwasnot theonlyMuslimnationtogain independencein theyears after theSecondWorldWar, but uniquely, itwasoneof thefew to base its foundation on its Islamic character rather than ethnicheritageorloyaltytoaroyalfamily.AfterthedeclineofMuslimcivilizationintheeighteenthcenturyandits

subsequentconquestbyEuropeinthenineteenth,thetwentiethcenturysawthe nominal independence of Muslim nation-states around the world.Egypt’sRevolutionof1952endedtheBritishoccupationthathadbeenin

placesince1882andbroughtthecountryunderthecontroloftheEgyptianmilitary.Algeria, underFrenchoccupation since the early 1800s, finallyachieved independence in 1962 after a brutal and devastating war. The1960s saw the independence of nations across sub-Saharan Africa,including Nigeria, Mali, Mauritania, Kenya and Tanzania. In SoutheastAsia, independence movements struggled against British and Dutchimperialism. Indonesia emerged after a long and brutal war against theDutch Empire in 1949. To the northwest, the British-ruled areas on theMalay Peninsula and the island of Borneo became Malaysia in 1963.Despitesharingacommonlanguage,cultureandreligion, IndonesiaandMalaysia became separate states based on the borders established by theBritish and Dutch. Muslim nations became free of European controlthrough the1900s, butwere still boundedby thebordersdrawnby theirformercolonizers.

Thename“Pakistan”wasformedasanacronymofMuslim-majorityregions in India: Punjab, Afghania Province, Kashmir, Sindh, andBaluchistan.

IslamandSecularism

It would seem at this point that the Muslim world had once againovercome a threatening political power. The cyclical nature of Islamichistory dictated that after a period of weakness and invasion, a new,powerful Muslim empire would arise, reclaiming the glory of the oldIslamic states. After the rise of Christian states in al-Andalus, theMurabitunandMuwahhidunaroseintheeleventhandtwelfthcenturiestounite Iberia andNorthAfrica.After theCrusader invasion in the twelfthcentury, Salah al-Din’sAyyubid Empire and its successor, theMamluks,unitedEgypt,Syria,andtheHijazundertheirpowerfulrule.TheMongolinvasion in the thirteenth centurywould lead to the riseof theOttomansand their tri-continental empire that knocked on the doors of CentralEurope.Nowitseemedthat inthetwentiethcentury, thetideofEuropean

imperialism had finally turned and the timewas ripe for a new,world-dominatingMuslimempire.

Fazulr Khan, a Bengali Muslim, designed the Sears Tower inChicago.Itwastheworld’stallestbuildingwhenitopenedin1973.

This time, the traditionalMuslim empirewould not come.Dozens ofMuslim states dotted the world map, disunited by arbitrary borders—alegacyofEuropeancolonization.ThisdisunityprovedfataltotheMuslimworld. In the Middle East, the inability of Egypt, Jordan, Syria andLebanon to function effectively together meant that Israel, a nationfoundedbypoorsettlersfleeingEuropeanoppression,wasabletodefeatthemallmilitarilyandfurtherestablishitselfinwarsin1967and1973.InSouth Asia, East Pakistan broke away to become Bangladesh in 1971,splitting a nation that had the potential to serve as a counter-balance toIndia’s power. In West Africa, the numerous disunited states were alleconomically weak and continued to rely on the French well afterindependence.Without unity, the relative political power of theMuslimworld remained generally unchanged after independence. Small,competing states, reminiscent of al-Andalus’ Taifa period and thedecentralization of the Abbasid Empire, were incapable of creating apowerfulMuslimrealm.A big part of that failure was a decisive ideological shift in Muslim

politics.ThroughoutIslamichistory,upstartempireshadbasedtheirrightto rule on Islam itself. Even in empires whose actions can probably bejudgedtobeagainstIslamiclaw,theprimacyofIslamitselfasaunifyingforce was always a given. In the twentieth century, however, newly-independent Muslim states generally did not look back at a gloriousIslamicpastandtrytorecreateit.Insteadtheyalmostalwayshadasecularand nationalist outlook. These concepts were entirely foreign to theMuslim world for its first 1200 years. But with European imperialism,theseideaswereimplantedintothemindsoftheupperclassesofMuslimsociety, which ended up leading post-independence governments. The

