Living with Water: Targeting Quality in a Dynamic World

Living with Water

Paul Pechan ● Gert E. de Vries Editors

Living with Water

Targeting Quality in a Dynamic World

Editors Paul Pechan Department of Communications

and Media Research Ludwig Maximilians University Munich , Germany

Gert E. de Vries ProBio Partners VOF Overschild The Netherlands

ISBN 978-1-4614-3751-2 ISBN 978-1-4614-3752-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3752-9 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012951433

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, speci fi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on micro fi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied speci fi cally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a speci fi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

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v

Foreword

This book is primarily about the quality of the world’s waters. It provides an overview of the challenges of providing water of good quality to the world’s growing population. Water resources are limited, and their proper use must cater not only to the needs of our population but also to the needs of all other living organisms on this planet.

At present, we use about 10% of the world’s water, sourced from rivers and groundwater. Signi fi cant losses occur during the delivery of water to their fi nal des-tinations. The demand for water is growing, driven primarily by global population growth and improved living standards.

The amount of water we use depends on the quantity and quality of water avail-able. This book concentrates on the latter—its quality. There are many pressures affecting efforts to provide clean water. One example is the need to explore and harvest natural resources, such as oil or metals, with the associated risk of water pollution. Pressure to provide clean water is further increased by the sheer size of the human population, which is increasingly concentrated in coastal cities. Growing demand for food also leads to increased use of pest-control chemicals for farm crops, which can contaminate water supplies. Another contributor to large-scale global pollution is consumer demand and countries’ buying power. The processes involved in producing products often cause pollution. Innovative water treatment technologies and reuse of treated waters are fast becoming a necessity to keep pace with the need to use clean water in a sustainable way and then return the used water to the environment in a safe manner. Climate change also contributes to pressure on the water systems. Aside from often-mentioned problems relating to CO

2 and the

warming of our planet, headwaters, rivers, and oceans are becoming increasingly acidic and eutrophic as the result of CO

2 , nitrogen, and sulfur overloads.

This book addresses the many water-related issues at both technological and scienti fi c levels. For example, new technologies are being developed to treat waste-water, and innovative monitoring approaches help scientists assess water quality risks. Risk assessments are urgently needed for a variety of reasons, such as helping to draft new legislation or assessing the impact of existing regulations.

vi Foreword

The material in this book takes us on a scienti fi c and technological journey from mountain headwaters to rivers and estuaries, leading to the sea. Each of the fi ve chapters includes background information on the water sources and the speci fi c challenges they face. The chapters then continue with a discussion of the effects of pollution and the actions needed to address them. Finally, future trends are discussed.

vii

Contents

1 Living with Water .................................................................................. 1Paul Pechan and Gert E. de Vries

2 Mountain Waters as Witnesses of Global Pollution ............................ 31Jordi Catalan, Mireia Bartrons, Lluis Camarero, and Joan O. Grimalt

3 Pollutants in Freshwater: The Case of Pharmaceuticals ................... 69Anja Coors and Thomas Knacker

4 Wastewaters Are Not Wastes ................................................................ 101Gert E. de Vries and Antonio Lopez

5 The Oceans and Their Challenge to Conserve Marine Biodiversity ............................................................................... 143Róisín Nash

Index ................................................................................................................ 195

ix

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Main abiotic locations of water ....................................................... 5Fig. 1.2 Water cycle: the circle of life (Adapted from the US

Geological Survey water cycle presentation) .................................. 6Fig. 1.3 Main effects of key drivers (pressures) influencing water

quantity and quality ......................................................................... 10Fig. 1.4 Water resources, taking into account local availability

and requirements (Adapted from Smakhtin et al. 2004) ................. 15Fig. 1.5 Percentage of total water supplies withdrawn for agriculture

in relation to population growth (Adapted from: http://meat-matters.blogspot.com/2010/10/agriculture-water-use-and-population.html) ... 17

Fig. 1.6 Water pollution sources ................................................................... 20

Fig. 2.1 Mountain waters in the water cycle ................................................ 33Fig. 2.2 Latitudinal changes in the elevation distribution of the

main mountain belts: nival, alpine, and montane. Based on Korner and Paulsen 2004 ................................................................ 34

Fig. 2.3 Lake sediments hold a record of the processes occurring in the lake: the fluvial network, its catchment, and the atmospheric influence .......................................................................................... 39

Fig. 2.4 Paleolimnological techniques make possible accurate reconstruction of regional metal pollution. The depth profiles of lead in the upper sediment of Lake Redon (Pyrenees) are illustrated. (Source: Camarero et al. 1998) ............................... 40

Fig. 2.5 Temporal overview of acidification of European mountain waters. (Source: Wright et al. 2005) ............................................... 42

Fig. 2.6 Rise and fall of emissions in Europe during the period 1880–2030. as estimated by Schöpp et al. (2003) (Source: (Wright et al. 2005) .......................................................... 42

Fig. 2.7 Microfossil remains of aquatic organisms (e.g., diatoms) are used for reconstructing past environments ................................ 45

x List of Figures

Fig. 2.8 Transport, deposition, and accumulation of persistent organic pollutants in various natural compartments are complex processes. Relative volatility and high hydrophobicity play an important role in establishing accumulation rates of the compounds .......................................................................... 49

Fig. 2.9 Persistent organic pollutants are atmospherically transported to remote areas .............................................................................. 49

Fig. 2.10 Concentrations (nanograms per gram, or ng·g−1) of various organochlorine compounds in fish from high-mountain European lakes depends on altitude. (Source: based on Vives et al. 2004)........................................................................... 50

Fig. 2.11 Comparison of the concentrations of organochlorine compounds (OCs) in brown trout and the average concentration in their food (mostly distinct aquatic macroinvertebrates) in Lake Redon (Pyrenees). (Source: Catalan et al. 2004) ...................................... 51

Fig. 2.12 Winter–spring temperature reconstruction at Lake Redon (Pyrenees), which is situated 2,240 miles above sea level (m a.s.l.). (Source: Pla and Catalan 2005) .................................... 58

Fig. 4.1 Wastewater, health, and human well-being—investing in water supply and sanitation (Source: UNEP/GRID-Arendal, http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/wastewater-health-and-human-well-being-investing-in-water-supply-and-sanitation_120c) ............................................................................ 109

Fig. 4.2 Advanced septic tank and wastewater treatment system (Source: Adopted from Hans Lönn, Fastighetsanalys, Älg) ......... 112

Fig. 4.3 Biological, physical and chemical processes in a wastewater treatment plant .............................................................................. 112

Fig. 4.4 Water stress in European river basins during 2000 and under the Long Range Energy Modeling scenario (LREM-E) by 2030 (Source: European Environment Agency, http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/water-stress-in-europe-2000-and-2030) ........................................ 116

Fig. 4.5 Indirect reuse of wastewater effluents is common practice, as shown by this schematic representation ................................... 119

Fig. 4.6 Bottled ultra-clean NEWater reclaimed from a Singapore wastewater treatment plant (Source: Singapore National Water Agency) ......................................................................................... 121

Fig. 4.7 Membrane technologies and pore sizes determine retention of particles, (micro)organisms, and dissolved (macro)molecules .......................................................................... 125

Fig. 4.8 Toilet with built-in mechanism for separate collection of urine (Source: [email protected]) .......................................... 128

Fig. 4.9 Conversions during the anaerobic digestion process .................... 129Fig. 4.10 Basic workings of a fuel cell ......................................................... 132

xiList of Figures

Fig. 5.1 Amalfi coast .................................................................................. 146Fig. 5.2 Exposed shore zonation on Lambay Island, Ireland ..................... 150Fig. 5.3 Sea urchin from the Kish Bank on the East coast of Ireland ........ 152Fig. 5.4 Stall at the fish market in Istanbul ................................................. 157Fig. 5.5 Salmon farm in Kinvarra Bay, Ireland .......................................... 162Fig. 5.6 Pacific oyster in the Shannon Estuary, Ireland .............................. 164Fig. 5.7 Minke whale .................................................................................. 169Fig. 5.8 Commercial scallop dredges ......................................................... 177Fig. 5.9 Salmon farm .................................................................................. 179Fig. 5.10 Breadcrumb sponge Halichondria panac ..................................... 182Fig. 5.11 Cold water coral ............................................................................ 184

xiii

List of Boxes

Box 1.1 Categories of Pollutants ................................................................ 19 Box 1.2 From Sustainability to Mutualism: A Personal View ................... 23Box 1.3 Effect of the Use of Fossil Fuels on Water Quality in Oceans ...... 24 Box 1.4 Possible solutions to Water Quantity Problems ............................ 26

Box 2.1 Acid Neutralizing Capacity: Some Chemistry .............................. 36Box 2.2 Mountain Observatories ................................................................ 38Box 2.3 Dynamic Modelling in Environmental Science ............................ 44Box 2.4 Diatom-Based pH Transfer Functions .......................................... 44 Box 2.5 Persistent Organic Pollutants ....................................................... 47Box 2.6 Bioaccumulation ........................................................................... 51Box 2.7 Trophic Position Assessment ........................................................ 53Box 2.8 European Research Projects on Mountain Freshwaters ................ 54Box 2.9 Protocols of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary

Air Pollution.................................................................................. 56Box 2.10 Critical Load Concept ................................................................... 56Box 2.11 Long-Term Ecological Research .................................................. 61

Box 3.1 Water Flea ..................................................................................... 72Box 3.2 Consequences and Likelihood of an Event as the Components

of the Risk of This Event .............................................................. 74Box 3.3 Polar and Nonpolar Substances .................................................... 76 Box 3.4 Effects of Ethinyl Estradiol on Fish: The Case of Intersex ........... 78Box 3.5 Key Aspects of Environmental Risk Assessment Procedures

for Chemicals, Particularly Pharmaceuticals ................................ 82Box 3.6 Daphnia magna Acute Toxicity Test ............................................ 84 Box 3.7 Standard Fish Testing .................................................................... 85Box 3.8 Wastewater Treatment Facility ...................................................... 88Box 3.9 Case of the Oriental White-Backed Vulture

and Its Near Extinction ................................................................. 90

xiv List of Boxes

Box 3.10 ERAPharm: Environmental Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals: Research Project Funded by the European Union ............................................................................ 92

Box 3.11 Green Design ................................................................................ 96

Box 4.1 Main Pollutants in Municipal Wastewater and Their Effects ....... 104Box 4.2 Relevant Properties of Heavy Metals and Chlorinated

Organics ........................................................................................ 107 Box 4.3 Relevant European Funded Research Projects

on Wastewater Reuse .................................................................... 118Box 4.4 Relevant European-Funded Research Projects on Membrane

Technologies That Can Be Used for Product Recovery from Wastewater ........................................................................... 126

Box 5.1 What Is an Ecosystem? ................................................................. 148Box 5.2 Ecosystem Functioning ................................................................. 148Box 5.3 Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning (MarBEF) ....... 148 Box 5.4 Marine Biodiversity ...................................................................... 151Box 5.5 European Framework Programme ................................................ 155Box 5.6 Fossil Fuels ................................................................................... 157 Box 5.7 European Aquaculture Production ................................................ 161 Box 5.8 Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe .......... 164 Box 5.9 Plankton ........................................................................................ 165Box 5.10 Keystone Species .......................................................................... 170Box 5.11 Process of Prosecution Against EU Environmental

Infringement .................................................................................. 172 Box 5.12 Common Fisheries Policy ............................................................. 173 Box 5.13 Convention on Biological Diversity ............................................. 174 Box 5.14 Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) ................................... 175Box 5.15 Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) ................... 175 Box 5.16 Water Bodies in Europe: Integrative Systems to Assess

Ecological Status and Recovery (WISER) .................................... 176 Box 5.17 Solid-phase In Situ Ecosystem Sampler and Detoxification

of Shellfish ................................................................................... 177 Box 5.18 Warning of Algal Toxin Events to Support Aquaculture in the

Northern Periphery Programme Coastal Zone Region (WATER) 178 Box 5.19 Monitoring and Regulation of Marine Aquaculture

(MARAQUA) ................................................................................ 178Box 5.20 EU Birds and Habitats Directives ................................................. 180 Box 5.21 Noncompliance with the Birds and Habitats Directives ............... 180Box 5.22 International Convention on the Control of Harmful

Antifouling Systems on Ships (AFS Convention) ........................ 180Box 5.23 European Project on Ocean Acidification (EPOCA) .................... 181Box 5.24 Pan-European Species-directories Infrastructure (PESI) .............. 182Box 5.25 OSPAR and HELCOM ................................................................. 184Box 5.26 Noncompliance with the WFD ..................................................... 185

1P. Pechan and G.E. de Vries (eds.), Living with Water: Targeting Quality in a Dynamic World, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3752-9_1, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract Two main problems challenge human water needs. First, the water we drink and the food we grow and consume to survive must be unsalted—thus, we need freshwater, which represents only 3% of the total water available on the planet. The rest contains a level of salt that is too high for us. Most of the usable water is locked away in glaciers and snow in inaccessible areas, which are not distributed

P. Pechan (*) Institute of Communication and Media Res Ludwig Maximilians University Munich , Germany e-mail: [email protected]

G. E. de Vries ProBio Partners VOF , Overschild , The Netherlands

Chapter 1 Living with Water

Paul Pechan and Gert E. de Vries

Contents

1.1 Water: The Source of Life ................................................................................................. 21.1.1 Importance of Water .............................................................................................. 21.1.2 Water Sources ....................................................................................................... 41.1.3 Availability of Water ............................................................................................. 61.1.4 How We Use Water ............................................................................................... 8

1.2 Drivers of Water Quality and Quantity ............................................................................. 91.3 Water Scarcity ................................................................................................................... 12

1.3.1 Unequal Distribution of Water .............................................................................. 121.3.2 Water Overuse ....................................................................................................... 141.3.3 Climate Change ..................................................................................................... 161.3.4 Pollution ................................................................................................................ 18

1.4 Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 211.4.1 Water Quality: Human Consumption and the Environment ................................. 211.4.2 Addressing Water Quality-Related Challenges ..................................................... 221.4.3 Assessing Water-Related Risk Issues.................................................................... 25

Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 28References .................................................................................................................................. 30

2 P. Pechan and G.E. de Vries

equally across the planet. Whereas some areas are blessed with an abundance of water, others suffer from drought. Thus, humans are faced with an unequal distribu-tion of freshwater. Second, although water supplies will never run out, the supply of freshwater may be polluted to the extent that it ceases to be usable for consumption or for growing foods.

A major challenge we face today is providing safe freshwater to the seven billion people who live on this planet. Providing and having access to clean water is a key requirement to ensuring the well-being of the growing world population. Not surpris-ingly, access to clean water is sometimes a potential source of disputes and even war. Assessing all of the water-related risks is of major concern to decision makers.

There are many forces that create and drive the challenges associated with water quality. Extreme weather conditions, population growth, population migration, and the economy put pressure on our water resources. The greatest pressure is the dra-matic increase in the number of people on the planet. There were just over two bil-lion people here 100 years ago; today there are seven billion. An ever-increasing amount of food (requiring enormous amounts of water) is needed to feed them. The human population is generally concentrated in urban areas, where wastes are pro-duced that must be taken away and processed. Improved lifestyles that are not met with proper improvements in societal infrastructure (primarily sanitation and pollution control) increase the challenges of waste and water pollution. Thus, higher living standards combined with population growth are a threat to our water resources.

1.1 Water: The Source of Life

In this section provides and overview of the importance of water, where fresh water originates and how it is distributed and used by our society.

1.1.1 Importance of Water

Water has existed on Earth for billions of years. Its beginnings are tied to formation of the Earth’s atmosphere. This may have occurred as far back as 4.4 billion years ago, only 400 million years after the Earth was formed. The exact origin of water on Earth, however, is uncertain. It is possible that water was created when protoplanets or com-ets collided with the young planet. Another explanation is that water was generated from gases resulting from the impact that created the moon. Water is also present on many other planets and moons in our solar system. For example, it is estimated that Jupiter’s moons contain more than 50 times the volume of water found on Earth. Saturn’s moon Titan is primarily composed of water ice and rocky materials.

Life as we know it on Earth is most likely to have begun in liquid water. We could well be called “‘water-humans” as more than 75% of our body is water. The impor-tance of water to humans is illustrated by the fact that we can live only a few days

31 Living with Water

without it, whereas we can survive weeks without food. Because water is a polar molecule, it functions as a solvent (meaning that many compounds easily dissolve in it). Water is also a reactant in many cellular metabolic processes. The hydrogen atom from a water molecule can, for example in plant cells, be combined with CO

2 (absorbed

from air or water) to form glucose while releasing oxygen (photosynthesis). When dissociated into hydronium (H

3 0 + ) and hydroxide (OH − ), the hydronium ion has the

important function of regulating the pH value (acidity) of the cell. Most scientists consider water to be an essential ingredient in enabling life forms to evolve.

Water is of paramount importance on Earth. It is responsible for the many inter-actions between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Water and ice have carved the Earth and act as a buffer in smoothing out temperature changes. It is in constant motion, evaporating into the atmosphere from bodies of water and return-ing in the form of rain, snow, and ice. It is the source of life and well-being. We, as humans, need to drink it and use it to produce the food we eat to survive.

We will never run out of water. It is part of an endless cycle that has existed for millennia. In its simplest form, the water cycle consists of the following: Water droplets fall from the clouds; the droplets then come together to form streams and rivers that fl ow into oceans of saltwater, where the heat of the sun causes the water to evaporate and form clouds. Our ancestors in Africa 5 million years ago drank the same water molecules we drink today. Unlike other natural resources, water will never run out, no matter how many people live on the planet.

Water, however, is much more than simply something we need to live. It has played a role in the formation of countries, religions, mythology, and art. Because water rains from the sky, it has been seen as a gift from the gods and, thereby, from “heaven.” Major religions have incorporated water into their mysticism and ritu-als—for example, the washing rituals of Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and Shinto. In Shinto, the act of passing through a sacred waterfall washes away impurities, and for Hindus washing oneself in the Ganges is an act of spiritual cleansing and readies one for death. In Judaism, water is used extensively in purity practices and ritual washing, such as before the Sabbath. In Islam, ritual washing of certain body parts (Wudu) helps the believer focus on prayer. In Christianity, water is used for blessings in certain rites, such as baptism. Water is considered pure, sacred, and life-giving. It is a means of renewal, enabling us to wash away our sins, and has a strong association with the concept of paradise. It is not surprising that water is seen—despite and indeed perhaps because of the high regard in which it is held—as a powerful element that can destroy individuals or cultures, one example being the great fl ood mentioned in the Bible, Torah, and Quran.

The healing powers of water have been recognized throughout the ages. In China, water is considered one of the fi ve key elements of life (the others being fi re, wood, earth, and metal). Water needs to be ingested for the key metabolic needs of individu-als to be met. Its vapors can be inhaled to cleanse respiratory passages, and clean water can cleanse infected wounds. Water can have a meditative and calming effect on us, and waterfalls are said to increase our energy levels. Water is the preferred medium for dissolving medicaments and is the vehicle that delivers them into our body. Some even consider water to have a “healing memory:” The development of


homeopathy in Germany at the end of the nineteenth century was based on this belief, which is explained as follows. Substances are repeatedly diluted in water to the point where no traces of the substance can be detected. It is claimed that the water then has a memory of the substance and retains its healing effects. [Most scientists and medi-cal doctors consider any positive outcome to be the result of a placebo effect.]

The respect humans have for water not only originates from its importance as a nourishing, life-giving (although also destructive) force but also from its essential role in enabling transportation among communities. The Nile River exempli fi es the importance of water in this respect, as it constituted the cradle of one of mankind’s fi rst great civilizations—Egypt. The Nile served as the main route of transport, mov-ing essential goods up- and down-river to reach the towns and villages nestled along its length. The existence of Egyptian civilization depended on it. The annual fl ooding of the Nile deposited nutrient-rich sediments essential to growing crops to support the communities established along the river. A long drought nearly 4000 years ago in North Africa resulted in reduced nutrient fl ow along the Nile and therefore poorer crop yields. This may have led to the downfall of the Old Kingdom in Egypt.

Rivers have served as a vehicle for exploration throughout human history. Large areas of North America and Africa were discovered by colonial explorers who fol-lowed the rivers. Rivers, lakes, and seas were and are still being used as highways for mixing cultures and commerce. As soon as humans discovered how to sail and navigate open seas, they created what could be termed a “human highway.” The his-tory of the Mediterranean, the discovery and colonization of Paci fi c islands, and North and South America demonstrate the exploratory nature of the human spirit, followed soon after by trade. The history of the East Indian Trading Company exempli fi es this exploratory nature and the innate drive to possess land and natural resources and use them as commodities for making a pro fi t. Pursuing these goals, Britain created settlements along the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Such behavior was often accompanied by con fl ict with, and the exploitation of, native people and cultures. Today, the political map of the world re fl ects, to a large degree, past water-trading routes. Unsurprisingly, most of the world’s population is found near large bodies of water. This trend is increasing as more rural inhabitants migrate to these communities. Today, nearly 50% of the world’s population live near large bodies of water. Indeed, 14 of the world’s 17 largest cities are located along coasts, most of which are located in Asia.

1.1.2 Water Sources

The total amount of water on our planet remains in equilibrium. Apart from the pos-sibility of a major natural catastrophe of cataclysmic proportions, there is no notable gain or loss of water on Earth in any of its three forms: liquid, solid (as ice), gaseous (as vapor) (Fig. 1.1 ).

Water covers 75% of the Earth’s surface and circulates among the oceans, land, and atmosphere in a cycle of evaporation and precipitation. Some 97% of the Earth’s water is found in the (salty) oceans. The rest, about 3%, is freshwater. More than


70% of freshwater is locked as solid water in glaciers, which means that only 1% of all water is directly available for human use. Of this 1% of available water, 60% is absorbed by land, and only 40% is available as surface or groundwater. Surface water includes rivers and lakes. Groundwater is represented by aquifers in soil and stone. The water varieties contain different amounts of salt, such as sodium chloride and magnesium. Freshwater contains < 0.05% salt, brackish water (sometimes found in aquifers) contains 0.05–3.0% salt, and saline water has 3–5% salt.

Examples of large freshwater surface sources are the Great Lakes in North America and the Baykal Sea in Russia. Together, these water bodies account for more than 40% of the world’s readily available freshwater supply. There are also a number of rivers that carry large volumes of freshwater. The largest is the Amazon, discharging on average more than 200,000 m 3 of water per second and draining nearly 7,000,000 km 2 of land. The second-largest river by volume is the Congo River, which averages a discharge of nearly 42,000 m 3 of water per second and drains 3,700,000 km 2 of land. By comparison, Niagara Falls discharges on average 1,800 m 3 of water per second and the Nile just over 5,000 m 3 per second. Many of the large rivers are extremely old; the Nile and Amazon, for example, have been in existence more than 200 million years (Gupta 2007 , http://www.bafg.de/cln_033/nn_266918/GRDC/EN/01__GRDC/grdc__node.html?__nnn=true ).

Ground freshwater sources include the Great Artesian Basin in Queensland, Australia, the Guarani Aquifer in South America, the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System in North Africa, and the Ogallala Aquifer in the southern United States. Aquifers have developed over millions of years, and their water volume is dif fi cult to ascertain. What is certain, however, is that aquifers are being depleted faster than they are being replenished. For example, based on the data available and current rates of usage, the Ogallala Aquifer may dry up at the end of the twenty- fi rst century or sooner (McGuire 2007 ) .

Depending on the temperature, water fl uctuates between evaporation and tran-spiration (from a liquid form) on the one hand and precipitation (in liquid and solid

Fig. 1.1 Main abiotic locations of water

http://www.bafg.de/cln_033/nn_266918/GRDC/EN/01__GRDC/grdc__node.html?__nnn=true

http://www.bafg.de/cln_033/nn_266918/GRDC/EN/01__GRDC/grdc__node.html?__nnn=true


forms) on the other. When it falls to the earth from clouds in liquid or solid forms, water becomes part of our ecosystem as surface water, groundwater, or solid water becoming snow, ice, or glaciers. This is called the water cycle (Fig. 1.2 ). In this simpli fi ed illustration of the water cycle, water that falls as precipitation in the mountains remains there in solid form through winter in the form of snow and ice. When temperatures increase in spring and summer, the snow, ice or glaciers melt, releasing liquid water that fl ows into the valleys. It then continues its journey in riv-ers, fi nally accumulating in lakes and oceans. Precipitation or water from the rivers may also enter aquifers, where it accumulates in vast underground holding areas where it remains or seeps back to the surface.

At all stages of the water cycle process, living organisms use water to sustain their metabolism. Water reenters the vapor phase through evaporation of surface water and groundwater and through transpiration of living organisms. In a cooler atmosphere, water condenses to create clouds, where it can be stored until it is released again as precipitation. The driving forces behind this process are the sun, the annual tilting of the Earth’s axis, altitude, and air and water currents. Cloud formation is preceded by the formation of tiny aerosols that usually need particles with a size > 50 nm for nucleation. Interestingly, it was reported that cosmic rays and chemicals (sulfuric acid, water, ammonia) may enhance cloud formation as well, and it was speculated that vapors of organic origin may play an important role (Kirkby et al. 2011 ) . Once the clouds are formed, they can affect our climate through the release of water or by re fl ecting either the sun’s rays or the heat generated by the Earth’s surface.

Fig. 1.2 Water cycle: the circle of life (Adapted from the US Geological Survey water cycle presentation)


1.1.3 Availability of Water

The availability of water can be subdivided into three topics: its supply, its distribu-tion, and its use and reuse.

1.1.3.1 Supply of Water

Usable freshwater is present as surface water or groundwater. The availability of freshwater, especially surface water, used to be the main determinant of where humans lived and farmed. With the development of technologies such as deep wells to reach aquifers, humans moved to areas previously uninhabitable or too dry to farm. Water supply is determined by the geology, geography, and climate of the region. In the future, climate change is expected to play an important role. As most water resources are so large they span more than one nation, transboundary issues and tensions are becoming more prevalent.

1.1.3.2 Distribution of Water

Freshwater has been a renewable resource up to now, but the availability of clean freshwater is steadily decreasing. In many parts of the world, more water is being used than can be replenished through precipitation. Where the infrastructure exists, water is distributed to communities primarily by pipe systems and canals. Also, water is diverted from areas where there is a surplus of water, such as lakes, rivers, and water reservoirs, to areas where there is a water de fi cit. This is accomplished with a network of aqueducts and canals and by water tankers. Water is also pumped from underground aquifers to aid agriculture and support the needs of growing urban pop-ulations. A well-known example of water distribution lies in California, which has few resources and needs to transport water over large distances. This is becoming increasingly necessary as its aquifers are running dry. The distribution of water is governed by fi nancial availability as water infrastructure is costly and must be funded by taxes/levies. Those who can pay for it have access to water (see section 1.3.1 “Unequal Distribution of Water”). The distribution of water is generally reliable in developed countries, where it is readily available and is treated as a commodity.

1.1.3.3 Use and Reuse of Water

The amount of water used in a particular region is governed by the demands of the local population and any agreements made that led to water being diverted to other regions. After the water has been used—domestically, in agriculture, by industry—it must be treated before being released into the environment. Some or all of the water can be reused as drinking water (as in Singapore) or as nondrinking water for


industrial or recreational use (as in Spain to water golf courses). The work of stimu-lating reuse of water and conserving this precious natural resource is ongoing.

Access to freshwater sources today is possibly fi nite. The only positive point is that so far we only use about 10% of the freshwater available to us. In fact, there are many negative aspects regarding the unequal distribution of water. Water is deliv-ered primarily via pipes, which can incur losses of ³ 50%. This magnitude of loss occurs, for example, in parts of Canada (whereas losses in Japan are as £ 3%). Nevertheless, a number of solutions to the water quantity problems are available (see Box 1.4 ).

Because of the growing population and increasing demand, the per-capita avail-ability of water is decreasing. The growing world population has surpassed the seven billion mark, with the highest population growth taking place in countries least equipped to deal with water problems (e.g., many African countries). There are more than two billion people in the world with insuf fi cient access to safe water. This is the result of: (1) insuf fi cient or nonexistent water supplies; (2) pollution of avail-able water sources, often because raw sewage is being discharged by households or factories into the supply; and/or (3) the high cost of supply and distribution. Many factors contribute to this situation and are discussed in greater detail in the remain-der of this chapter.

1.1.4 How We Use Water

The ways we use water today have not essentially changed: It is used mostly in homes, for agriculture, and in industry. The quest for adequate water supplies is driven by fi ve basic water-related human needs: water for drinking and cooking; hygiene; sanitation (sewage disposal); growing food and industrial usage. Each of these needs requires different amounts of water, not necessarily of similar quality. Clean water for drinking, cooking, hygiene, and sanitation is crucial for our health. This is especially evident in developing countries, where clean drinking water and proper hygiene are vital to preventing the spread of water-borne diseases. Access to safe drinking water (currently at 83%) and increased access to sanitation remain the main water quality challenges for the developing world.

In developed countries, people require approximately 130 l per person per day. This breaks down to approximately 52 l for showering, 36 l for fl ushing, 20 l for washing clothes, 9 l for food preparation, 1.6 l for drinking, and 6.4 l for other pur-poses. The amount of water used for domestic purposes differs greatly from one country to another: Germans and Dutch use approximately 130 l per person per day, whereas Canadians use >300 l per person per day.

The bulk of spent freshwater is used in agriculture and industry. In some cases, this represents >70% and >20%, respectively, of all freshwater used (leaving 10% for domestic purposes). Although agricultural products account for on average 70% of all freshwater withdrawals, it comprises only 20% of the total water needed for agricultural purposes. The difference of 80% is largely made up from rainfall. Thus,


we can see why the dryer regions of the world tend to rely on vast amounts of water for irrigation. For this reason, some forms of agriculture (e.g., intensive rice and corn farming) can be undertaken only in rainy climates. In arid and semi-arid (dry) climates it is usually possible to have only cattle and sheep herding and at lower levels of production. Because most agricultural crops are dependent on water, the natural rainfall is supplemented via irrigation to increase production. It is estimated that 40% of all crop varieties in the world today are grown using some form of irri-gation. However, over the next 40 years, human populations will likely expand especially into the areas in which it is most dif fi cult to grow food.

The system of trading virtual water represents a positive change in the industrial and agricultural use of water. With this system, regions with plentiful water resources concentrate on producing products and foods requiring large amounts of water, whereas regions with a shortage of water concentrate on producing products that demand less water. The products and foods are then sold, taking into account the amount of (virtual) water needed to generate such goods. The concept of virtual water is based on the observation that the process of generating a product requires a certain amount of water. It is often stated as: “To produce a pair of jeans requires 11,000 l of water, whereas 1 kg of wheat requires about 1,000 l of water.” With this scenario, the jeans and wheat are exported from regions with suf fi cient water to regions that have too little and where the water can be used for more pressing needs (Allan 1998 ; Zimmer and Renault 2003 ) .

It is evident that the type of industry and agricultural practice in a particular area dictates the amount of water used. Interestingly, the amount of water usage does not necessarily correlate with the wealth of a nation. In fact, there is no link between the amounts of water used by industry and agriculture and the level of the country’s development.

1.2 Drivers of Water Quality and Quantity

This section looks at the scale of the water problem we are facing. Droughts, fl oods, deserti fi cation, climate change, access to water, and related con fl icts are just a few of the challenges associated with the hot topic of water quantity. Point and nonpoint (diffuse) pollution and the sanitation and hygiene problems that come with it pro-vide serious challenges to attaining adequate water quality standards even during the twenty- fi rst century (see also section 1.4.2 “Addressing Water Quality -Related Challenges”).

It should be remembered that well into the 1970s the environment, including water, was used as a dumping ground for waste, even in developed countries. St. Louis, the capital of the U.S. state Missouri, was dumping all of its untreated city sewage into the Mississippi River even after the United States’ fi rst moon landing. The coal industry contributed to the acid rain that affected forests and lakes in many parts of Central Europe. Brussels, the seat of the European parliament, still had inadequate water treatment facilities in 2011. Hence, it is unjust to blame develop-


ing countries or countries with rapidly increasing living standards for all of the environmental damage. However, it is true that the damage is now greater as our population is much larger, growing from three to seven billion during the past fi ve decades. It is also true that we are now much more aware of the in fl uence of human activities on our environment and our water resources. There is no excuse for not taking action as this awareness should lead to changes in attitudes and decision-making patterns.

The quantity and quality of water available determines whether a region has suf fi cient and safe freshwater, as had been postulated by the United Nations. A number of factors affect water quantity and quality and, consequently, access to adequate and safe freshwater to cater to basic water-related human needs. This sec-tion provides an overview of the complex issues and driving pressures created by humans that are affecting our water resources.

There are many driving forces that affect our water resources, including the following.

Human pressure (demographic and social drivers) • Food supply and costs (demographic, environmental, and social drivers) • Finance (economic drivers) • Management (social drivers) • Disaster (environmental and social drivers) • Climate change (environmental drivers) • The main drivers are listed in Fig. 1.3 and are discussed in the accompanying

text. The relation of the drivers with water resources is as follows.

Demographic , environmental, social drivers of water resources Increased pollution, water overuse/scarcity Reduction in water quantity and quality Reduction of adequate and safe supply of water needed to meet the fi ve basic water needs

For example, with changing demographics and higher living standards comes an increased demand for water. Increased use of water is accompanied, in many cases,

Population growth

Poverty Higherliving standards

Climate

change

Water quantity Increasingdemand

Unequalor no supply

Increasingdemand

Unequaldistribution

Water quality Pollutionincrease

Pollution Pollutionincrease

Changesin salt content

Fig. 1.3 Main effects of key drivers (pressures) in fl uencing water quantity and quality


by an increase in agricultural runoffs, decreased water quality, and in the absence of corrective measures decreased availability of safe freshwater.

A rapidly growing population in a given region increases demand for water. It also generates more waste and thus pollution. However, the types of demand and pollution generated differ between developed and developing countries. To meet the demands, the rapidly growing human population creates increased demands: safer water to drink, increased amount of clean water for hygiene and sanitation, and more water to grow food and to support industry. Developing countries with the highest population growth often lack the resources to build the required infrastruc-ture to support the its key needs. The outcome is insuf fi cient water supply, low hygiene and sanitation standards, malnutrition, and rampant pollution. This can keep the region in a perpetual state of poverty.

The state of poverty in a country has a direct, negative effect on the available water and its quality. Lack of funding leads to the inability of local governments to manage water resources properly and fund the development of necessary infrastruc-ture. Statistics show that rapid population growth is closely linked to poverty. With few exceptions, the higher the birth rates or in fl ux of migrants into a poverty-stricken region mount, the greater is the poverty and the lower are the living standards. There is evidence indicating that education can help reduce birth rates and poverty. Thus, appropriate allocation of ( fi nancial) resources under effective and noncorrupt man-agement can have a positive effect on poverty and thus water-related challenges. It is perhaps not surprising that people living in poverty also tend to live in marginal-ized areas that do not produce suf fi cient food or in regions subjected to frequent natural disasters and man-made calamities.

Increased living standards lead to increased demands on water supply and water quality. This demand is different from that experienced in regions with rapid population growth. Increased living standards create an economic demand for consumer goods that need to be produced locally or imported. This situation, in turn, necessitates new and more sophisticated pollution controls to prevent land and airborne pollution (e.g., from carbon-based fuels). An increase in living stan-dards generally leads to increased demand for meat, as is the case in China. Production of 1 kg of meat requires more water than production of 1 kg of wheat. Also, production of more food and of foods requiring high-intensity farming and therefore increased use of fertilizers (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus), may lead to runoff into rivers and eutrophication. Improving living standards are also accom-panied by increasing usage of hormones and antibiotics in animals and greater use of pharmaceuticals among the population. These substances fi nd their way into water and eventually back into the food chain (see Chap. 3 ). Increasing demand for fossil fuels are signi fi cantly linked to the growing amount of CO

2 and the

acidi fi cation problems of our planet. The well-documented negative consequences on biodiversity created by these problems have reached unprecedented propor-tions. We are currently experiencing the largest loss of biodiversity since the last great extinction 65 million years ago. Finally, the well-being of a society leads to increasing demands for water for recreational usage. Tourism, which includes the development of hotels, swimming pools, and water parks, when established on

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coastal areas in dry regions result in additional pressures on local water availability.

The three drivers that in fl uence water quantity and quality mentioned above are man-made. Climate change may also be considered man-made as current evidence suggests that our demands for carbon-based fuel have led to increased global tem-peratures and will change weather patterns. Changes in local climates are expected to lead to meteorological extremes (e.g., increased drought or rainfall) in various parts of the planet. They may also lead to raising sea levels and encroachment of saltwater into areas that are currently used for agriculture. The end result is that the crops grown to produce food to sustain our population will be subject to greater stresses. It will therefore be necessary to develop new plant varieties that can sur-vive these stresses while yielding suf fi cient amounts of product under the changing environmental conditions.

In summary, increasing world population, poverty and demand for consumer goods because of increasing living statndards as well as, climate change seriously affect the water quality and quantity available for human use. Effects on the envi-ronment are also seen, with reduced biodiversity in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans. The use and misuse of water leads to changes in geology, such as the loss of wetlands and rivers, in some cases leading to the intrusion of saltwater into coastal areas. These changes in water and soil salinity negatively affect water quality and quantity which in turn negatively affect food production.

1.3 Water Scarcity

This section looks at the consequences of population growth, behaviour and man-made activities for our water resources.

1.3.1 Unequal Distribution of Water

Population growth and increasing living standards lead to increased demands on the water supply. Unfortunately, especially in developing countries, not all people have equal access to water, nor do they have the fi nancial means to pay for this access. The result is that some people have adequate water supply to meet their needs, and others do not. This de fi cit may occur on a local level, within a region, or even, on a larger scale, between nations.

Shortages of water (like a shortage of any commodity), the need for water treat-ment, and the distribution of water creates opportunities for commodi fi cation of the resource. This is a process of converting a product that was free, or a service that was community-driven, into one that is subject to market rules and controlled by private parties. There are many possible forms of privatization. Corporations may enter into public–private partnerships, which for various reasons are often seen as


more ef fi cient than public utilities. The private sector can often acquire investment capital faster and less expensively than the public sector. Private companies are also often in a position to provide the expertise necessary to manage safe, ef fi cient water delivery systems for a large population. On the downside, it is important to realize and acknowledge that such companies aim to make a pro fi t and sometimes even acquire the ownership of public water systems.

Openness, transparency, and public regulatory oversight are fundamental require-ments in the effort to shift the responsibility of providing clean water from public to private entities. The United Nations 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and Development recognized the need to achieve a balance between managing water as an economic challenge and as a social good: “Integrated water resources manage-ment is based on the perception of water as an integral part of the ecosystem, a natu-ral resource, and a social and economic good.”

1.3.1.1 Politics and Con fl icts

Given the critical importance of water to individuals, societies, and economies, its shortage can lead to signi fi cant political and social tensions. There is great natural variation in the abundance and availability of freshwater, so distribution is needed. In the past, most large-scale transfers of water occurred within national and political borders, and satisfactory agreements were common between countries sharing a watershed. The issue of sharing water becomes complex when water resources cross borders of neighboring countries with preexisting disputes, as there is the potential to in fl ame political tensions. Many of the world’s con fl icts exist in regions where water is scare and shared.

Con fl icts may also arise when plans for a massive power dam threaten to change the water fl ow in downstream areas or fl ood the living areas of populations upstream, as in the case of the Kunene River (Namibia), the Belo Monte dam (Brazil) or China’s Three Gorges dam. Con fl icts of economic or environmental interest consti-tute topics of hydropolitics.

1.3.1.2 Human Right

Water is used and consumed on a daily basis and can therefore be seen as a natural resource for use by society. The problem with labeling water as a resource is that the label strongly implies that water is a commodity—something to be bought and sold, such as oil or natural gas. Many, however, contest the concept of water as a com-modity. Water is a resource but an invaluable resource to which each person on this planet has the right of access and use. Fair access to water is seen as a key prerequi-site to lifting countries and regions out of poverty. For this reason, the United Nations (UN) has prepared a document detailing methods to address this impasse.

On July 28, 2010, with a clear majority vote, the UN General Assembly approved a resolution to make access to water a basic human right. The resolution does not


make the right to water legally enforceable. What it does do, however, is infer that, like the right to food and the right to live without torture and racial discrimination, national governments now have greater political obligations to ensure access to water. Rather than focusing purely on the economic growth of a state, a human rights approach focuses attention on vulnerable individuals to ensure that no one is excluded. It promotes national and international mechanisms to increase human access to water and sanitation.

The resolution highlights the urgency of the issue of water shortage for a grow-ing portion of the world’s population. Adopting the human rights approach to water and sanitation places in the foreground speci fi c questions about access to water. If a community or individuals within a community have minimal or no access to water services, it is clear that the situation should be made public knowledge. The com-munity then has a responsibility to contribute to the ful fi llment of these rights. An example would be to ensure that water services are maintained, once installed.