EuropeanformulaofEnlightenmentandsubsequentneglectoftraditionalreligionandgovernmentwasthusadoptedonsomelevelinalmosteveryMuslimcountry.ThemostextremeexamplewasTurkey,whichofficiallyoutlawedtheshari‘ah,abolishedthecaliphate,andproclaimeditselftobeawholly secular state. Led by Egypt, theArabworld adopted socialismandnationalismasameans tocreatepowerfulnation-states. Iran,despiteits history as a fundamentally Shi‘a nation, was led by a seculargovernment alignedwith theWest until 1979.Therewere exceptions, ofcourse, themost prominent being SaudiArabia,which functioned as anabsolutemonarchy,notunlikeArabtribalstatescenturiesago,andderiveditslegitimacytorulefromtheSalafiideologyofMuhammadibn‘Abdal-Wahhab. Overall, however, Muslim countries left behind the idea ofpoliticalIslaminfavorofsecularideologiespromotedbytheWest.TheMuslimworld has yet to fully reconcile its Islamic-oriented past

with its secular-dominated present. There exist today traditionalists whodemand that theMuslimworld return to those lost dayswhen Islam andpoliticswereintertwined.Theextremeamongthemforcefullyadvocateareturn to Islamic rule.Others take amoremoderate approach, believingthateducation,actionwithinexistingpoliticalframeworks,andcommunityservicecanprecipitatetothereturnofpoliticalIslam.OntheotherendofthespectrumarethosewhoarguethatthedaysofIslamplayingaroleinpolitical life are over.They advocate a break from tradition in favor ofnewideas,mostlyoriginatingintheWest,aboutgovernment,societyandpolitics.

“AmericaneedstounderstandIslam,becausethisistheonereligionthaterasesfromitssocietytheraceproblem.”

–MalcolmX

Muslim society remains split over the role of Islam today. Mostrecently, theArabSpringand subsequentupheaval inEgypt,Tunisia andSyria has brought to light the seeming incompatibility of these twocompetingsides.Turkeyisonceagainatacrossroadsbetweensecularism

andpoliticalIslam,asanIslamic-orientedgovernmentattemptstoreversedecadesofstatesecularism.ThisdichotomyexiststhroughouttheMuslimworld.Howitissolvedwilldictateitsdirectioninthecomingdecadesandcenturies. Whether Islam once again plays a major role, whethernationalismandsecularismwillbethenewdrivingideologies,orwhetherabalancebetweenthetwosideswillbefoundthatappealstoall,remainstobedetermined.ThosewhoanswerthesepertinentquestionswilldictateanewerafortheMuslimworld;onethatsurelycannotbedetachedfromthe1400yearsofIslamichistorythatcamebeforeit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ajram,K.(1992),TheMiracleofIslamicScience,CedarRapids,IA:KnowledgeHouse.Al-Azami, Muhammad Mustafa (2003), The History of the Quranic Text: From Revelation toCompilation,Leicester:UKIslamicAcademy.

Al-Hassani, Salim T. S. (2012), 1001 Inventions: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Civilization,Washington,D.C.:NationalGeographicMuseum.

Armstrong,Karen(1996),Jerusalem:OneCity,ThreeFaiths,NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.____(2000),Islam:AShortHistory,NewYork:ModernLibrary.Carr, Matthew (2009), Blood and Faith: The Purging of Muslim Spain, New York, NY: NewPress.

Diouf, SylvianeA. (1998),Servants of Allah: AfricanMuslims Enslaved in the Americas, NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress.

Dirks, Jerald (2006),Muslims inAmericanHistory:AForgottenLegacy,Beltsville,MD:AmanaPublications.

Eaton,Richard (2000), ‘TempleDesecrationand Indo-MuslimStates,’Journal of Islamic Studies11(3),pp.283–319.

El-Ashker,AhmedAbdel-Fattah,andRodneyWilson(2006),IslamicEconomics:AShortHistory,Leiden:Brill.