The human rights approach can also be viewed from a broader perspective. Humans are completely dependent on water for the maintenance of human life; there is no substitute. It is unlike all other commodities. The human right to life and everything else that depends on life are dependent on water and having access to it. How does this right equate with the fact that corporations rather than local govern-ments increasingly control water supplies?

Water privatization can be immensely pro fi table, which could be the reason why many countries abstained from voting on the UN resolution that expanded the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on July 28, 2010. Privatization of water supplies is taking place around the world, backed by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The three largest companies that supply water for pro fi t are Suez and Veolia Environment in France and RWE-AG of Germany. These companies deliver freshwater and provide wastewater services to almost 300 mil-lion customers in more than 100 countries (Barlow and Clarke 2004 ) .

The corporations argue that privatization of water supplies provides an ef fi cient, affordable way to supply water to the people who need it. However, a great deal of the world’s population does not have access to freshwater; and with the privatization of water resources, prices have increased, making it even less accessible to the peo-ple who need it most. The UN resolution includes the words “accessible and afford-able” drinking water. It is hoped that the UN call to action translates into the realization of that right for the world’s poorest and most marginalized groups.

We must decide whether water is a commodity, like any other natural product and to be treated as such, or it is a natural resource that should be made accessible to each person on this planet as a human right. It is likely that a combination of the two approaches is necessary. Private investment in the distribution of water is needed in developed countries but must be strictly regulated to ensure transparency and fairness. In developing countries, the balance between public and private involvement in water infrastructure projects is likely to need even stricter regulation. The problems that could arise in such development projects are corruption, lack of decision-making, bad planning, and insuf fi cient enforcement. What is clear is that providing water to its communities is a key responsibility of publically accountable governments.


1.3.2 Water Overuse

The United Nations estimated that two-thirds of the Earth’s population will be liv-ing in water-stressed conditions by the year 2025, which is twice as many as in 2010. Most of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) 1 predicted scenarios for 2050 show that the richest arable regions of the world are threatened with changing patterns of rainfall, which will result in a lack of water for agricul-tural activities with a high demand of water, thus putting the world’s food supply at risk (Parry et al. 2007 ) . By 2025, it is predicted that 50% of countries will experi-ence water stress or shortages of freshwater of suf fi cient quality for human con-sumption (Metz et al. 2007 ; Solomon et al. 2007 ) . Although freshwater is a renewable resource, it can be argued that the relative availability of clean freshwater is steadily decreasing as the world population increases (Smakthin et al. 2004 ).

In many parts of the world, more water is used than can be replenished through precipitation. Many places on our planet are already using water in excess of what is locally available, leading to water shortages (Fig. 1.4 ) the sources of freshwater that are commonly used are surface water (rivers, lakes) and groundwater. Desalination of ocean water is practiced in only a few coastal regions (e.g., Israel, Persian Gulf, Spain) because it is not an attractive economic option when compared to most alternative sources of water.

Groundwater levels could eventually be restored if their usage is properly man-aged. However, things can go wrong if bodies of groundwater are located close to coastlines, as saltwater intrusion may eventually lead to permanent destruction of

1 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its mission is to provide comprehensive scienti fi c assessments of information about the risk of climate change caused by human activity. See http://www.ipcc.ch .

Fig. 1.4 Water resources, taking into account local availability and requirements (Adapted from Smakhtin et al. 2004 )

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such valuable water sources. The overexploitation of surface waters is not sustain-able for a number of other reasons. Reduction in the size of surface water bodies has a signi fi cant impact on the quality and quantity of the remaining water and the eco-systems that depend on it. Natural aquatic ecosystems have a substantial economic value for fi sheries as fl ood regulators, for waste treatment plants, for recreational purposes, and for wildlife habitats. Freshwater ecosystems, rich in biodiversity, are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems.

The largest user of water by far is agriculture, producing the products needed to feed the world’s growing population. Looking back over the last fi ve decades, agricultural technologies have kept pace with the population increase. Water with-drawals tripled; and the use of improved crops, fertilizers, and agrochemicals made sure that world food production outstripped population growth. The future, however, does not seem bright as there are a number of trends requiring policy changes:

Water management technologies are not keeping up with demand in regions of • the world with large populations where overexploitation causes groundwater lev-els to decline. Pollution, erosion, and intrusion of seawater further degrades available water • resources and the environment, resulting in the loss of existing ecosystems that in turn are essential for natural services to water management (e.g., fl ood mitiga-tion, groundwater recharge) or agriculture (pollution, disease control). Total amounts of produced food crops remain ill-distributed around the world. • Also, because of differences in economic power, climatological circumstances, and water scarcity, certain regions do not have the means to gain local control and safeguard sound agricultural production mechanisms with sustainable water usage procedures. In other regions of the world, wealth is increasing, with a concomitant increase • in the consumption of meat or fi sh. Industrial livestock production and aquacul-ture activities put a multifold pressure on water requirements because of increased demands for additional agricultural crops. Agriculture uses vast quantities of water. It also introduces a range of non-point-• source poorly regulated contaminants. Runoff from agricultural fi elds often con-tains eroded soil, fertilizers, animal manure, and/or pesticides, which are major sources of water pollution.

Unfortunately, the growing world population makes the above-described chal-lenges even greater. Figure 1.5 shows the percentage of total water supplies with-drawn for agriculture in relation to population growth. With a few exceptions, water-stressed regions correspond to economically disadvantaged regions with a rapid population increase.

Even developed countries are not immune to such problems. The European Environment Agency report “Water resources across Europe—confronting water scarcity and drought” documented that agriculture in certain areas of southern Europe use up to 80% of all water extracted (Collins et al. 2009 ) . Typically, only about 30% of all water used for agriculture returns to the groundwater body, and the


rest evaporates. It is therefore not a surprise that these countries experience the greatest water scarcity problems. The balance between water demand and availabil-ity has reached critical levels in many areas of Europe. Until now, most Europeans have been insulated from the social, economic, and environmental effects of severe water shortages, but water stress is growing in parts of the north too. One of the main contributors is global warming.

1.3.3 Climate Change

Climate change was initially thought to have positive effects on the yields of agri-culture because: (1) increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere could stimulate photosynthesis and thus plant production; (2) a warmer climate supports the growth of crops in cold regions such as Alaska and Siberia that previously could not be produced. However, the overall effect of global warming on agriculture is negative, mainly because dry regions are predicted to receive even less rainfall, and in other regions an increased occurrence of fl oods have been foreseen that will destroy valuable farmlands. Although these water imbalances can be the result of natural causes, such as extended periods of drought, it is the imprudent actions of humans in most cases that have caused the damage.

Global warming is the most complicated issue facing world leaders, and unfortu-nately economic worries are competing for their attention. Since the 1970s, the long-term rate of global warming has been at ~0.16 °C per decade, but it seems to have slowed during the last decade to 0.05–0.13 °C. Recent calculations may have been underestimated, however, owing to gaps in temperature data from the Arctic, where there may have been more severe warming.

Fig. 1.5 Percentage of total water supplies withdrawn for agriculture in relation to population growth (Adapted from: http://meat-matters.blogspot.com/2010/10/agriculture-water-use-and-pop-ulation.html )

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Whatever the cause of global warming, or potential ways to curb the trend, warm-ing of ~0.6 °C during the entire twentieth century had major effects on the global climate, with lasting effects. Water plays a central role: It stores or releases heat; it is the medium for local climate systems; and it can have enormous destructive power during natural disasters. The expected changes in climate are related to changes in the distribution of water and changes in glaciers and oceans. There is, for example, strong evidence from a variety of sources that signi fi cant melting is occurring in glaciers and ice masses—from Antarctica to Kilimanjaro in Africa, the Alps, the Andes, the Greenland icecap, and the full North Pole region. This is clearly a global response to the increased global temperature. The fi rst expected effect that comes into focus is the rise in ocean level, but others are equally important: long-term geological effects, environmental effects, economic consequences, further increases in greenhouse gases, and changes in the availability of drinking water and water for agricultural purposes. Urgent actions are needed to address this issue.

1.3.4 Pollution

While natural phenomena such as earthquakes or volcanic eruptions or storms may pollute water, most causes of pollution originate from human activities. In fact, almost all human activities can and do have an adverse impact on water quality. Water pollution is a major global problem: It affects plants and organisms living in water and is considered to be the leading cause of deaths and diseases among humans worldwide.

There are various kinds of water pollution, including water-borne diseases, chemicals, nutrients, and organisms imported into a particular region. Water is considered polluted when it is un fi t for its intended use and/or its ability to sup-port its constituent biotic communities (e.g., fi sh) is affected. Sewage and runoff fertilizers contain nitrates and phosphates that lead to eutrophication, where nutri-ents stimulate the development of aquatic plants and algae and excessive growth. Their production may clog waterways, block light to deeper waters, and use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose, causing other organisms to die as well (see Box 1.1 ).

Pollution has either a point or diffuse (non-point) origin. An example of a point pollution source is the Fukushima atomic power plant in Japan, which released large amounts of radioactive materials into the ocean or hospitals releasing pharmaceuti-cals into waste waters. Diffuse source pollution is more common and more dif fi cult to control. An example is fertilizer runoff from farms, which can cause eutrophica-tion in rivers and lakes. Agricultural runoff (from farm animals) may also contain other pollutants that can lead to accumulation of dangerous pathogens in water: certain strains of Escherichia coli found in water can cause diarrhea and even death. Sources of polluted water are domestic sewage, industrial wastewater, agricultural wastewater, construction sites, and urban runoff. Figure 1.6 illustrates the sources of water pollution.


Box 1.1 Categories of Pollutants

Disease-causing agents are bacteria (e.g., cholera, dysentery, typhoid • fever), viruses (e.g., polio, infectious hepatitis), protozoa (e.g., amebiasis, cyclosporiasis), and parasitic worms (e.g., schistosomiasis—bilharzia) that enter water bodies through sewage systems and insuf fi ciently treated human and animal waste. Together, these diseases probably kill six million to eight million people each year. Wastes that can be decomposed by bacteria require oxygen. When large • populations of decomposing bacteria are converting these wastes, oxygen levels in the water can be depleted. This causes other organisms in the water (e.g., fi sh) to suffocate. Water-soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause excessive growth of algae • and other water plants (eutrophication) further deplete the water’s oxygen supply. Large quantities of inorganic pollutants such as water-soluble compounds • (e.g., metals: lead, mercury, cadmium, nickel), inorganic elements (sele-nium, arsenic), acids, and salts make water un fi t to drink and cause aquatic life to die. Volatile organic compounds originate and are present in many products • used in society. They include building materials and furnishings, of fi ce equipment, paints and solvents, oils and plastics, pesticides, and many types of industrial waste. Some compounds are toxins and can be danger-ous even in small amounts; others may accumulate in complex organisms that are consumed by others, causing concentrations of toxins unsafe for top-level predators (e.g., humans) in the food chain. Volatile organic pol-lutants may remain present in water for a period of time and then escape into the atmosphere. It is perhaps surprising that signi fi cant concentrations of such volatile compounds are being found in the water bodies of the colder regions of the Earth. There the compounds are condensed and con-centrated and present a potential threat to the fragile biodiversity in these regions. Suspended sediments (e.g., silt and soil from eroded river banks, crop • fi elds, construction and logging sites, urban areas) smother gravel beds in which fi sh lay their eggs, fi ll lakes and reservoirs, obstruct shipping chan-nels, clog hydroelectric turbines, and make drinking water puri fi cation costly. Turbidity, when caused by high concentrations of suspended matter, interferes with passage of light through water and although not a major health concern may negatively in fl uence the whole aquatic life cycle from phytoplankton to fi sh. Radioactive substances can escape from nuclear power plants and from • mining and re fi ning activities. Other potential sources for radioactive sub-stances include areas where there is industrial, medical, and scienti fi c use

(continued)


Box 1.1 (continued)

of radioactive materials. Radioactive compounds can cause cancer, birth • defects, and genetic damage and are thus dangerous pollutants in water bodies. Heat is the fi nal form of water pollution. It is a pollutant because increased • temperatures decrease the solubility of oxygen, results in aquatic organ-isms being susceptible to diseases or even death. Any changes in this popu-lation can cause drastic changes in the ecosystem. Thermal pollution is caused by waste heat from industries, such as power plants that withdraw nearby surface water, pass it through the plant, and return the heated water to the body of surface water.

Fig. 1.6 Water pollution sources

Water quality is dependent on the type of pollution and the rate at which it is being released into the body of water, the volume of the water, and its ability to disperse the pollutants. There is a great difference in how lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater deal with pollution. Unfortunately, oceans have for too long been seen as a bottomless basin that can absorb pollutants with no adverse effects. Around 80% of all pollution in seas and oceans originates from land-based activities.

The ultimate effects on marine regions can be complex, with many drivers play-ing different roles. A good example is what happened to the Black Sea after a period of intense over- fi shing during the 1970s and 1980s. Together with the in fl ux of


excess nutrients from rivers and the introduction of alien species, the over- fi shing caused the existing marine ecosystem to collapse. It was a serious blow to pro fi table and active fi shing industries. Recovery of the ecosystem and restoration of the bio-diversity may be brought about only by reconsidering the interdependent local economies, agreements between the surrounding governments, and sound scienti fi c knowledge of the ecosystems involved (see Chap. 5 ).

Untreated pollutants can enter bodies of water, which is the case, for example, with organic pollutants in mountain rivers and lakes (see Chap. 2 ). If treatments to remove harmful compounds are absent or inadequate, pollutants fi nd their way down the river into oceans or penetrate groundwater bodies. Although many pollut-ing compounds are broken down and eventually decompose in the presence of a combination of physical forces (ultraviolet radiation) and biodegradation (mainly by microorganisms such as molds or bacteria), some compounds were speci fi cally put into use for their durability and stability (e.g., plastics) and breakdown is slow.

Microorganisms are remarkably fl exible in their ability to evolve new ways to decompose new compounds if they are similar to naturally occurring compounds. Because many pollutants being synthesized by humans are completely new to the natural environment, however, they tend to persist longer. The half-life is unique to individual products but variable depending on speci fi c environmental and applica-tion factors.

In one way or another, chemicals comprise more than 90% of all manufactured goods. They pervade all levels of modern society, existing in food, drinks, clothing, household products, automobiles, electronics, toys, plastics, and building materials, among other products. Neither governmental, environmental, nor and consumer agencies are able to test these novel compounds thoroughly. The magnitude and impact of water pollution is not always clear, nor is the resilience of the affected ecosystems. Therefore, we need to continue collecting data, analyze it, and create appropriate models for risk analysis. The aim is to reduce uncertainty, thereby help-ing decision-makers understand and evaluate the underlying risks of pollution. It includes cost-bene fi t analysis of possible actions to reduce these underlying risks. Risk management can identify trade-offs and synergies between water and other policy sectors. It could also greatly contribute to water management decision-making processes, as they are essential for equity, security, sanitation, and adequate water supply for agriculture and industry (see the section 1.4.3 “Assessing Water-Related Risk Issues”).

1.4 Water Quality

This section addresses action to be taken on water quality issues. As the Roman aqueducts and ancient canals in Cambodia, China, Iran, and Mexico prove, humans have always gone to great lengths to bring freshwater to its populations. Concerns relating to water quality are relatively new. Only after polluted water was identi fi ed in London as the cause of cholera outbreaks during the nineteenth century did we

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begin systematically and on a large scale to build canals to take dirty water away from towns and cities. These actions went hand in hand with growing awareness that polluted waters should be treated before releasing them into rivers. Converting this awareness into appropriate action is of great importance.

1.4.1 Water Quality: Human Consumption and the Environment

What is water quality? The de fi nition depends on the use for which the water is intended. The biological, chemical, and physical characteristics of water need to be such that the water can be used for its intended purpose. For example, The quality of drinking water has to be better than that of water used in industrial processes. A distinction must also be made between the quality of water being delivered to homes and that of already used water that is being recycled or released back into the environment.

Many urban centers pro fi t from the proximity of catchment areas that are sources of pristine water. This is true, for example, of urban centers close to mountains. The water is usually considered clean enough for drinking. Little or no treatment is needed before this water is distributed to customers. Populations located farther away (downstream) must rely on sources that contain water that was already used by others. This water likely needs to be treated before being distributed to customers.

After being used, water usually undergoes a cleansing process in water treatment plants before being released into the environment. Apart from water, valuable com-pounds can be recovered from wastewaters (see Chap. 4 ). Wastewater treatments follow certain internationally agreed-upon standards to safeguard the human popu-lation and the environment. As some living organisms are more sensitive to certain pollutants than others, reused water must be of suf fi cient quality not to threaten sensitive ecosystems, individual species, and populations. Thus, water quality is discussed and assessed in terms of both human consumption and the environment.

A number of methods can be used to assess water quality, including chemical, physical, and biological testing. Sampling is performed on site and analyzed pri-marily in laboratories. A crucial part of water quality assessment is continuous monitoring for signs of deteriorating quality.

As already discussed, there are a number of drivers (pressures) that affect water quantity and at the same time have an effect on water quality (see section 1.2 , “Drivers of Water Quality and Quantity”). First are the demographic drivers such as population growth, migration, and urbanization that lead to increased demands on water services. Second, economic drivers such as higher living standards encourage trade in goods and services. Finally, social drivers—how people think and act on a daily basis—in fl uence attitudes to sustainability and consumption patterns (see Box 1.2 ).

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Box 1.2 From Sustainability to Mutualism: A Personal View

When referring to water, sustainability can be said to be the most responsible approach to management of the environment and ecosystem. It ensures con-tinued diversity and productiveness so quality water is available for human use in the present and the future.

Sustainability implies that humans act as responsible and accountable managers of the planet’s natural resources and that the planet provides the goods and services we need. It is in our interest to make sure that the key resources, such as safe freshwater, do not run out. To act otherwise would threaten our society.

Actions taken in support of sustainability are the fi rst step in the right direc-tion. We must take care of the environment so it can continue to meet our needs for generations to come. The shift toward this form of thinking has helped us to become increasingly aware of how we use and misuse our precious natural resources, and it is helping us to move away from our past, abusive behavior.

The dif fi culty with sustainability is that it does not demand a fundamental change in our attitude to our planet. We can still see ourselves and, in the best of cases, act like responsible rulers of this planet. This is also written in many religious scriptures: we have been chosen by God to be the shepherds over life on this planet to serve our needs. It is a shame that a real dialogue with our planet, treating it as an equal, has not been required. We can learn about nature, and ourselves, if we treat our planet with respect and humility. It is time to start treating our planet as a partner, not as something to keep alive to serve us. In other words, we need to stop thinking and behaving, in ecological terms, as opportunistic parasites and start acting like partners in a symbiotic relationship, where both sides mutually bene fi t (the principle of mutualism).

We must move away from a purely materialistic de fi nition of our needs and de fi ne them in terms of quality, harmony, empathy, understanding, and appre-ciation. It is time to move from sustainability to mutualism. The creation of this new social driver could alleviate many of our problems—or at least may make them easier to resolve.

The combined effects of a growing population, poverty, and increasing living standards place increasing stress on the world’s water resources and, in particular, water quality. Climate change, a result of excessive fossil fuel usage, has for example a huge impact on the quality of ocean water (see Box 1.3 ). Although drinking water is available to about 85% of the world’s population, water quality and hygiene remain a major health issue. Approximately 300 people die every day from diseases linked to poor sanitation, poor hygiene, and contaminated water; and one of fi ve children do not reach the age of 5 years. More than fi ve million children die each year from


diarrhea alone. Con fl icts and wars cause the loss of many lives, but deaths due to water problems easily outnumber these fatalities. Nearly one billion people do not have access to clean, safe water—one in eight people (WHO/UNICEF 2012 ) .

1.4.2 Addressing Water Quality-Related Challenges

The key observation related to water quality issues is that demand for water increases hand in hand with a growing human population. Population growth com-bined with increasing demands for new products (and thus the use of carbon-based fuels) and inadequate water management leads to increased pollution directly: from home, agricultural, and industrial runoffs and in fl uxes of saltwater into groundwa-ter. Pollution increases indirectly as well through, for example, increased CO

2 emis-

sions. The end result is a decrease in safe freshwater supply. Education, scienti fi c research, and technology can contribute to overcoming the

challenges related to water quality and can help reduce or even eliminate some of the causes. Scienti fi c research enables gathering information and interpreting evi-dence so decision-makers and society itself can bene fi t from this new knowledge and make informed decisions about the issues addressed in this book. Technology provides the means to investigate these challenges in depth and provides potential solutions to water quality problems. The combined effect of these efforts should achieve the sustainable use of water resources while ensuring the good health and well-being of the world’s population. This means that engaging in research and technological activities ultimately helps decrease the impact of the demographic, economic, and social drivers. A few suggestions follow.

1. Improved technologies to:

Measure water quality and usage – Improve water quality – Create accessible and feasible water technologies –

Box 1.3 Effect of the Use of Fossil Fuels on Water Quality in Oceans

It is now accepted among the scienti fi c community that burning fossil fuels contributes signi fi cantly to global warming. In addition, ever-increasing lev-els of CO

2 in the atmosphere are causing a drop in the pH of the oceans (thus

increasing their acidity), with potentially devastating effects on ocean biodi-versity. This is because CO

2 absorbed in water through a series of chemical

reactions helps tie up carbonate ions, which are needed by many ocean-dwell-ing organisms to create calcium carbonate skeletons and shells. It is estimated that the doubling of CO

2 in the atmosphere from today’s levels of 360 ppm

could wipe out all of the coral reefs in the oceans and thus the ocean “forests” needed by many sea organisms for their survival.


2. New research on:

Risk assessment (addressing also trade-offs of action/nonaction) – Modeling of climate change – 2 Monitoring, assessment, and modeling of pollutant effects on ecosystems/ –biodiversity Development of genetic markers and genetic screening for pollution indicator –species Innovations in water reuse (recycling) and recovery of resources – New water sources (application of nanotechnology to desalination) – Emerging issues for waste managers in a changing world – Develop new drought-resistant and salt-tolerant crops –

3. Appropriate management 3 of:

Industry—to decrease water use and improve the quality of discharged –wastewater Households—moving to low- fl ush toilets wherever possible and appropriate –installation of dry composting toilets (especially in developing countries) Agriculture—sustainable water usage: stimulate drip irrigation, reduce leaks –in water storage and piping facilities Agriculture—reduce runoff that leads to surface and groundwater pollution –(from fertilizers, animal manure, and/or pesticides) and causes ecosystem damage Encourage the vegetarian diet and buying meat from sustainable farms – Install water infrastructure to reduce losses during water distribution to –<10% Wastewater—improved treatment and water-recovery systems – Adequate and fair water sharing and distribution of water resources to reduce –cross-border tensions Economic growth and social development (reduction in poverty) – Environment improvements in groundwater recharge; measures to prevent –and control fl oods, droughts, erosion, and seawater intrusion Risks—greater commitment to monitoring, assessment, legislation, and –enforcement; better coordination of actions; better communication between scientists, decision-makers, and the public about pressing issues

The key demographic drivers of water quality are perhaps best addressed at a polit-ical level as they involve complex socioeconomic and cultural issues. There is a need for new laws and policies and encouragement of new social drivers

2 Models are only as good as the data on which they are based. The main aim of increasing data collection is reduction in uncertainty of the models. 3 Management of water resources is dif fi cult especially with regard to the mix of and interaction between economics, environment and human interests. For example, what criteria should be used to decide on the equitable and reasonable distribution of water? Is it the number of people using the resources, the rainfall in a particular country, the size of the aquifer within a given area, etc.?


(see Box 1.2 ). The challenges and stresses also need funds to implement, monitor, and enforce the policies in question. Corruption must be terminated as it stands in the way of effectively addressing the challenges humanity faces, including future water prob-lems which will have great consequences for the wellbeing of our society. It is essen-tial that politicians, decision-makers, and the many groups of water users come to an agreement to guarantee safe and adequate water supplies to all humans and the envi-ronment. Indeed, one may argue that the water quality challenges are a re fl ection of the state of our society today. In comparison, possible solutions to water quantity chal-lenges are primarily of a technical and fi nancial nature (see Box 1.4 ).

1.4.3 Assessing Water-Related Risk Issues

Water availability to meet human needs is controlled and driven by many factors, the most signi fi cant being population growth, poverty, and higher living standards. As a result of human activities, there is also another major factor in fl uencing

Box 1.4 Possible solutions to Water Quantity Problems

There are a number of solutions to water quantity problems. Here are some possibilities: increase the water supply; increase conservation (limit waste); decrease demand.

1. Increase the water supply. The way forward is to make extensive use of saltwater as a source of freshwater using reverse osmosis technologies.

2. Increase conservation (limit waste). There are number of possibilities.

Increase systematic reuse of used (gray) water for nonpotable applica-• tions, especially in industry Replace water in industrial processes (e.g., with air)• Force those working in agriculture to use drip irrigation • Grow crops suitable to local water conditions • Reduce water loss during its transportation and storage • Reduce water waste at home by, for example, using low- fl ow shower-• heads, dual- fl ush toilets, energy ef fi cient appliances, watering lawns at night, using full dishwashers

3. Decrease demand. One solution would be to limit human population growth. Other solutions are to create awareness of the importance of vir-tual water and water footprint (change social attitudes about our environ-ment). Education on these topics can build awareness and ensure that the attitudes and actions of humans change so as to help overcome water qual-ity problems. Increasing the price of water in developed countries could also reduce demand.


water availability: climate change (see section 1.2 “Drivers of Water Quality and Quantity”). These four factors put into motion a complex array of events that affect water quality. An example is the increased use of fertilizers in agriculture to obtain higher yields per unit of land to feed the growing world population. On the downside, this causes, through runoff, surface waters to be polluted, causing eutrophication. Another example is the increased usage of medications by humans and feedstock, causing enhanced concentrations of pharmaceuticals in surface waters, which may again be used as a source of drinking water production.

If we know the main factors that in fl uence water quality, why do we not do some-thing to diminish their negative impacts? It is easier said than done.

The water quality issues: the challenges, and how to overcome them, need to be discussed within the framework of the risk control mechanisms we have in place. This risk governance helps experts choose the appropriate actions to address water quality challenges. It also illustrates the complexity of the challenges we face. Risk governance is based on a mixture of scienti fi c information provided by the scienti fi c community and judgment calls on the part of decision-makers. It is traditionally seen as comprised of assessment and management of risks, a process accompanied by appropriate communication discourse.

1.4.3.1 Risk Assessment

Risk assessment can be initiated only after deciding on the context and frame of reference within which the key questions are to be discussed and assessed. This problem-framing process is usually accompanied by the participation of stakehold-ers—governments, industry, scientists, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), gen-eral public—in a consensus-building dialogue. It is here that the challenges/risks are identi fi ed and prioritized and where the scope for risk assessment is decided. These decisions are based on consideration of stakeholder positions that re fl ect their needs, roles, values, and cultural considerations. The framing of the context within which the risk assessment is carried out also depends on legal and ethical considerations. As a consequence, European governments now tend to include in risk assessment not only an analysis of the prioritized risks but also, for example, broader societal concerns and needs, necessitating sustainability and environmental impact analysis. It should be noted that too narrowly or too broadly de fi ned frames of reference could be a hindrance to properly carrying out risk assessment and reaching useful recommendations.

The strategy employed for the actual risk assessment depends on the complexity of the risks being faced. Risks can be categorized as simple, complex, uncertain, ambiguous (Renn et al. 2011 ) . Water eutrophication, for example, can be considered a complex risk, as the polluting sources are usually diffuse, sometimes spanning different countries, and affecting the biodiversity in different ways in time and space. On the other hand, the effects of pharmaceuticals are not clear, so their con-cerns are considered uncertain and ambiguous risks. It may be necessary to employ the precautionary approach: erring on the side of caution in the face of uncertain evidence. This approach implies assessing any new pharmaceutical compound for


human health and environmental impact before it is marketed. In the past, pharma-ceuticals were tested only for their effects on humans who need them to treat par-ticular conditions. There was no regard to the possible secondary low-level systemic presence in our water supply, affecting our heath and the environment.

In its basic form, risk assessment consists of problem-framing, characterization of the risk, and evaluation of the likelihood of a harmful event taking place and its pos-sible human and environmental effects while also taking into account economic and social concerns. A main objectives of this assessment process is testing certain sce-narios to identify weaknesses in the possible risk reduction options, thereby reducing the inherent uncertainty about the risks. It also helps strengthen the ability of risk managers to make evidence-based decisions founded on cause–effect relationships.

1.4.3.2 Risk Management

The recommendations of the experts are given to decision-makers whose main job is to decide between risk reduction options and ensure their implementation and monitoring. Enforcement can be contemplated only when the decisions have become law. An example of this process is the Stockholm convention on the reduction of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in our environment (see Chaps. 2 and 3 ). Management decisions are especially important (and often controversial) for uncertain and ambiguous risks. The judgment in these cases, although based on available evidence, is a political decision until such time when conclusive research data become available. This is actually how the precautionary principle, as advocated by the European Union, works. Risks that might fall under such decisions include the release of CO

2 and its effect on global temperature increase and water acidi fi cation

(see Chap. 5 ) as well as possible removal of micropollutants such as pharmaceutials from waste water (Chap. 3 ). It should be noted that such discussions are currently less about the main body of evidence but, rather, about the economic implications, trade-offs, acceptability/tolerance and sharing of fi nancial responsibilities.

Costs ( fi nancial and otherwise) are always going to be associated with any risk reduction action. The question is what costs we will pay if no action is taken. This message seems to have been lost on many decision-makers. Precautionary actions in the form of robust control measures could have prevented the BP under-water oil disaster in the Gulf of Mexico, saving billions of dollars and preventing loss of human lives and damage to the environment and water quality.

Finally, it should be noted that stakeholders can and do in fl uence the urgency and speed of carrying out risk reduction measures. National, regional, political, eco-nomic, and social, cultural, and religious characteristics of individual stakeholders in fl uence their attitudes to risk issues. These factors have an impact on the risk behavior of stakeholders and the urgency with which they take action on an identi fi ed hazard. Insuf fi cient funds and a political system that is reluctant to shoulder respon-sibility means that awareness of, and even solutions to, the problems are not trans-lated into needed actions. This is unfortunately often the case when dealing with water quality-related challenges and possible solutions.

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Glossary

Ambiguous Risks Risks that have several possible interpretations on the basis of currently available risk assessments. They are in contrast to uncertain risks, where an insuf fi cient knowledge base exists. Sometimes uncertain risks can also be ambiguous or vice versa.

Atmosphere Layer of gases surrounding the earth. It is composed primarily of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).

Biodiversity Number and variety of organisms found within a speci fi ed geograph-ic region.

Catchment Area (referring to water): Area from where the water is collected (drained).

Ecosystem Community of organisms and their physical environment interacting as an ecological unit.

Equilibrium Balance of opposing forces or in fl uences. In biology, it refers to op-posing processes occurring at equal rates, resulting in a stable system.

Eutrophication Overenrichment of a body of water with nutrients, resulting in excessive growth of organisms and depletion of oxygen.

Evaporation Turning liquid into vapor. Evaporation is an essential part of the wa-ter cycle and thus crucial for the hydrosphere.

Hydropolitics Politics of water. It includes water quality and quantity issues that are usually of a cross-regional nature.

Hydrosphere All of the water under, on, and over the surface of the Earth. The water cycle moves water around the hydrosphere.

Lythospehere Usually de fi ned as the rocky outer shell of a planet, which is com-posed of the upper mantle and the crust. On Earth, the lithosphere gives rise to tectonic plates that shape the earth topography.

Point Source Pollution Contaminants that originate from point sources enter wa-ter bodies at a speci fi c site that can readily be identi fi ed, such as factories or sewage treatment facilities.

Precipitation Condensation of the atmospheric water vapor. Precipitation takes place when the air cools off and/or it is saturated with water vapor.

Risk Assessment Generation of knowledge about a possible harm or risk. It com-prises risk and concern appraisal and its characterization.

Risk Governance Problem-solving-oriented activity composed of risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication processes.

Risk Management Decision-making phase of the risk governance process con-cerned with designing and implementing actions to lower the identi fi ed risks (if necessary).

Sustainability Generally refers to the responsible management of resources so they can be used over an extended period of time. It implies, for example, assur-ing healthy ecosystems.

Transpiration Loss of water by evaporation in plants, primarily through the leaf’s surface. It helps the movement of nutrients around the plant. In animals, the pro-cess is called perspiration.


Virtual Water Volume of freshwater used to produce goods or a service. It usually measures and tracks how much water is used during production and trading of food or consumer products. Sometimes referred to as the water footprint.

Volatile (organic) Pollutants Organic chemicals that evaporate easily at normal temperatures and pressures and therefore have a low boiling point. They are usu-ally harmful to living organisms.

Water Quality Chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water that de fi ne its suitability for a particular purpose. Drinking water has a different qual-ity pro fi le than water used for industrial purposes only.

Water Quantity Amount of water available for a particular purpose (e.g., everyday use at home).

References

Allan JA (1998) Virtual Water: A Strategic Resource Global Solutions to Regional De fi cits. Ground Water. 36: 545–546

Barlow M, Clarke T (2004) Water Privatization: Polaris Institute. Collins R, Kristensen P, Thyssen N (2009) Water resources across Europe — confronting water

scarcity and drought EEA Report. No 2/2009 Gupta A Ed. (2007) Large rivers, geomorphology and Management. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, UK Kirkby J et al. (2011) Role of sulphuric acid, ammonia and galactic cosmic rays in atmospheric

aerosol nucleation. Nature 476: 429–433 McGuire VL (2007) Water-level changes in the High Plains aquifer, predevelopment to 2005 and

2003 to 2005: U.S. Geological Survey Scienti fi c Investigations Report 2006–5324, 7 p., avail-able at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2006/5324/

Metz B, Davidson OR, Bosch PR, Dave R, Meyer LA (eds) “Mitigation of Climate Change” Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP,van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds) 2007. “Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability” . Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Renn O, OrtlebJ, BenighausL, Benighaus Ch Risks. 2011. In PechanP, RennO, Watt A, PongratzI Safe or Not Safe, Deciding what risks to Accept in our environment and food. Springer Publishers.

Smakhtin VU, Revenga C, Döll P (2004) Taking into account environmental water requirements in global-scale water resources assessments. Research Report of the CGIAR Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. No. 2, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL (eds.) “The Physical Science Basis” . Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom

WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation. (2012). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water, 2012 Update.

Zimmer D, Renault D (2003) Virtual water in food production and global trade: Review of meth-odological issues and preliminary results, pp. 93–107. In: Hoekstra AY(Ed) Virtual Water Trade. Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Virtual Water Trade. UNESCOIHE Inst. for Water Educ., Delft, Netherlands. Res. Rep. Ser. No. 12

http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2006/5324/

31

J. Catalan (*) CREAF , Cerdanyola del Vallès , E-08193 , Catalonia , Spain

CSIC-CEAB, Biogeodynamics and Biodiversity group , Accés Cala St Francesc 14 , E-17300 , Blanes, Catalonia , Spain e-mail: [email protected]

M. Bartrons Center for Limnology , University of Wisconsin , Madison, 680 N. Park St , Madison , WI 53706 , USA

L. Camarero CSIC-CEAB, Biogeodynamics and Biodiversity group , Accés Cala St Francesc 14 , E-17300 Blanes, Catalonia , Spain

J. O. Grimalt Department of Environmental Chemistry , Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDÆA-CSIC) , Jordi Girona, 18 , E-08034 Barcelona, Catalonia , Spain

Chapter 2 Mountain Waters as Witnesses of Global Pollution

Jordi Catalan , Mireia Bartrons , Lluis Camarero, and Joan O. Grimalt

P. Pechan and G.E. de Vries (eds.), Living with Water: Targeting Quality in a Dynamic World, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3752-9_2, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Contents

2.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 322.1.1 Indicative Value of Mountain Waters .................................................................... 322.1.2 Altitudinal Gradient .............................................................................................. 33

2.2 Factors Influencing Aquatic Ecosystems .......................................................................... 352.2.1 Temperature .......................................................................................................... 352.2.2 Low Water Content in Salts .................................................................................. 352.2.4 Nutrients ................................................................................................................ 362.2.5 Water Transparency and High Radiation .............................................................. 372.2.6 Global Change Beyond Climate Warming ............................................................ 37

2.3 Effects ............................................................................................................................... 392.3.1 Acidification .......................................................................................................... 412.3.2 Dynamic Models and Future Projections .............................................................. 432.3.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants ................................................................................ 452.3.6 Food Web Bioaccumulation .................................................................................. 50

2.4 Actions .............................................................................................................................. 532.4.1 International Protocols .......................................................................................... 54

32 J. Catalan et al.

Abstract Mountains lakes, streams, and rivers, collectively known as headwaters, are popularly seen as waters of the highest quality. However, human-related pollu-tion has reached remote areas of the planet everywhere through atmospheric trans-portation. Mountain freshwater ecosystems are extreme environments for life and thus are particularly sensitive to some new stressors. This chapter begins by sum-marizing the main features of mountain freshwater ecosystems and then comments on the effects they have historically suffered. It focuses particularly on two environ-mental problems: (1) acidi fi cation and (2) contamination with persistent organic pollutants. These problems are at different stages of development and knowledge. Acidi fi cation mechanisms are well understood, and mitigation actions have been applied successfully. The pace of recovery and interaction with climate change are now focusing research interests. In contrast, the environmental problem of persis-tent organic pollutants in mountain waters has been unveiled only recently. Some initially unexpected fi ndings, such as the increasing concentration of some pollut-ants with altitude, have stirred further investigations on bioaccumulation processes, which are summarized here. Actions against contamination of sites far from the pollution sources, such as moun-tains, require the development of international protocols. The fi ght against acidi fi cation constitutes a successful example of such actions, and efforts against other atmospheric pollutants are following suit. These large-scale actions require adequate long-term monitoring networks, models for interpretating the results, and sound understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the observed patterns. Research may focus on: (1) increasing understanding of biotransformation of organic pollutants in natural conditions; (2) better evaluation of toxicological effects on both organisms and ecosystems as a whole; and (3) the ways that climate change in fl uences the transport, accumulation, and toxicity of pollutants, a subject that cuts across all freshwater quality issues.

2.1 Background

2.1.1 Indicative Value of Mountain Waters

Precipitation in the mountains is often perceived as the starting point of the water cycle (Fig. 2.1 ). In fact, precipitation can occur almost anywhere and is quantita-tively higher in oceans. Nevertheless, starting the water cycle story in the mountains is conceptually useful. Mountain lakes, streams, and rivers, collectively known as

2.5 Perspectives ....................................................................................................................... 572.5.1 Biotransformation ................................................................................................. 582.5.2 Toxic Effects ......................................................................................................... 592.5.3 Climate Change Interaction with Diffuse Pollution .............................................. 59

Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 61References .................................................................................................................................. 63

332 Mountain Waters as Witnesses of Global Pollution

headwaters, are popularly seen as waters of the highest quality. Many commercial drinking water companies use images of mountains on their marketing labels. Mountain waters are the closest to pure water that can be expected in aquatic eco-systems. At least this was the case until atmospheric contamination from human activities arrived in such remote areas, far from their pollution sources. Today, mountain waters are an excellent indicator of diffuse regional and global pollution: They have become reference points for evaluating actual and potential effects of pollution on the environment. Research in aquatic mountain ecosystems is therefore a valuable tool for current investigations to evaluate the trends and effects of human-induced global changes.

Headwater ecosystems also re fl ect the general effects of global change; for example, lake sediments hold a historical record of past changes. At high altitudes, headwater quality primarily re fl ects atmospheric deposition (basically precipitation of previous evaporated waters). Thereafter, the progressive in fl uence of soil and rock water pathways modify these initial quality characteristics.

2.1.2 Altitudinal Gradient

The “mountain” is a relative topographic concept. Attempts have been made to develop operational de fi nitions (Kapos et al. 2000 ) . Altitude is a main criterion, but slope, latitude, and plateaus also have to be considered. All lands 2,500 m above sea

Fig. 2.1 Mountain waters in the water cycle


level are de fi ned as mountains; below that elevation combinations of altitude, slope, and local elevation range are considered in the de fi nition. Lands 1,500 m above sea level with a slope higher than 2% occupy 11.3% of the Earth’s land surface; moun-tains above 4,500 m represent 1.8%.

From an ecological point of view, what is important for aquatic ecosystems is their position within the mountain altitudinal gradient, which in turn depends on local elevation and the latitude and degree of continentality of the location. These changes in physical conditions produce clearly differentiated belts (Fig. 2.2 ).