Esposito,JohnL.(1999),TheOxfordHistoryofIslam,NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress.Finkel, Caroline (2006),Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923, NewYork,NY:BasicBooks.

Freely,John(1998),Istanbul:TheImperialCity,London:Penguin.____ (2009),The Grand Turk: SultanMehmet II—Conqueror of Constantinople, Master of anEmpire,London:IBTauris&CoLtd.

Gross,Jo-Ann(1992),MuslimsinCentralAsia:ExpressionsofIdentityandChange,Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress.

Hamdun,Said,andNoelKing(1994),IbnBattutainBlackAfrica,Princeton,NJ:MarcusWiener.Hawting,G.R(2000),TheFirstDynastyofIslam:TheUmayyadCaliphateAD661–750,London:Routledge.

Hodgson, Marshall G. S. (1974), The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a WorldCivilization,Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Holt, P. M., Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis (1970), The Cambridge History of Islam,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Hourani, Albert (1991), A History of the Arab Peoples, Cambridge, MA: Belknap of HarvardUniversityPress.

Inalcik,Halil(1973),TheOttomanEmpire:TheClassicalAge1300–1600,London:PhoenixPress.Itzkowitz, Norman (1980), Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. Chicago, IL: University ofChicago,Press.

Kennedy,Hugh(1986),TheProphetand theAgeof theCaliphates:The IslamicNearEast fromtheSixthtotheEleventhCentury,London:Longman.

____ (1996),Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of Al-Andalus, Harlow: PearsonEducationLimited.

____ (2005),When Baghdad Ruled the Muslim World: The Rise and Fall of Islam’s GreatestDynasty,Cambridge,MA:DaCapoPress.

____(2008),TheGreatArabConquests:How theSpreadof IslamChanged theWorldWeLiveIn,Cambridge,MA:DaCapoPress.

Khaldūn,Ibn(1969),TheMuqaddimah,anIntroductiontoHistory,TranslatedfromtheArabicbyFranzRosenthal,andN.J.Dawood(ed.),Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.

Levtzion,Nehemia,andRandallL.Pouwels (2000),TheHistoryof Islam inAfrica, Athens,OH:OhioUniversityPress.

Lewis,Bernard(1984),TheJewsofIslam,Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.Lewis, David L. (2008),God’s Crucible: Islam and the Making of Europe, 570 to 1215, NewYork,NY:W.W.Norton.

Lindsay,JamesE.(2005),DailyLifeintheMedievalIslamicWorld,Westport,CN:Greenwood.Lings,Martin(1983),Muhammad:HisLifeBasedontheEarliestSources,NewYork,NY:InnerTraditionsInternational.

Maalouf,Amin(1985),TheCrusadesthroughArabEyes,NewYork,NY:Schocken.Masood,Ehsan.ScienceandIslam:AHistory.London:Icon,2009.Māwardī, Abu’l-Hasan (1996), Al-Ahkam As-Sultaniyyah: The Laws of Islamic Governance,TranslatedfromtheArabicbyAsadullahYate,London:Ta-Ha.

McNeill,WilliamHardy,andMarilynRobinsonWaldman(1983),TheIslamicWorld,Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Montefiore,SimonSebag(2011),Jerusalem:TheBiography,NewYork,NY:RandomHouseInc.Morgan, Michael Hamilton (2007), Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists,Thinkers,andArtists,Washington,D.C.:NationalGeographic.

Ochsenwald,William, and Sydney Fisher (2003),TheMiddle East: A History, 6th edition, NewYork,NY:McGraw-Hill.

Peters,F.E.(1994),AReaderonClassicalIslam,Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.Ramadan, Tariq (2007), In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad,NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress.

Saunders,JohnJoseph(1965),AHistoryofMedievalIslam,London:Routledge.Schroeder,Eric(2002),Muhammad’sPeople:AnAnthologyofMuslimCivilization,Mineola,NY:DoverPublications.

Siddiqi, Muhammad Zubair (1993), Ḥadīth Literature: Its Origin, Development and SpecialFeatures,Cambridge:IslamicTextsSociety.