From the top, it is possible to distinguish the nival belt, where snow is permanent, although not necessarily as a continuous cover; the alpine belt, characterized by mead-ows located between the limit of the forest and permanent snow, with an elevation gradient between 800 and 1,200 m; and fi nally the montane belt, from the boundary of the forest to lowlands, with an altitudinal extension that can comprise between 1,000 and 3,000 m. Nival, alpine, and montane aquatic ecosystems may differ substantially because of the characteristics of their immediately surrounding catchment area. Rocky and sandy substrates at high-elevation lakes and streams progressively change toward predominantly silty and organic substrates in the lower parts. Ultraviolet (UV) sun-light radiation increases in higher altitudes because of the thinner atmosphere.

The tree line stands around the isotherm of >100 days with a temperature >6.7 °C (Korner and Paulsen 2004 ) . The temperature threshold is slightly lower in the equa-torial zone and slightly higher in the temperate zone. In the mountains, the year splits into contrasting phases: a snow-covered period and a snow-free period. The relative length of each of these periods changes with latitude, altitude, and locally through time with climate fl uctuations. Thawing represents an annual event of major consequences for aquatic mountain ecosystems. The presence of permanent snow fi elds and glaciers (ice) in the catchment area may maintain cold conditions

Fig. 2.2 Latitudinal changes in the elevation distribution of the main mountain belts: nival, alpine, and montane. Based on Korner and Paulsen 2004


during the warmer season in streams located at lower altitudes, in fl uencing the organisms living there. This point needs to be taken into account when considering

changes in water and aquatic ecosystem quality.

2.2 Factors In fl uencing Aquatic Ecosystems

Mountain lakes and streams are extreme environments for life. Low temperature, low salt concentration, nutrient-poor environment, and damaging UV radiation, alternating with long periods of winter darkness, require particular adaptation strat-egies on the part of the organisms living there. The end result is that the communi-ties of aquatic organisms in the mountains are different from those in the lowlands.

2.2.1 Temperature

Temperature is a major factor in fl uencing organisms’ metabolic activity. As a result, diverse adaptive options have evolved to deal with these extremes and variability. A simple way to categorize the adaptive options is to distinguish between steno-therm and euritherm organisms. Stenotherm organisms are able to survive only in a narrow range of temperatures but in which they perform extremely well. Euritherm organisms are able to live in a wider range of temperatures but at the expense of being less ef fi cient in each of the speci fi c temperatures. This is the thermal version of a general evolutionary trade-off between being generalist or specialist. Low temperatures favor the presence of cold-stenotherms at high altitudes or in streams fed by glaciers. Thus, temperature changes that occur with increasing (or decreas-ing) altitude is a signi fi cant factor of species segregation for some groups of aquatic organisms (de Mendoza and Catalan 2010 ) .

2.2.2 Low Water Content in Salts

Rock weathering of crystalline bedrocks is extremely slow, particularly if cold con-ditions limit vegetation and soil development (Korner and Paulsen 2004 ) . This slow weathering in locations with usually abundant precipitation results in waters poor in salts (soft waters) and low in nutrients needed to sustain life (so-called oligotrophic waters). These factors contribute to the distribution and segregation of some species (Catalan et al. 2009 ) .

Plants and generally all primary producers are particularly sensitive to the chem-ical composition of the water. From small unicellular algae (e.g., diatoms) to large aquatic macrophytes show species segregation through chemical gradients.


Particularly important in the context of water quality and the effects of long-dis-tance atmospheric pollution is the capacity of water to neutralize acids (see Box 2.1 ). In many mountain aquatic ecosystems this capacity is low. As a consequence these waters are easily in fl uenced by acidic deposition (Psenner and Catalan 1994 ) .

2.2.4 Nutrients

The elemental building blocks for organisms are usually scarce in mountain waters. Consequently, most aquatic ecosystems receive insuf fi cient nutrients (they are olig-otrophic). The reasons are not the same for the most necessary elements (e.g., car-bon, nitrogen, phosphorus). Elements mostly originating from rocks (e.g., phosphorus) are scarce because of the low rock weathering, poor soil, and high retention by

Box 2.1 Acid Neutralizing Capacity: Some Chemistry

An early de fi nition of an acid was a substance that increases the concentration of the hydrogen ion, H + , when dissolved in water. This de fi nition stems from the equilibrium dissociation of water: H

2 O ↔ H + + OH − and remains useful

for understanding the acidity of natural waters. Usually, natural waters have the capacity to buffer the increased hydrogen ions when an acid is added. Several natural systems can buffer the resulting decreased pH. The most com-mon system in freshwaters is the bicarbonate system. The dissolution of rocks in the presence of atmospheric CO

2 is commonly the main source of acid

neutralizing capacity (ANC). Water solution is in equilibrium regarding charges; thus, in terms of equivalents, there are as many cations as anions. Considering the usual most common salts in water, this means that Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ + K + + Na + + H + equals Cl − + SO

4 2− + NO

3 − + HCO

3 − + CO

3 2− + OH − . Some

of these ions do not change when an acid is added, whereas others transform to more-protonized forms (e.g., CO

3 2− → HCO

3 − ). By rearranging the former

expression according to whether ions change, it is possible to obtain comple-mentary de fi nitions of the ANC.

+ + + + − − − − − − ++ + + − − − = + + −2 2 2 24 3 3 3Ca Mg K Na Cl SO NO HCO CO OH H

At the left are ions that do not change; at the right are those that change and con fi gure the buffering mechanisms. The left part of the de fi nition is useful for quickly establishing the consequences of processes that may affect the acidity of aquatic ecosystems. Processes that bring cations—usually calcium (e .g., carbonate and silicate rock weathering, soil base exchange, dust dissolution)—increase the buffering capacity. In contrast, processes that bring anions (e.g., pyrite weathering, deposition of sulfur and nitrogen oxides), decrease it.


vegetation; thus, there is low phosphorus export from catchment areas to streams and lakes (Kopacek et al. 1995 ) . Nitrogen and carbon both have a large reservoir in the atmosphere, so in principle there should not be any limitation. However, these reservoirs are not directly available to mountainous aquatic organisms. Carbon dioxide (CO

2 ) in waters tends to be in equilibrium with atmospheric CO

2 . However,

exchange through the water–air interface is not immediate. Carbon is likely to be limited in productive small ponds that are rich in plants that grow in or near water (macrophytes).

The large nitrogen pool in the atmosphere, molecular nitrogen (N 2 ), is not directly

available to most of the primary producers. This limits nitrogen availability. Only some nitrogen- fi xing bacteria and cyanobacteria are able to incorporate N

2 into the

biomass. Therefore, nitrogen availability in lakes and streams is highly dependent on recycled nitrogen in sediments or soils. In mountains, soils in the catchments are thin, and so nitrogen release to water fl ows is low. This was true at least until recently, when atmospheric long-range pollution developed through human activi-ties (see below).

2.2.5 Water Transparency and High Radiation

Mountains waters are well known for their transparency; they are neither green nor brown because algal growth and dissolved organic matter is sparse. Transparency is drastically reduced only in lakes and streams that are directly affected by glacial silt, which is characteristically grayish.

High transparency becomes an environmental constraint for life, because UV radiation increases with altitude (Korner 2007 ) . Total UV radiation is higher and changes in quality because the atmosphere does not absorb all wavelengths similarly. Ultraviolet radiation, particularly UVB—the shortest, more damaging radiation—increases with increased altitude, and organisms in mountain waters have had to adapt and manage the negative effects of high irradiance (Sommaruga 2001 ) .

2.2.6 Global Change Beyond Climate Warming

Humans are currently producing a change in the conditions of the planet at a rate and scale never achieved before by a single species. Climate warming caused by CO

2 emissions is perhaps currently the most broadly known aspect of this change.

The increase in atmospheric carbon due to the use of fossil fuels is at the core of the “ global change” because it represents a change in the Earth’s system as a whole. Climate is changing throughout the planet, and the biosphere is responding. In addi-tion to the CO

2 increase, several other processes contribute to this global change.

Examples include the increase in other “greenhouse” gases (e.g., CH 4 , N

2 O) and the

reduced stratospheric ozone layer (Solomon 1999 ) . Other changes incurred by human activity were initially not considered global, but they became so because of


Box 2.2 Mountain Observatories

Many observatories that follow changes in atmospheric composition are situ-ated in mountains, and their records have made it possible to follow changes during the last decades. Probably the most famous observation is the CO

2

record from Mauna Loa (Hawaii). Some of the observatories are coordinated under the Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) program of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), an independent technical agency of the United Nations. They use similar protocols, coordinate the analyses and assessments, and predict trends on a global scale. Methodologically, it is important to generate data that have comparable quality. The program includes instrument calibrations, comparisons between instruments, station audits, and laboratory comparisons. Monitoring themes include stratospheric ozone, tro-pospheric ozone, greenhouse gases (CO

2 , CH

4 , N

2 O, CFCs), reactive gases

(CO, VOC, NO y , SO

2 ), precipitation chemistry, aerosols, UV radiation, and

natural radionuclides (Rn 222 , Be 7 , 14 C). Not all of the themes are at the same state of development or global coverage.

their progressive accumulation and extension over many territories. They include overexploitation of resources, erosion, acidi fi cation, eutrophication, biosphere toxi fi cation, urbanization, and the facilitation of species dispersion. Eventually, this amalgam of effects have led to other emerging global changes, such as modi fi cation of ecosystem functionality, loss of diversity, an increase in invasive species, and the appearance of new diseases.

As part of the Earth’s system, mountains are also changing. Some changes have been relatively fast (e.g., severe acid rain episodes), others are progressing slowly (e.g., warming), and still others were unexpected (e.g., pollution by organic con-taminants, see below). Mountains are a focus of interest in global change for distinct reasons: fi rst, the implications of the changes for mountain ecosystems; and second, observation in such relatively remote areas allows better assessments of the average global situation. For the latter aspect, many observatories currently recording atmo-spheric changes (e.g., CO

2 , tropospheric O

3 ) are located in mountains throughout

the world (see Box 2.2 ). Mountain aquatic ecosystems also play a role when we are monitoring global

change, some aspects of which are addressed in this chapter. The changes observed are complementary to those recorded in instrumental observatories: They are pro-viding evidence of ecosystem responses to atmospheric pollution similar to those recorded by the instrumental observatories. These responses and those in lake sedi-ment and ice core samples provide evidence for longer time periods than those available from direct instrumental recordings (Fig. 2.3 ).


Fig. 2.3 Lake sediments hold a record of the processes occurring in the lake: the fl uvial network, its catchment, and the atmospheric in fl uence

2.3 Effects

Despite the harsh conditions, direct human alterations of mountain ecosystems have occurred throughout the ages. Freshwaters, particularly mountain lakes and streams, were initially affected by deforestation and erosion related to pasturing activities (Lotter and Birks 2003 ) and agriculture in some cases (Deevey et al. 1979 ) . In recent times, hydropower exploitation and fi sh stocking have caused direct alterations. An abrupt change in water level greatly affects biota close to the shore (the so-called littoral biota) and can ruin aquatic macrophyte populations and lake plant belts. The introduction of fi sh, because of their establishment as top predators, may affect and eventually suppress some species typical of these high altitude sites. Humans are responsible for introducing fi sh populations in most mountain lakes and high altitude streams (Brancelj et al. 2000 ) . References to fi sh stocking go back to the fi fteenth century in the Pyrenees and the Alps. In some ranges of North America, the introduction of new fi sh populations has been more recent, and the impact on the local biodiversity has been assessed (Knapp et al. 2001 ) . With industrialization, generalized threats for headwater systems arrived from lowland areas through the atmosphere.

Human societies have a tendency to overexploit natural resources and create waste and pollution. Concerns about the effects of this behavior have not been growing at the same pace as the magnitude of the changes. In general, the closer the affected ecosystems are to human inhabitation, the sooner we take measures


for correction, mitigation, or adaption. This is well illustrated by the contrast of responses to eutrophication (pollution with fertilizing agents such as phosphorus) and acidi fi cation (pollution with acids, such as sulfur). Measures against eutrophi-cation were implemented with an approximately 10-year delay after the onset of major ecosystem declines. However, it took about a century to implement sulfur emissions reduction. The difference is that eutrophication occurred close to major human habitations, where water became green and smelled bad, whereas acidi fi cation occurred generally in more remote areas because the pollution was transported atmospherically. With heavy metal pollution, the reaction delay was even longer. There is evidence of extensive atmospheric pollution by metals dur-ing the Roman and Visigothic periods (Camarero et al. 1998 ) . Sediment records from mountain lakes offer examples of the large metallurgic impact of former times (Fig. 2.4 ).

Industrialization brought a revolution in organic chemistry, which inevitably introduced new synthetic compounds into natural cycles hitherto not present. Some of these are persistent and toxic, but the general consequences for natural systems are still largely unknown. Headwaters offer appropriate systems for studying the patterns of spread for these persistent pollutants and their bioaccumulation features and potential effects.

Although mountain aquatic ecosystems face all kinds of water quality problems, they are particularly suitabe for illustrating issues and research related to diffuse atmospheric pollution. Two pollution processes, acidi fi cation and chemical pollu-tion by organic compounds, provide complementary views. Acidi fi cation has been subject to active investigation, actions have been taken, and recovery clues are being evaluated. Chemical pollution by organic compounds is still a novel subject with

Fig. 2.4 Paleolimnological techniques make possible accurate reconstruction of regional metal pollution. The depth pro fi les of lead in the upper sediment of Lake Redon (Pyrenees) are illus-trated. Note: The difference between total lead ( solid dots ), and natural lead from the catchment ( open dots ) indicate the atmospheric pollution with lead. The stable isotopic lead composition (i.e., 206 Pb/ 207 Pb ratio) made it possible to identify mining as the source of pollution. The chronology was established using another lead isotope, in this case the radioactive 210 Pb (Source: Camarero et al. 1998 )


uncertainties. Together, acidi fi cation and chemical pollution, offer a good overview of the aims and challenges of conducting water quality research in headwaters.

2.3.1 Acidi fi cation

Many mountains consist of crystalline rocks, and as a consequence their waters show low capacity for neutralizing acids (Box 2.1 ). During the 1970s, acidi fi ed lakes and streams were reported in many European regions including low mountain ranges and alpine areas in central and southern Europe. Each year brought reports of new areas affected. The most apparent events were fi sh kills, with trout populations lost in many lakes and salmon declining in northern European rivers. No obvious or imme-diate explanation was apparent for the fi sh deaths in these remote places. Years of research showed that two factors were responsible: acid-sensitive waters and increased amounts of acid deposition. The emergent problem was related to acid deposition. Investigations indicated that sensitive waters were affected when the rain was more acidic than pH 4.7 and sulfate (SO

4 2− ) concentrations exceed 20 m Eq L −1 .

The increased sulfate concentrations in rain and snow were related to higher sulfur emissions, which had been steadily increasing since the late nineteenth century but that had increased exponentially during the 1950s with heavy industrialization (Schöpp et al. 2003 ) . Deposition of SO

4 2− increased strong anions in waters, reducing

the water’s acid-neutralizing capacity, resulting in increased acidity (pH < 5). This pH decrease facilitated elevated concentrations of inorganic aluminium species (Al n+ ), which are toxic to fi sh and other organisms (Poleo 1995 ) .

By 1980, approximately 25% of waters in the areas most affected (central Europe, England, Norway) were acidi fi ed to an ANC of < 20 m Eq·L −1 , which is considered the threshold at which there is virtually no ANC. The effects of acidi fi cation were con-sidered minor only in regions marginal to the core of industrialization. This was because there was lower deposition of acidifying anions (e.g., Sweden, northern Scotland) or because the neutralizing effect of dust-supplying cations compensated for the acidic pollutants (e.g., in the Pyrenees) (Camarero and Catalan 1996 ) .

This large-scale environmental problem called for international cooperation because in many instances the problem originated in one country and the effects were seen elsewhere owing to long-range transport of atmospheric pollution (Fig. 2.5 ). For the period 1980–2000, as sulfur deposition began to decrease, exten-sive monitoring documented the geographic extent of freshwater acidi fi cation and the onset of chemical recovery. By the year 2000, only a few of the sites still had a large proportion of acidi fi ed waters (Fig. 2.6 ).

The decline in acidity was less than expected, however, because of the impact of another element: nitrogen. Data regarding deposition from alpine areas indicated that during the decade 1975–1985 SO

4 2− declined in rainwater but NO

3 − increased,

with the result that the pH remained substantially acidic. In Europe, nitrogen depo-sition was almost equally partitioned between NO

3 − and NH

4 + (Croisé et al. 2005 ) .

As NH 4 + is rapidly taken up by plants and microorganisms or oxidized to NO

3 − by


Fig. 2.5 Temporal overview of acidi fi cation of European mountain waters. Notes: Three acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) classes (ANC measured as microequivalents per liter, m Eq/L) corre-spond to the probability of viable populations of brown trout and other key indicator organisms. Red : ANC < 0, barren of fi sh; yellow : ANC 0–20, sparse population; blue : ANC > 20, good popula-tion [Data are from the acidi fi cation model MAGIC (SMART in Finland).] Four key years are shown: 1860, preacidi fi cation (no simulations for Finland because the SMART model was initiated in 1960); 1980, maximum acidi fi cation; 2000, present; and 2016, after complete implementation of emission reduction protocols (Source: Wright et al. 2005 )

Fig. 2.6 Rise and fall of emissions in Europe during the period 1880–2030. as estimated by Schöpp et al. ( 2003 ) (Source: (Wright et al. 2005 )


microbial activity—both resulting in acidi fi cation—the potential acidi fi cation by rain and snow is de fi nitely higher than indicated by their pH (Psenner and Catalan 1994 ) . Acidi fi cation models had to take into account the increasing importance and different behavior of nitrogen compounds in terrestrial and aquatic environments.

2.3.2 Dynamic Models and Future Projections

Simple diagrams considering main cation and strong anion balances (see Box 2.1 ), which were suf fi cient to understand and deal with the impact of sulfur (Henriksen and Posch 2001 ) , had to be replaced by more complex, dynamic models that could consider the multiple processes involved in soils and waters (see Box 2.3 ). The model simulations showed that prior to the onset of acid deposition during the second half of the nineteenth century few waters were acidic (Wright et al. 2005 ) . Areas with bedrock rich in sul fi des and without carbonate rocks showed water naturally acidic with pH <5. These extreme environments, however, are generally geographically isolated and do not cover large areas (Camarero et al. 2009 ) . The modeling results generally agreed with historical documents for fi sh occurrence and paleolimnologi-cal reconstructions using diatoms (Battarbee et al. 2005 ) (see Box 2.4 ).

Such modeling allows the development of predictions for water acidi fi cation in the future (Fig. 2.5 ). Model simulations predict that recovery will continue, and that by 2016 most waters will have chemically recovered. It does not mean, how-ever, that they will return to their preacidi fi cation state; some sulfur and particu-larly nitrogen deposition will remain. In some areas, decades of acid deposition have reduced the capacity of soils to neutralize acid deposition. For instance, in the Tatra Mountains in Slovakia, soil continues to acidify (Kopacek et al. 2003 ) . Also, these model projections contain uncertainties. Nitrogen is usually strongly retained in terrestrial ecosystems; typically, less than 10% leaches during runoff, mostly as NO

3 − . Persistent nitrogen deposition can saturate terrestrial ecosystems, however,

which increases NO 3 − leaching to surface waters (Aber et al. 1989 ) . Increased NO

3 −

concentrations have been recorded for some years in mountain streams and lakes located in catchments of relatively poor soils (Alps, Pyrenees, Tatras) (Rogora et al. 2001 ) . Future global climate change introduces more uncertainty to these recovery predictions. These changes could either accelerate or hinder recovery of acidi fi ed waters.

2.3.2.1 Acidi fi cation as an Environmental Problem

It is important to distinguish between acidi fi cation as a chemical process and acidi fi cation as an environmental problem. In the latter context, biological acidi fi cation starts earlier than chemical acidi fi cation, and biological recovery takes longer. For instance, lake biota have an ecological threshold of around 200 m Eq L −1 of ANC. When waters acidify below that value, replacement of many species is


likely. However, this is still far from the toxic effects related to aluminum that tend to occur when acidi fi cation drops to an ANC of <20 m Eq·L −1 . This example well illustrates the fact that identi fi cation of the environmental problem is delayed when water quality criteria focus only on toxic effects. In contrast, when the quality target is ecological integrity, problematic issues can be detected at an early stage.

Ecosystem decay and recovery do not follow the same route. When chemical recov-ery is achieved, it still requires time for organism migration to the restored habitat, and populations must adjust to new arrivals (Knapp and Sarnelle 2008 ) . Characteristic lag times differ among organisms—from a few years to decades. In any case, because com-munities respond not only to environmental conditions but also to contingent biological events and interactions, community composition differs in some degree from the

Box 2.3 Dynamic Modelling in Environmental Science

Fundamental information about environmental processes comes from careful observation and well-planned experiments. When making projections about future or reconstruct past situations, this fundamental knowledge has to be combined to allow a quantitative evaluation of the processes through time. This modeling exercise is a scientific challenge in itself because the necessary knowledge has to be included in a comprehensive way, accurate to the extent possible, but avoiding unnecessary complexities that can create mathemati-cally artifactual results. Building up such models is time-consuming and requires appropriate skills. Thus, these models must be developed and improved over many years. They acquire their own identity in the respective scientific fields, and their acronyms become familiar among scientists and stakeholders in the field. For instance, MAGIC (Model for Acidification of Groundwater in Catchments) is a popular model for hindcasting and forecast-ing acidification (Cosby et al. 2001).

Box 2.4 Diatom-Based pH Transfer Functions

Diatoms are unicellular algae that have an extracellular cover of silica (valves) showing an ornamentation that is characteristic of each species. Diatom valves are usually well preserved in lake sediments, enabling scientists to trace changes in species distributions through time. This feature combined with the high sensitivity of diatom species to pH values has allowed reconstruction of past pH values in a given lake (Battarbee 1984). This “transfer function method” consists of developing a calibration set of current diatom collections in a large number of lakes covering as a broad range of pH as possible (Fig. 2.7). From these data, the optimum pH for each species can be estimated and these optima can be applied to the diatom sediment record of interest.


Fig. 2.7 Microfossil remains of aquatic organisms (e.g., diatoms) are used for reconstructing past environments

community that had been present prior to the damage (Stendera and Johnson 2008 ) . De fi ning target reference conditions for recovery is not easy, particularly under a con-text of climate change, where reference conditions are probably shifting. Some European research projects had among their priorities the development of methods to de fi ne appropriate reference conditions (Johnson et al. 2006 ; Stoddard et al. 2006 ) .

Dissolved nitrogen in atmospheric deposition is not only acidifying it is a fertil-izing agent. Mountain ecosystems in general and aquatic ecosystems in particular are extremely oligotrophic; that is, production of biomass is highly limited by nutri-ent availability. Nitrogen was scarce in atmospheric deposition before industrializa-tion. The amount of reactive nitrogen (forms of nitrogen directly available to all plants) has duplicated since preindustrial times (Galloway et al. 1995 ) . For moun-tain waters this means that nutrient limitations have probably shifted to phosphorus, or if already limited by it dependencies have enhanced. Little investigation has been undertaken regarding the consequences of this shift. There are indications that nitro-gen increase in depositions can facilitate stronger responses to other trends, such as warming (Pla et al. 2009 ) . This issue goes beyond water quality themes and empha-sizes the value of mountain ecosystems as indicators of global change.

2.3.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants

Many synthetic hydrocarbon molecules—generally halogen-substituted with a cyclic or aromatic structure—have found agricultural, urban, and industrial applications. Because of their high hydrophobicity (dislike of water), these compounds tend to attach to and accumulate in organic matter, including living beings. The distribution and bioaccumulation patterns of these substances are not uniform because emission points, modes of transport, accumulation, and destruction differ among them. Some of them are highly stable, though, and persist in the environment with low degradation


rates; these substances are known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (see Box 2.5 ). Rather than ending up locked in a land fi ll or deep in the oceans, they permanently move among living organisms in the environment. Owing to their persistence and volatility, POPs are spreading globally. Organisms everywhere on the planet are pro-gressively exposed more often to low doses of a complex cocktail of substances of varying degrees of toxicity. The consequences are still largely unknown, but evidence of their in fl uence on human health and capacities is emerging (see Box 2.5 ).

Research is just beginning to shed light on the mechanisms of transport, bioac-cumulation, and toxicity of POPs. The atmosphere is the main route by which POPs are dispersed far from the places where they are produced and used. Once released into the environment, POPs cycle and partition among major environmen-tal compartments according to their physical and chemical properties (Fig. 2.8 ).

In the atmosphere, the semi-volatile character of the compounds allows them to be distributed between the atmospheric gas and aerosol phases. Association with atmo-spheric particles increases the rate of their removal from the atmosphere by dry and wet deposition processes, which ultimately limits their travel distance from the sources. Removal is accomplished by dry deposition of particulate-bound pollutants, diffusive gas exchange between atmosphere and water surfaces, rain (wet deposition), and photo-oxidative degradation. Deposition to soils, vegetation, or water bodies may lead to sedi-mentation, bioaccumulation, or revolatilization, ultimately eventuating in burial or slow biodegradation. These processes, in combination with the physicochemical prop-erties of the particular POP, determine their fate in the global environment.

2.3.5 Global Distillation Theory

During the last decades, evidence has been accumulating that transfer of POPs from temperate areas to cold, distant points occurs without signi fi cant loss. Cold regions retain POPs as a result of the temperature-dependent partition between gas, water, and particles. During the late 1990s, appreciable concentrations of POPs were found at high latitudes, including in large animals living there (Kelly et al. 2007 ) . The “global distillation theory” was proposed to explain the high levels of pollution at those remote sites (Wania and Mackay 1993 ) . It suggests a redistribution of semi-volatile chemicals from the atmospheric gas phase to the Earth’s surface with decreasing temperature (Fig. 2.9 ).

As a consequence, the theory predicts a global process by which organic com-pounds become latitudinally fractionated: They are preferentially retained depending on their volatility at latitudes with locations having different temperatures. They can also be transported to colder regions via repeated cycles of deposition and evapora-tion, driven by seasonal, frontal, and diurnal changes in temperature (grasshopping).

In mountains, there is a gradient of temperature from low to high altitudes. Thus, one could expect POP fractionation with elevation to be similar to that observed with latitude differences. However, as temperatures do not reach values as low as in polar regions, the preferential accumulation of organic pollutants between high and


Box 2.5 Persistent Organic Pollutants

The POPs are known for their high chemical stability, which is because of their halogen substituents: primarily chlorine but also bromine and others. They fi rst appeared in the environment seven decades ago but have not disappeared as a result of their chemical stability. Some of these com-pounds, such as polychlorobiphenyl ethers (PCBs), are so stable that envi-ronmental processes destroy them extremely slowly. As such, they are continuously recycled between the environment and organisms, either through death or metabolic processes. The high stability of POPs enables them to be transported over large distances and to survive the oxidative and photolytic processes that atmospheric compounds are subject to, especially in the upper layers of the troposphere.

Most of these compounds, which were fi rst used during the 1940s, were synthesized as pesticides. They include the insecticides DDT, lindane ( g -hexachlorocyclohexane, or g -HCH), aldrin, toxaphenes, chlordane, mirex, dieldrin, and endrin. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) was used as a fungicide and is still produced today as a by-product during the manufacturing of various chlorinated organic solvents. In contrast, PCBs were synthesized for use as dielectrics in transformers, fi re retardants, high-thermal-stability oils, and other applications. Some of these compounds were synthesized as pure prod-ucts, but they were often produced and used as mixtures, as in the case of PCBs, HCHs, and toxaphenes. Hence, numerous compounds were introduced into the environment. In some cases, these products transformed into other contaminants (e.g., DDT transforms into DDE and DDD), further increasing the number of organic pollutants in ecosystems. Current concentrations of these compounds in remote European water bodies are in the ranges of 1–10 pg·L −1 for HCB, 50–3,000 pg·L −1 for HCHs, 60–500 pg·L −1 for endosul-fans, 7–14 pg·L −1 for DDTs, and 50–120 pg·L −1 for PCBs (Fernandez et al. 2005 ; Vilanova et al. 2001a ; Vilanova et al. 2001c ) .

Dioxins and dibenzofurans should also be mentioned. These products are not manufactured; rather, they are generated through processes such as combustion of organic materials that contain chlorine atoms—any mixture of materials con-tains chlorine in at least small amounts—or through industrial processes such as certain types of paper pulp bleaching. Polychlorostyrenes (CSs) are also by-products of industrial processes (i.e., in electrolytic plants). The 1990s wit-nessed the introduction of a new generation of organohalogen contaminants into the environment: polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs), designed as fl ame-retardants, as well as other brominated and fl uorinated compounds.

In addition to their persistence, POPs are lipid soluble, semi-volatile and toxic. Hence, most of them are now banned from use. In 2001, European Union (EU) member states signed the Stockholm Convention, aimed at reduc-ing levels of or promoting research on chlorinated POPs (primarily through

(continued)


low altitudes is different: Substances accumulating in mountains are approximately two orders of magnitude less volatile than substances that experience latitudinal cold-trapping (Grimalt et al. 2001 ) . Several EU projects (MOLAR, EMERGE, EUROLIMPACS) have provided a good level of documentation regarding the trans-port of organohalogen compounds to mountains. The compounds have been docu-mented in snow (Blais et al. 1998 ; Carrera et al. 2001 ; Grimalt et al. 2009 ) , water sediments (Grimalt et al. 2001 ) , mosses (Grimalt et al. 2004a ) , amphipods (Blais et al. 2003 ) , and fi sh (Demers et al. 2007 ; Gallego et al. 2007 ; Grimalt et al. 2001 ; Vives et al. 2004 ) . They show an increase of organochlorine and PBDE concentra-tions with elevation (i.e., with decreasing air temperature). In other words, the higher the altitude, the more contaminated are the aquatic ecosystems with organic pollutants, regardless of their proximity to the local pollution source (Fig. 2.10 ).

Box 2.5 (continued)

eliminating their use) and researching the implications of POPs for the environ-ment and for human health. Less than six decades after the development of these compounds, fully restrictive measures had to be taken to eliminate them. The health consequences of pollution from POPs have been studied in zones where there are focal sources, such as Flix (Catalonia, Spain) where a chlor-alkali plant is located on the shore of the Ebro River. This factory emitted large amounts of hexachlorobenzene to the atmosphere and organochlorine com-pounds and mercury to the river waters. This exposure has had various effects on human health.

The impact of these compounds on human health is not speci fi c to a particu-lar town or region; rather, it is general to the entire planet. For example, links between oncogene mutation and higher blood concentrations of some of these compounds in patients with colon cancer (Howsam et al. 2004 ) or exocrine pancreatic cancer (Porta et al. 1999 ) have been observed. These compounds may even cause problems during the earliest stages of life. Indeed, decreases in cognitive ability have been correlated with intrauterine exposure to DDT (Ribas-Fito et al. 2006 ) ; wheezing at age 6 has been reported in association with prena-tal exposure to DDE (Sunyer et al. 2006 ) ; and increases in attention de fi cit and hyperactivity disorders in young children have been attributed to high exposure to HCB during the neonatal period (Ribas-Fito et al. 2007 ) .

These compounds pose a new toxic threat. Humans are exposed to small doses of them starting in the womb and continuing throughout life. The con-sequences of the combined long-term effects of this situation must be deter-mined. Health problems related to exposure during the developmental phase may not surface until a more advanced age. In any case, it is clear that an increase in temperature with climate warming may lead to greater volatiliza-tion and, consequently, higher concentrations of these compounds in the atmosphere and in aquatic systems.


Fig. 2.9 Persistent organic pollutants are atmospherically transported to remote areas. Note: According to their volatility, the transport is fairly direct: Some compounds have seasonal deposi-tion and a volatilization sequence with grasshopping-like transport to cooler areas (Wania and Mackay 1996 ) . Mountains are places of net accumulation of some semi-volatile compounds, whereas other, more-volatile compounds are transiently present

Fig. 2.8 Transport, deposition, and accumulation of persistent organic pollutants in various natu-ral compartments are complex processes. Relative volatility and high hydrophobicity play an important role in establishing accumulation rates of the compounds


There are other aspects that in fl uence altitudinal gradients of pollutants com-pound solubilization. For example, PBDE accumulation in cold mountain areas reveals that biodegradation is another climate-related process that may generate altitudinal and latitudinal concentration gradients. BDE-209 is the only PBDE allowed for use in Europe. It has extremely low volatility, although it has been found in the lakes of the Tatra Mountains and the Pyrenees, increasing with alti-tude. In this case, the altitudinal pattern is mainly attributed to higher microbial degradation rates at lower altitudes (Bartrons et al. 2011 ) .

2.3.6 Food Web Bioaccumulation

The processes involved in pollutant bioaccumulation are roughly understood (see Box 2.6 ), but details that require investigation remain for such concerns as differ-ences between compounds, organisms, and factors controlling the bioaccumula-tion rates. Knowledge in these areas is limited for mountain aquatic ecosystems. Until recently, there were no studies concerning other organisms than fi sh, and comprehensive views of the aquatic food web were lacking. Fish show that POPs’ altitudinal patterns are similar to those found for lake sediments (Gallego et al. 2007 ; Grimalt et al. 2001 ) . Organochlorine (OC) concentrations, however, are higher in fi sh than those expected assuming simple thermodynamic equilibrium (Fig. 2.11 ). This oversaturation indicates that the way into the fi sh is easier than the

Fig. 2.10 Concentrations (nanograms per gram, or ng·g −1 ) of various organochlorine compounds in fi sh from high-mountain European lakes depends on altitude. Note: Each point is the mean for the particular fi sh analyzed in each lake. There is a correlation between the concentrations of high-molecular-weight compounds (4,4 ¢ -DDE and PCBs 153, 138, and 180) and altitude. This depen-dence, which implies greater contamination at the highest and most remote zones, is not observed for the most-volatile compounds (HCH, HCB, PCB 52), as the air temperature do not decrease suf fi ciently to retain these compounds (Source: based on Vives et al. 2004 )


Fig. 2.11 Comparison of the concentrations of organochlorine compounds (OCs) in brown trout and the average concentration in their food (mostly distinct aquatic macroinvertebrates) in Lake Redon (Pyrenees). Note: Note the logarithmic scale. The expected value according an equilibrium with OCs in water is also indicated ( blue dashes ) (Source: Catalan et al. 2004 )

Box 2.6 Bioaccumulation

Bioaccumulation is a process by which the concentration of a chemical substance increases in a living organism over time compared to the chemical’s concentration in the environment. It can take place from direct exchange with water (bioconcentration) or by feeding (biomagni fi cation). At the end, bioac-cumulation is the result of a dynamic balance between uptake via dietary ingestion and respiration and loss via growth dilution, respiration, metabo-lism, and fecal egestion. Most POPs and all natural compounds with a ten-dency to biomagnify in food webs are neutral organic compounds that are highly substituted (or substituted at critical positions in the molecule) with chlorine or bromine. The reason for this is straightforward: The compounds are lipophilic and not easily metabolized. The lipophilic nature ensures ef fi cient uptake from the diet and storage in fat depots, and the halogens pre-vent attack by enzymes. The loss of unchanged compound (principally via gills) is usually much slower than the rate of uptake (principally via gut uptake) for highly lipophilic compounds. Thus, to achieve a steady state of equivalent in fl ux and out fl ux of POPs, high internal concentrations must be attained before the compounds are released into the environment.


way out and that exposure has been suf fi ciently long to achieve high concentrations (Catalan et al. 2004 ) . In contrast, macroinvertebrates, the main food source for fi sh, were at or below values expected from theoretical equilibrium. The differ-ences between fi sh and macroinvertebrates respond to the short life-span of mac-roinvertebrates (<1 year) compared to fi sh (many years). In fact, further studies have con fi rmed that OC concentration increases with organism age within a lake (Vives et al. 2004 ) , although the age in fl uence is lower than the altitudinal in fl uence.

Comparison of PCB concentrations in fi sh and their food (macroinvertebrates) has also shown that the degree of biomagni fi cation is higher for more-hydropho-bic compounds, which demonstrates the higher deviations from values expected at thermodynamic equilibrium. This can be understood if one takes into account that the more-hydrophobic compounds are also larger molecules as they have a large number of chlorine atoms in a similar skeleton, resulting in slower transport at membranes.

Transport into the fi sh during food digestion is usually facilitated, but the way out through gills or the gut depends on internal concentrations. Therefore, until fi sh reach a suf fi ciently high internal concentration, the fl uxes in and out do not equili-brate, resulting in a steady concentration of contaminants.

Not all organisms bioaccumulate organohalogen compounds in the same way. The organisms’ size, age, lipid content, metabolic rate, and biotransformation capacity are some of the factors that in fl uence bioaccumulation rates the most. For example, concentrations of lipophilic and persistent organochlorines are orders of magnitude higher in warm-blooded organisms than cold-blooded organisms because of their different energy requirements, bioaccumulation features, and biotransfor-mation abilities. The importance of feeding habits and behavior and the in fl uence of environmental variables (e.g., temperature) in the biomagni fi cation of organohalo-gen compounds by aquatic organisms is still not resolved.

The trophic position in the food web is a key factor in determining bioaccumula-tion differences among aquatic organisms. Primary producers (plants and algae), primary consumers (organisms eating primary producers and detritus), and second-ary consumers (organisms eating primary consumers or other secondary consum-ers) tend to show different amounts and composition of pollutants. There are several reasons for this: One reason is simple biomagni fi cation (see Box 2.6 ) as one organ-ism eats another. In this sense, there are only a few cases where complete food webs have been analyzed in mountain waters. In a study of four Pyrenean lakes (north-eastern Spain), it was found that total organochlorine concentrations increased 100 times from fi lamentous algae to fi sh (brown trout) ( Bartrons et al. submitted ) . In general, a high positive correlation was found between most OCs and the organ-ism’s trophic position (see Box 2.7 ).

Although all organisms on Earth have many features in common, the diversity of life histories is enormous. This may imply differences in bioaccumulation mecha-nisms, biotransformation capacity, and toxicological susceptibility, the study of which is required in future research.


2.4 Actions

Today’s society is chemically based. Technological development is inevitably related to the use of natural resources and synthesis of new substances. De fi nition of the problems, impacts, and required actions concerning point source pollution are relatively straightforward. In contrast, assessment and actions to mitigate diffuse long-range transported pollution add a dimension to the problem: Actors responsi-ble for the pollution are many and are usually located far from the locations affected. “Far,” in this case, includes different countries and occasionally different continents. Assessments and regulations have to be undertaken at the international level, and willingness to cooperate becomes a critical issue. Even in the best of scenarios, trade-offs between bene fi ts and problems may be inevitable, and regionalized mea-sures may have to be implemented.

At this point, social sciences become more relevant than natural sciences; critical issues to consider include human rights’ principles and duties and the relation of humankind with the rest of nature. Policy becomes the tool. International agree-ments on the control of emissions to mitigate acidi fi cation problems comprise a good example of actions to take against diffuse pollution affecting water quality on a large scale. Protocols must be developed based on accurate monitoring data and correct scienti fi c assessments of the process. Within the international protocol there are usually monitoring programs with different levels of implication that the partners can join [e.g., International Cooperative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring

Box 2.7 Trophic Position Assessment

A simple ecological food chain consists of three trophic levels: a primary producer (plant); a primary consumer (herbivore); and a secondary consumer (predator). Obviously, the real world is more complex: Organisms generally do not consume a single type of food; they feed on different species and even at different trophic levels. Therefore, averaging the trophic level of all the food items that an organism consumes may obtain trophic levels of 2.4 or 3.5 (the convention is to give primary producers trophic level 1). Establishing the diet of an organism is time-consuming; establishing the diet of all organisms in a food web is therefore a titanic task. For this reason, alternative methods to evaluate the trophic position of an organism have been explored. A usually successful approach has been to use nitrogen-stable isotopes in the organisms, evaluating the proportion of the less abundant 15 N relative to the most abun-dant 14 N. When ascending in the food web, there is enrichment of the heavier isotope; as a consequence, the isotopic ratio provides a relative indication of the average position of an organism in the food web.


of Acidi fi cation of Rivers and Lakes (ICP Waters)]. 1 Intercalibration projects embedded within these activities that pursue the quality assurance of chemical analyses are particularly useful. Scienti fi c base knowledge (facts) is better devel-oped by short-term research projects. Within the research framework of the European Commission several projects have focused as a whole or in part on water quality issues of mountain freshwater ecosystems (see Box 2.8 ).

2.4.1 International Protocols

Acid rain was an environmental problem in Europe that required an international solution. The air pollutants were carried over long distances and across national borders. In 1979, negotiations to reduce the emissions of air pollutants began under

Box 2.8 European Research Projects on Mountain Freshwaters

Although progress can be made from local studies on any topic, themes con-cerning headwater quality have been addressed by large consortiums that have benefited from the diversity of environmental situations throughout Europe. The European Commission has funded projects exclusively dedi-cated to mountain freshwaters or those with broader coverage but with an important emphasis on this topic. The information reported in this chapter has been derived primarily from these projects. Some of the projects are the following.

ALPE2: Acidification of Mountain lakes: palaeolimnology and ecology; • remote mountain lakes as indicators of air pollution and climate changeMICOR: Microbial community response to ultraviolet B stress in European • watersRECOVER: Predicting recovery in acidified freshwaters by the year 2000 • and beyondMOLAR: Measuring and modeling the dynamic response of remote moun-• tain lake ecosystems to environmental changeCHILL-10000. Climate history as recorded by ecologically sensitive arctic • and alpine lakes in Europe during the last 10,000 years: a multiproxy approachEMERGE: European mountain lake ecosystems: regionalization, diagnos-• tic, and socioeconomic evaluationEURO-LIMPACS: Integrated project to evaluate the effects of global • change on European freshwater ecosystems

1 See www.unece.org/env/wge/waters.htm for more information.

http://www.unece.org/env/wge/waters.htm


the auspices of the UN Economic Commission for Europe with the establishment of the Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), rati fi ed by 51 countries (April 16, 2010). Work under CLRTAP has produced a series of protocols under which countries agreed to reduce emissions, initially of sulfur and nitrogen compounds and later including other pollutants (see Box 2.9 ).

Emissions of acidifying gases in Europe peaked during the 1970s, just before protocols were implemented. In the 1990s, surface waters in Europe showed the fi rst signs of recovery in response to lower levels of acid deposition: SO

4 2− concen-

trations decreased, pH levels and the ANC increased (Box 2.1 ), and concentrations of toxic aluminum decreased. By 2000, sulfur deposition had decreased by >50% and nitrogen by ~20% (Wright et al. 2005 ) .

The latest protocol, signed in 1999 in Gothenburg (Sweden), is a multipollutant, multieffect measure in which acidi fi cation of surface waters was one of several problems considered. The protocol uses the critical load concept (see Box 2.10 ) and sought to minimize, by 2010, the number of ecosystems in which the critical load would be exceeded, if implemented as proposed.

Initially, critical loads were calculated as a single value referring to a single forc-ing parameter contributing to the harmful effect (e.g., sulfur deposition). Today, a two-dimensional critical load is often calculated, with nitrogen deposition on one axis and sulfur deposition on the other. Calculations of multidimensional critical loads are developed as understanding increases regarding the ecological and toxico-logical effects of pollutants.

The critical loads concept does not include information regarding the length of time before effects become visible. Calculating critical loads includes several simpli fi cations and thus can be viewed as a risk concept: The more the critical load is exceeded, the higher is the risk for adverse effects, with a certain risk that even if the limit is not exceeded it may still lead to adverse effects.

The CLRTAP set emission ceilings for 2010 regarding sulfur, nitrogen oxides (NO

x ), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and ammonia. These ceilings were

negotiated on the basis of scienti fi c assessments of pollution effects and reduction options. Parties whose emissions have a more severe environmental or health impact and whose emissions are relatively inexpensive to reduce have to make the largest cuts. Once the protocol is fully implemented, Europe’s sulfur emissions should be cut by at least 63%, its NO

x emissions by 41%, its VOC emissions by 40%, and its

ammonia emissions by 17%, compared to those in 1990. The CLRTAP also sets tight limit values for speci fi c emission sources (e.g.,

combustion plant, electricity production, dry cleaning, cars, lorries) and requires best available techniques to be used to keep emissions down. VOC emissions from such products as paints or aerosols also have to be cut. Finally, farmers must take speci fi c measures to control ammonia emissions. Guidance documents adopted together with the protocol provide a wide range of reduction (abatement) tech-niques and economic instruments to reduce emissions in the relevant sectors, including transport.


Box 2.10 Critical Load Concept

In environmental sciences, critical load is defined as a quantitative estimate of an exposure to one or more pollutants below which level significant harmful effects on specified sensitive elements of the environment do not occur accord-ing to present knowledge. The critical load concept has been applied to acidification and eutrophication environmental problems. To estimate a criti-cal load, the target ecosystem must first be defined (e.g., mountain freshwa-ters) followed by identifying a sensitive “element” (e.g., fish) within the ecosystem. The next step is to link the status of that element (e.g., fish sur-vival) to some chemical criterion (e.g., ANC; see Box 2.1) and a critical limit that should not be violated. The international critical loads mapping and inte-grated modeling exercises undertaken under the auspices of CLRTAP (see Box 2.8) permit signatory nations to select their own critical ANC limit, above which the water ANC must be maintained at a steady state.

Box 2.9 Protocols of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution

1984 Protocol on long-term fi nancing of the cooperative programme for • monitoring and evaluation of the long-range transmission of air pollutants in Europe (EMEP)—43 parties. Entered into force January 28, 1988 1985 Protocol on the reduction of sulfur emissions or their transboundary • fl uxes by at least 30%—25 parties. Entered into force September 2, 1987 1988 Protocol concerning the control of nitrogen oxides or their trans-• boundary fl uxes—34 parties. Entered into force February 14, 1991 1991 Protocol concerning the control of emissions of volatile organic com-• pounds or their transboundary fl uxes—24 parties. Entered into force September 29, 1997 1994 Protocol on further reduction of sulfur emissions—29 parties. Entered • into force August 5, 1998 1998 Protocol on heavy metals—29 parties. Entered into force on December • 29, 2003 1998 Protocol on persistent organic pollutants (POPs)—29 parties. Entered • into force on October 23, 2003 1999 Protocol to abate acidi fi cation, eutrophication, and ground-level • ozone—25 parties. Entered into force on May 17, 2005 (guidance docu-ments to protocol adopted by decision 1999/1, revised guidance document on ammonia)


The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) (integrated river basin management for Europe) 2 called for member states to develop plans for remedial measures to achieve “good ecological status” by 2016. Acidi fi cation is but one of many pollu-tion factors currently causing degradation of water quality and thus nonachievement of the WFD. Whereas eutrophication can be largely dealt with by local action where the problems occur, acidi fi cation requires large-scale action and general regulation. It has been estimated that once the CLRTAP is implemented the area in Europe with excessive levels of acidi fi cation will shrink from 93 million hectares in 1990 to 15 million hectares. The area with excessive levels of eutrophication will fall from 165 million hectares in 1990 to 108 million hectares.

2.5 Perspectives

There are at least three issues of major interest for future research in mountain freshwaters from the perspective of water and freshwater ecosystem quality. First, more insight is required to understand biotransformation of pollutants in natural conditions and to quantify them. Main pollution distribution patterns have been uncovered and to a certain level understood based on the assumption of scarce biotransformation of the compounds, which is even implicit in the jargon used: persistent organic pollutants (POPs). However, evidence is increasing that, at least for some compounds, the picture is not so simple. There are many aspects of the fate of organic substances in natural conditions to be investigated, such as their fate during biotransformation. Second, the biological and ecological consequences of POPs contamination are largely unknown (Rockstrom et al. 2009 ) . Once the distribution patterns of pollutants have been uncovered, we need to assess their effects on organisms and their populations. Toxicology has been mostly designed to address acute toxicity produced by high dosages. Less is known about the con-sequences of low concentrations over long exposures or of a cocktail of toxic pol-lutants. Techniques and protocols to evaluate physiological and population stresses in a natural context must be developed. Third, the largest source of uncertainty nowadays is climate change. How will warming, change in air-mass distributions, and change in precipitation interact with all the other components of the global change? In particular, aspects such as nitrogen deposition and POP redistribution are a major topic for research.

Mountains are especially suitable for monitoring climate change and its effects. The altitudinal gradient reproduces to some extent latitudinal climatic patterns on a large scale. The changes that are observed on mountains may anticipate and warn about changes on a larger geographic scale. In addition, lake sediments

2 See http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/water/water-framework

http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/water/water-framework/index_en.html


provide the possibility of high-resolution climate reconstruction (Fig. 2.12 ) and evaluation of interactions between climate, ecosystems, and human society during the last millennia (Dearing et al. 2006 ) .

2.5.1 Biotransformation

Biotransformation is a process during which a compound is changed from one sub-stance to another. The assumption that biotransformation of persistent organic pol-lutants in fi eld conditions is not important for understanding their distribution will likely need to be revised for some compounds. Laboratory evidence has been accu-mulating that microbial activity can transform some of the POPs. However, the environmental factors that may control the occurrence and activity of these micro-bial groups in nature have not been well investigated.

Biotransformation is not necessarily restricted to the microbial world. A survey performed in alpine lakes found that biotransformation of PBDEs is common in

Fig. 2.12 Winter–spring temperature reconstruction at Lake Redon (Pyrenees), which is situated 2,240 miles above sea level (m a.s.l.). Note: The reconstruction was based on the sediment record of chrysophyte cysts. Chrysophytes, whose species composition changes seasonally, are unicellular algae living in lake plankton. Their seasonal change is quite sensitive to the ice-cover duration in mountains lakes. As a consequence, the changes in composition recorded in sediments can be used to reconstruct climate conditions during winter and spring. Reconstructions of temperature, rather than in absolute terms, are expressed as deviations (anomalies) in respect to present conditions. Thus, variation can be easily compared among locations. Note that the cold episodes during the last centuries of the so-called Little Ice Age can be easily identi fi ed (Source: Pla and Catalan 2005 )


aquatic food webs, and as a consequence the rate of the fate of PBDE in nature is higher than expected. It also was found that some organisms are selectively more exposed to the potential toxic effects of PBDEs than other organisms ( Bartrons et al. 2012 ) . This fi nding illustrates the complexity of the interaction of organic contaminants with the ecosystem over long time scales.

2.5.2 Toxic Effects

Concentrations of some pollutants at higher altitudes are high enough potentially to cause physiological stress in aquatic organisms, eventual in fl uencing population growth rates. Estimating toxic effects in those organisms already living under harsh conditions is not easy, and establishing the eventual consequences for population dynamics and ecosystem structure is even more dif fi cult. Future research will no doubt mitigate this uncertainty. Some of the effects have been identi fi ed by examin-ing the enzyme cytochrome P450 1A (Cyp1A) (Jarque et al. 2010 ) . Cyp1A is an established biomarker of oxidative exposure to various environmental pollutants in many animal species, including fi sh. Cyp1A expression increases upon exposure to dioxin-like compounds, which include a variety of recognized pollutants, such as dioxins, coplanar PCBs, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), among oth-ers. The effect on Cyp1A expression can be detected by measuring the levels of the corresponding RNA messenger (mRNA).

Development of new toxicological indicators and protocols to assess the potential consequences at population levels are required. Up to now, attention has been paid mostly to fi sh. Invertebrates, because of their shorter life-span, can provide complemen-tary information at individual and population levels. Adoption of model organisms, such as some small invertebrates—e.g., water fl eas (cladocerans) or midges (chironomids)—which are abundantly and broadly distributed, is an option worth exploring.

2.5.3 Climate Change Interaction with Diffuse Pollution

Climate change is leading to higher temperatures and modi fi cations of precipitation patterns. The temperature increase is not uniform throughout a territory: It is greater on high mountains than in coastal areas. Such changes imply a greater frequency of extreme hydrologic phenomena such as strong droughts and fl oods. Climate changes are especially important for organic pollutants whose environmental distribution is strongly dependent on temperature, such as organohalogen compounds. Increases in temperatures result in greater atmospheric concentrations of organohalogens by favor-ing their desorption from land. They also cause less retention of these compounds in soils and water of mountainous areas and greater concentrations in the air of these zones. The fi nal balance is uncertain. In addition, changes in precipitation modify the rates at which organohalogens are incorporated into terrestrial waters and ecosystems.


Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are products of combustion, are another group of compounds whose environmental concentration will increase. They are slated to increase with growing energy consumption, given that 85% of energy is currently obtained through combustion. In the future, the maximum increases in the generation of these compounds may occur in summer, rather than in winter, as cur-rently happens. This would imply a greater proportion of PAHs in the gas phase than associated with particles, compared to the present situation. PAH concentrations have been measured in mountain lakes’ sediments and fi sh (Fernandez et al. 2003 ; Fernandez et al. 2002 ; Grimalt et al. 2004b ; Van Drooge et al. 2010 ; Vilanova et al. 2001b ; Vives et al. 2005 ) . Although the organisms metabolize these concentrations, knowledge of the toxic implications of their transit through the organism is limited. In any case, they are a component of a pollutant cocktail to which the mountain freshwater ecosystems are exposed.

Temperature may increase mercury volatilization (vapor formation) from land and water. Oxidation of this metal in the atmosphere may favor its deposition. Increased precipitation will likely lead to higher rates of mercury methylation in soils, which will increase the toxicity and bioaccumulation capacity of this metal in ecosystems (Munthe et al. 2007 ) . Higher temperature may also reinforce demethy-lation processes (Verta et al. 2010 ) . Here again, future research is required to untan-gle the complex potential dynamics.

Changes in precipitation and the proportion between snow and rain imply stream and lake fl ow changes, which in turn will modify the dilution capacity for certain compounds. This problem demands more-ef fi cient management strategies for all types of water contamination, whether periodic or chronic. Major fl oods enable greater dilution of pollutants. Nonetheless, in certain areas these fl oods will par-tially mobilize contaminated mud, subsequently transporting it downstream.

Currently, glacier and permafrost melting are a source of stored pollutants (Blais et al. 2001a, b ) . At some locations in the Tyrolean Alps this has resulted in water-quality problems, including the drinking-water supply (Thies et al. 2007 ) . The size and extent of the problem remains to be evaluated. In any case, if contaminants have been accumulating in ice during the last decades, melting will release these con-taminants with implications that are dif fi cult to predict.

Beyond pollution, climate change will certainly modify species distribution. Cold-stenotherms, depending on streams fed by glaciers, are directly threatened if glaciers disappear (Brown et al. 2007 ) . A more general problem is related to the decrease in land area with increasing elevation. Species richness is related to the area available. Populations that are forced to migrate upward with climate warming will inevitably suffer a reduction in available area. At mid-term, this constitutes an “extinction debt” (Tilman et al. 1994 ) , which may take decades to be paid (Jackson and Sax 2010 ) . These pressures will add to the pollutants.

In summary, climate–pollution interactions are uncertain, and research is required for a better understanding of the processes on global to local scales. Deployment of observational systems, including long-term ecological research sites (see Box 2.11 ) are necessary to make progress on an environmental problem that will last for as long as society persists.


Glossary

Acidi fi cation Ongoing decrease in the pH of soil and freshwater caused by acid rain.

Acid–base Balance Equilibrium between acids and alkalis in a body of water. Aerosols Suspension of particles dispersed in air. ANC (acid-neutralizing capacity) Measures the buffering capacity against

acidi fi cation in water. It is de fi ned as the difference between cations of strong bases and anions of strong acids. ANC is often used in models to estimate acidi fi cation levels from acid rain pollution and as a basis for calculating critical loads for soils and freshwaters.

Bioaccumulation Accumulation of some toxic substance in an organism’s body. Biodiversity General concept for the diversity of life. It is commonly used in a

more restrictive way as numbers of different species of plants and animals in a habitat.

Biomagni fi cation Bioaccumulation of a toxic substance obtained via food intake. Biotransformation Capacity Ability of an organism to transform a toxic sub-

stance. Cation and Anion Ions with a positive or negative charge, respectively. Critical Load Quantitative estimate of exposure to one or more pollutants below

which level signi fi cant harmful effects on speci fi ed sensitive elements of the eco-systems do not occur (according to our present knowledge).

Desorption Release of an adsorbed substance from a surface to a gaseous or solu-tion state.

Detritus Debris of organic matter produced by erosion or decomposition.

Box 2.11 Long-Term Ecological Research

The natural world is dynamic, permanently changing. However, delays between cause and apparent effects in ecosystems are common. As a conse-quence, one of the problems in environmental and ecological research is what has been called “the invisible present” (Magnuson 1990). It is not possible to perceive directly the slow changes, and attempts to interpret cause and effect are similarly limited. Research projects that last 3–5 years do not improve our understanding because many relevant processes in ecosystems take place over decades. Sustained (for decades) ecological research at some selected sites—long-term ecological research (LTER) sites—was proposed as a solution to this scientific blindness during the 1980s. In the United States, a consolidated network of such sites has been running for several decades (Turner et al. 2003). European and other international initiatives strive to develop similar networks. Within the present context of global change, it seems that uncover-ing the invisible present is more urgent than ever. Mountain freshwater eco-systems play an important role in these studies.


Ecosystem Biological community of interacting organisms and their environment. Enzyme Protein that accelerates a chemical reaction and remains unchanged by

the process. Exocrine Pancreatic Cancer Disease in which malignant cells (cancer) form in

the exocrine tissues of the pancreas, which produce digestive juice—in contrast to endocrine tissues, which produce hormones.

Eutrophication: Nutrient enrichment, which eventually leads to dense popula-tions of phytoplankton (microscopic algae) in aquatic systems.

Greenhouse Gases Any of several gases that cause global warming. Halogens Any of several electronegative elements that form a salt when combined

with metals. Hydrophobic Lacking attraction for water. Hydrophilic Having af fi nity for water. Intrauterine Exposure Fetal exposure to pollutants that occurs during intrauterine

development because the mother has been contaminated. Lipid Content Amount of fats in a tissue or body. Lipophilic Having an af fi nity for lipids, usually in contrast to hydrophilic. Littoral Biota Organisms living close to the shores of lakes or seas, in contrast to

those living in open waters. m Eq·L −1 Microequivalents per liter. In chemistry, an equivalent is the mass of a par-

ticular substance that can combine with or displace another substance in a reac-tion. It is used when expressing combining powers of elements and compounds.

Metabolic Rate Amount of energy expended during a given period by chemical reactions that occur in living organisms to maintain life.

Methylation (demethylation) Replacement of hydrogen atoms with a methyl group (or vice versa).

Natural Radionuclide Naturally occurring atom with an unstable nucleus that un-dergoes radioactive decay.

Oligotrophic Waters Aquatic ecosystems poor in nutrients and as a consequence having limited productivity.

Oncogene Mutation Change in a gene that may result in the onset of cancer. Organic Pollutants Organic compound that contaminates the environment. Organohalogen Compounds Chemicals in which one or more carbon atoms are

linked by covalent bonds with one or more halogen atoms (chlorine, bromine, fl uorine, or iodine).

pg·L −1 Picograms per liter: one-trillionth of a gram dissolved in a liter. pH Level of acidity evaluated as the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. POPs (persistent organic pollutants) Man-made organic compounds that persist in

the environment because they are resistant to degradation through chemical, bio-logical, and photolytic processes. They are capable of long-range transport, bioac-cumulate in organisms, biomagnify in food webs, and have a potentially signi fi cant impact on human health and the environment. Many POPs are pesticides, but oth-ers are used in industrial processes and in the production of a range of goods.

Photo-Oxidative Degradation Breaking down of a substance in the presence of oxygen or ozone, facilitated by radiant energy such as ultraviolet (UV).


Precipitation Chemistry Changes that occur during formation of a solid in a solu-tion or inside another solid during a chemical reaction, or by diffusion in a solid.

Reactive Gases Gases that include surface ozone (O 3 ), carbon monoxide (CO),

volatile organic compounds (VOCs), oxidized nitrogen compounds (NO x , NO

y )

and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ). All of these compounds play a major role in the chem-

istry of the atmosphere and so are heavily involved in interrelations between atmospheric chemistry and climate either through control of ozone and the oxi-dizing capacity of the atmosphere or through the formation of aerosols.

Sedimentation Tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of water and rest against a barrier (rock, sediment, plants).

Semi-Volatile compound: Shows an intermediate tendency to evaporate. Stenotherms Organisms that do not tolerate large fl uctuations in temperature.

Cold-stenotherms require cold environments and do not survive with even rela-tively low warming.

Stratospheric Ozone Ozone (O 3 ) located mainly in the lower portion of the strato-

sphere from approximately 13–20 km above Earth, although the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium State when a system is in thermal equilibrium, me-chanical equilibrium, radiative equilibrium, and chemical equilibrium. There are no unbalanced potentials, so the system does not experience changes if isolated from its surroundings.

Toxicological Susceptibility Vulnerability to poisons. Tropho-Dynamics Dynamic aspects related to trophic relations in the ecosystems. Troposphere Lowest part of the Earth’s atmosphere. Most weather changes occur

here, and temperature generally decreases rapidly with altitude. UV Radiation Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of

visible light (in the range 10–400 nm). Visigothic Period The Visigoths were one of two main branches of Goths, an East

Germanic tribe that disturbed the late Roman Empire. Here, the Visigothic pe-riod refers to the centuries immediately after the Roman Empire.

Volatilization (revolatilization) Process whereby a dissolved compound is vaporized. Wet (dry) Deposition Process by which aerosol particles collect on solid surfaces,

decreasing their concentration in the air. It can be divided into wet deposition (particles are scavenged by rain or snow) and dry deposition (particles settle under dry conditions).

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69

Chapter 3 Pollutants in Freshwater: The Case of Pharmaceuticals

Anja Coors and Thomas Knacker †

A. Coors (*) ECT Oekotoxikologie GmbH , Boettgerstr. 2-14 , D-65439 , Flörsheim/Main , Germany e-mail: [email protected]

† Deceased October 30, 2011


Contents

3.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 703.1.1 The Food Web ....................................................................................................... 713.1.2 Human Impacts ..................................................................................................... 713.1.3 Anthropogenic Pollution ....................................................................................... 733.1.4 Environmental Risk Assessment ........................................................................... 73

3.2 History and Current Status ................................................................................................ 753.2.1 When and How Was the Potential Problem of Pharmaceuticals

for the Environment Discovered? ......................................................................... 763.2.2 What Makes Pharmaceuticals a Special Problem? ............................................... 77

3.3 Consequences .................................................................................................................... 813.3.1 Exposure Assessment ............................................................................................ 813.3.2 Effect Assessment ................................................................................................. 833.3.3 Compare Exposure to Effects ............................................................................... 863.3.4 Determining the Presence and Amount of Pharmaceuticals

in Freshwater ......................................................................................................... 863.3.5 How Pharmaceuticals Reach the Environment ..................................................... 873.3.6 How Pharmaceuticals Unintentionally Affect Organisms

in the Environment ................................................................................................ 893.4 Actions and Challenges ..................................................................................................... 91

3.4.1 Fluoxetine as an Example of an Environmental Risk Assessment ....................... 933.4.2 The Future ............................................................................................................. 95

3.5 Websites ............................................................................................................................ 96Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 97References .................................................................................................................................. 99

70 A. Coors and T. Knacker

Abstract Man-made chemicals produced intentionally or inadvertently are threat-ening water resources worldwide. These so-called anthropogenic pollutants can be transported globally by air and water and may affect areas that were supposed pris-tine, such as the Antarctic or high mountain regions. This chapter deals with the question of how pollution of surface waters can be assessed and what is being done to avoid or limit pollution. An important regulatory measure is a procedure called environmental risk assessment. With this process, a chemical is evaluated for its potential environmental impact in a prospective way (i.e., before it is marketed after which it is likely to be released into the environment). Key aspects of environmental risk assessment are illustrated here using the example of pharmaceuticals, a group of anthropogenic chemicals that have only recently been recognized as potentially worrisome environmental pollutants.

3.1 Background

Lowland rivers and streams link mountain waters (see Chap. 2 ) to the marine world (see Chap. 5 ). Surface waters such as rivers, streams, and lakes are also connected with the groundwater by water transport through soils and sediments. All of these various freshwater bodies are in fl uenced by their geological surround-ings, such as landscape, soil, and local climate. The conditions in freshwater bod-ies are thus dominated by different environmental and geological factors, thereby providing different habitats for living organisms. This diversity of factors shaping the freshwater environment has led through evolutionary adaptation to consider-able diversity in aquatic organisms. Whereas organisms that live in running waters (rivers and streams) must, for example, avoid being washed away by the current, organisms that inhabit lakes must cope with isolation as they are living on an island of water surrounded by land—a dry and hostile environment from the per-spective of an aquatic organism. As a result, aquatic organisms needed to develop strategies that enable them to travel and survive the travel over land to colonize new isolated habitats. An example of such a strategy is drought-resistant zoo-plankton eggs, which are transported by birds and hatch in their new habitat.

Deterioration of the aquatic environment by human activities has long been rec-ognized as a problem. Legislative restrictions and measures have been established during the last decades to control and limit deterioration caused by pollution with anthropogenic chemicals (i.e., substances produced by humans and intentionally or unintentionally released into the environment). Evaluation of chemicals with regard to human health focuses on protecting individual humans. In contrast, the goal with regard to the environment is not to protect individual organisms (i.e., each fi sh) but to protect populations (i.e., to ensure the existence of species in a given ecosystem). A common assumption in this respect is that the protection of species and thereby of the species composition (i.e., the biodiversity) as the structural aspect of an eco-system also protects the function of the ecosystem. This is because the functions in an ecosystem (e.g., decomposition of organic material, such as leaf litter) are delivered

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713 Pollutants in Freshwater: The Case of Pharmaceuticals

by species rather than individuals. If the species persist, the functional capabilities of the ecosystem also endure.

3.1.1 The Food Web

Despite the diversity of living organisms, there are aspects common to all kinds of freshwater ecosystems that are also found in terrestrial ecosystems. Species are linked to one another in a network called the food web . The position of each species in the food web is de fi ned by its food source (i.e., how it obtains energy) and to whom it serves as an energy source (i.e., by whom it is eaten). The layers of organi-zation in a food web are called trophic levels . The most basic trophic level comprises the primary producers— organisms such as plants and algae that use light as an energy source to produce organic substances from inorganic nutrients (e.g., nitro-gen, phosphorus). Species of the next trophic level feed on plants or algae and are therefore called herbivores, or fi rst-order consumers . In a terrestrial system, rabbits are an example of fi rst-order consumers. The next level is secondary consumers , also known as predators (e.g., foxes), which feed on fi rst-order consumers. Yet another trophic level comprises decomposers , particularly bacteria and fungi that live from dead biomass. By mineralizing organic substances, they recycle nutrients in the overall cycle of production and consumption.

In a freshwater system, a typical food web consists of algae as primary producers, insect larvae or small crustaceans as herbivores that graze on algae (e.g., the water fl ea Daphnia magna shown in Box 3.1 ), predatory insect larvae (e.g., dragon fl ies) feeding on herbivores, and fi nally some species of fi sh (e.g., trout) as predators. Larger species, such as birds (e.g., ospreys) or mammals (e.g., river otters), feed on fi sh and thereby represent the top predator in this particular food web. As semi-aquatic animals, they represent a link between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

3.1.2 Human Impacts

Human activities have strong impacts on aquatic freshwater ecosystems. Construction activity within and around rivers, such as dam building, can change water fl ow and, thereby, the habitat conditions for aquatic organisms. A change in fl ow conditions, such as from fl oodplains to deeper rivers with a strong current, causes habitat loss for organisms preferring slow- fl owing, shallow water. As a consequence, the com-position of the aquatic community at this site changes. Agricultural activity can also have severe effects on freshwater systems. Examples include fi eld irrigation leading to exhaustion of groundwater reservoirs and erosion from ploughed fi elds transport-ing soil and additional nutrients into adjacent surface waters. A key problem linked to human activities is the eutrophication of surface waters. Eutrophic surface waters are characterized by a strong increase in primary production—i.e., massive growth


of algae (algal blooms). Such an increase in primary production is a consequence of increased availability of nutrients that are otherwise limiting the growth of primary producers. In the case of aquatic ecosystems, these nutrients are mainly nitrogen and phosphorus. Eutrophication can cause severe problems for aquatic ecosystems because the high level of primary production leads to high amounts of biomass (e.g., algae). When this biomass dies and settles on the bottom of the water body

Box 3.1 Water Flea

The water fl ea Daphnia magna is a crustacean that can grow to about 5 mm in length. It inhabits freshwater ponds and small lakes. The adult female, shown here, carries a number of oval eggs stored in a brood chamber in its back. D. magna uses its antennae for swimming (a pair of antennae are visible at the top of the photograph) and has a single, large black eye at the front of its head. The beginning of the green gut is visible just behind the eye. The green color results from green algae cells, which the water fl eas fi lter from the water as food.


(algae have a short life), bacterial decomposition begins—a process that consumes large amounts of oxygen. This oxygen depletion can be extreme enough to result in anoxia (oxygen-free zones in the water). As a result, the living conditions of fi sh and other aquatic organisms that depend on oxygen are signi fi cantly affected. The level of oxygen saturation and the amounts of phosphorus and nitrogen in water are there-fore seen as key basic characteristics of aquatic ecosystems and serve as key indica-tors during the assessment of water quality in the context of monitoring campaigns.

Eutrophication has been recognized as a major threat to aquatic ecosystems for decades. Human wastewater contains high loads of nitrogen and phosphorus. Thus, the implementation and improvement of wastewater treatment methods was an essential step toward limiting eutrophication and deterioration of water quality.

3.1.3 Anthropogenic Pollution

An excess of nutrients is not the only problem in aquatic ecosystems. A broad range of chemicals released by human activities into the environment can contami-nate and affect aquatic ecosystems. This is true even in remote areas (see Chap. 2 on mountain waters). Well-known examples of such anthropogenic pollutants include heavy metals released through mining activities. Pesticides used in agricul-ture and households to protect crops from pests (e.g., pathogenic fungi) and from competition from weeds are another example. Less obvious examples include con-sumer products such as detergents, shampoos, and food additives, all of which contain man-made chemicals to some extent.

This chapter is about pharmaceuticals as an example of potential pollutants of aquatic ecosystems. The aim is to describe basic concepts and principles of environ-mental research and environmental risk assessment using this group of chemicals as an example. Various aspects of this topic are discussed using different classes of pharmaceuticals as examples. A simpli fi ed scheme illustrating the general princi-ples of an environmental risk assessment for chemicals, speci fi ed for the particular case of pharmaceuticals, is explained later in the chapter.

3.1.4 Environmental Risk Assessment

Nowadays, the risks chemicals may pose to the environment are systematically investigated and formally evaluated using a procedure called the environmental risk assessment. The basic principle of an environmental risk assessment is to com-bine the hazard of a substance (i.e., the potential to cause harm because of the substance’s toxic properties) with the likelihood of encountering this substance in the environment (i.e., environmental exposure). Box 3.2 illustrates this principle in a general way (see also Chap. 1, section 1.4.3 “Assessing Water Related Risk Issues”).

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Consciously or unconsciously, we all apply this principle in our daily decisions. Usually, we would consider a higher likelihood of an event more acceptable the less serious the consequences of this event will be. For instance, so long as a lottery ticket is not expensive, most people accept the high likelihood of losing the money they invested. The more serious the expected consequences are the lower will be the acceptable likelihood of an event.

3.1.4.1 Aims of Environmental Risk Assessment for Chemicals

As the term “risk assessment” suggests, there remains uncertainty. Hence, the aim of the environmental risk assessment process always for chemicals cannot be to eliminate all risks in a human society that uses thousands of substances of both natural and arti fi cial origin. It is simply impossible. It is further restricted by the limits of our knowledge about ecosystems: Any prediction about potential conse-quences of a chemical in the environment can be only an estimation, never de fi nitive. The aim of a risk assessment is therefore to gather enough knowledge to make a well-informed decision about how restrictive the measures should be when dealing with a speci fi c substance. As a consequence, the outcome of risk assess-ments are considered when regulating the production and use of various chemicals, by denying marketing altogether or deciding on measures to manage and minimize identi fi ed risks to humans and/or the environment. Hence, the outcome of the envi-ronmental risk assessment is usually weighted in some way against the bene fi ts that the chemical in question provides for society. This risk-bene fi t assessment mainly involves societal and policy considerations and decisions, rather than being

Box 3.2 Consequences and Likelihood of an Event as the Components of the Risk of This Event


scienti fi cally based. Yet it is important to conduct the risk assessment according to formally agreed upon, science-based standards to achieve broadly accepted and comparable results.

3.1.4.2 Prospective and Retrospective Environmental Risk Assessment

A prospective risk assessment aims to predict the risk of a chemical before that chemical is released into the environment. Such a prospective environmental risk assessment is usually performed in the context of the market authorization for a chemical, whereas a retrospective risk assessment generally aims to identify the causes of adverse effects that have already occurred in the environment (Calow and Forbes 2003 ) . Formal prospective risk assessment procedures have been imple-mented in many countries (e.g., Canada, European Union, Japan, United States), but the details of the procedures differ among countries or regions and vary also among groups of substances (e.g., pesticides, pharmaceuticals, chemicals contained in consumer products or human food).

For a large number of existing substances, an environmental risk assessment was either not required at the time of their introduction, or their risk was based on data sets that are no longer considered state-of-the-art. For such substances, a retrospec-tive environmental risk assessment, as requested by the European Union in the Water Framework Directive (EC 2000 ) , may be undertaken to de fi ne Environmental Quality Standards (EQSs), which mark the levels of environmental safety. The EQSs denote a threshold concentration for chemicals below which the chemical status of a water body may be determined to be at least “good”; in other words, human activity is not expected to fundamentally change the ecological functions and community structure of the water body. Monitoring campaigns where concentrations of selected chemi-cals are determined by chemical analysis of various environmental matrices (e.g., water, soil, sediments, tissue of biota) provide information as to whether EQSs are met. These monitoring programs are required by the European Union to assess whether the goal of achieving good chemical and ecological status of all water bodies is reached by 2015. Currently, 41 substances are listed as indicators of the chemical status of a water body, and none is a pharmaceutical (Sanchez and Porcher 2009 ) .

3.2 History and Current Status

Pharmaceuticals are a group of chemicals commonly regarded as bene fi cial. They are designed to treat medical conditions and diseases or fi ght parasites in humans (human pharmaceuticals) and animals (veterinary pharmaceuticals). Because of the immediate association with health bene fi ts, pharmaceuticals are usually not recog-nized in the public as a potential problem for the environment. Yet pharmaceuticals are an example of “emerging pollutants,” a group of chemicals that have only recently been recognized as potentially problematic for the environment.


3.2.1 When and How Was the Potential Problem of Pharmaceuticals for the Environment Discovered?

During the late 1990s, the problems that pharmaceuticals might pose to the envi-ronment became an issue. Pharmaceuticals were detected sporadically in the environment during the 1970s and 1980s, but reports of detection in freshwater and municipal wastewater discharge became more frequent during the 1990s. Interestingly, the detection rate did not increase because of increasing environmen-tal pollution by pharmaceuticals; it was because the possibility of detecting pharma-ceuticals was strongly enhanced during the early 1990s. The invention of a new technology—liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry—greatly improved ana-lytical chemistry (Ternes et al. 2004 ) . It was this new analytical methods in tool that enabled detection of low concentrations of pharmaceuticals. Other methods, such as gas chromatography, are commonly used for nonpolar substances (see Box 3.3 ) but fail to detect polar substances because they do not have the required sensitivity. Yet, many pharmaceuticals belong to the group of polar substances and had therefore gone unnoticed.

A second important trigger for the increased attention to the occurrence of phar-maceuticals in the environment was the issue of endocrine disruption. A group of scientists in the United Kingdom (Purdom et al. 1994 ) were the fi rst to observe effects in fi sh living in rivers that received ef fl uent of wastewater treatment plants.

Box 3.3 Polar and Nonpolar Substances

Polar and nonpolar substances differ in their molecular structure and the accessibility of analytical methods to address them. Polar substances are char-acterized by a difference in electric charge across the molecule and usually dissolve better in water (also a polar substance) than nonpolar substances. The illustration shows the molecular structure of the insecticide DDT (left), a typi-cal nonpolar substance, and the synthetic hormone ethinyl estradiol (right), a rather polar substance. In the case of ethinyl estradiol, two hydroxyl groups provide the polar features of the molecule as they can dissociate in water.


These scientists proposed that the effects were likely related to hormonally active substances in the wastewater. The pronouncement initiated a great deal of research into the presence of endocrine-disrupting substances in wastewater and unintended endocrine effects in fi sh and other organisms in general. A number of large research projects cooperating across Europe and funded by the European Union addressed the problem of endocrine-disrupting substances.

Much of this research was directed particularly at ethinyl estradiol (Box 3.4 ). This substance is a synthetic derivative of the natural hormone estradiol. It has been used as a contraceptive (“the pill”), by women almost worldwide since the 1960s. Most ethinyl estradiol is excreted from the human body in unchanged form via feces and urine. Hence, it may reach the sewer system in its active form and, via wastewa-ter treatment plants, the aquatic environment. It has been proposed that this path of contamination of the aquatic environment with a hormonally active pharmaceutical plays a major role in causing intersex among wild freshwater fi sh populations (Box 3.4 ). The history of the endocrine disruption issue and the lessons to be learned were recounted in an essay written by two leading scientists in this research fi eld (Sumpter and Johnson 2008 ) . One of the lessons highlighted in the essay was that blaming industrial mass production of chemicals for environmental problems is short-sighted. The total amount of ethinyl estradiol used by individuals in the United Kingdom was only 25 kg per year at the time of the study. The total yearly amount of ethinyl estradiol sold in Germany was estimated at 50 kg (BLAC 2003 ) . In com-parison, 9,153 t of pesticides targeting insects and mites (i.e., insecticides, acari-cides) were sold in Germany during 2007 (BVL 2007 ) . This comparison shows that a much smaller proportion of pharmaceuticals is reaching the environment than the volume of pesticides. This comparison illustrates that the amount of pharmaceuticals potentially reaching the environment is apparently much lower than that of pesticides.

3.2.2 What Makes Pharmaceuticals a Special Problem?

There are several reasons why pharmaceuticals are thought to present a special case compared to other chemicals that give rise to speci fi c concerns in the scienti fi c com-munity and for the public.

3.2.2.1 Pharmaceuticals Are Designed to Have Effects

Pharmaceuticals are designed to have biological effects at low concentrations. Depending on the kind of pharmaceutical, these effects are intended to occur in humans (e.g., regulate blood pressure) or domestic animals (e.g., cure infections). These intended effects also target various biochemical mechanisms. Some pharma-ceuticals are designed to have effects on invertebrates (e.g., kill worm parasites in humans and animals). Such intended effects of pharmaceuticals on organisms of


Box 3.4 Effects of Ethinyl Estradiol on Fish: The Case of Intersex

A team of scientist in the United Kingdom (Jobling et al. 2006 ) used mathe-matical models and basic information from the literature to predict the amount of natural and synthetic estrogenic hormones at a large number of locations in various rivers in the United Kingdom. Based on these results, the locations were categorized into sites with a low, medium, or high risk of fi sh being exposed to estrogenic hormones. Wild fi sh (the roach Rutilus rutilus) were caught at a number of these locations and investigated for morphological parameters, particularly for occurrence and severity of intersex. Intersex means that an individual shows features of both sexes. Intersex was assessed based on the number of oocytes (female germ cells) in the testis of male fi sh. As the graph shows, the incidence of intersex fi sh was higher at sites with a medium or high risk of exposure to estrogenic hormones. It was found to be independent from the natural increase of intersex with the age of the fi sh (shown on the x-axis). Although this correlation cannot prove that estrogenic hormones cause intersex in fi sh, it does provide evidence that these substances as discharged by wastewater treatment plants play a role in the feminization of wild male fi sh. Even today, however, it is not clear if and how the feminiza-tion of male fi sh affects the breeding success and population dynamics of fi sh. In other words, it is still not clear how relevant this phenomenon is for the survival of fi sh populations in the wild.

(Reproduced from Jobling et al. 2006, Environmental Health Perspectives 114(suppl.1):32-39 (open access journal))


different animal kingdoms contrast with industrial chemicals, which are generally not designed to interact with biological systems. The fact that pharmaceuticals are intended to have biological effects has been highlighted as a reason for special con-cern because unintended effects on organisms in the environment are therefore also likely to occur at low concentrations. Biochemical pathways and mechanisms are often similar across species and even among animal kingdoms. This is because there is a high level of conservation of key mechanisms and involved biochemical recep-tors during evolution.

An example of such evolutionary conservation is a certain class of receptors, the steroid receptors, and among them speci fi cally the estrogen receptor. In a letter to the prestigious scienti fi c journal Nature , a group of scientists described the molecu-lar basis for the activation of the estrogen receptor by the natural hormone estradiol and the blocking of this receptor by a different chemical, raloxifene (Brzozowski et al. 1997 ) . Raloxifene is a pharmaceutical used to prevent osteoporosis and breast cancer in women because of its receptor blocking action (i.e., its antiestrogenic activity). Later research (Costache et al. 2005 ) showed that the estrogen receptor present in humans is structurally similar to the estrogen receptor present in zebra fi sh, a small warm-water fi sh species widely used in medical and environmental research. This structural similarity provides the option to use the zebra fi sh as a model organ-ism to study and systematically test substances for their binding behavior and poten-tial for estrogenic activity. Another group of biochemical receptors, the b -adrenergic receptors, are present particularly in the heart. Blocking these receptors with phar-maceuticals ( b -blockers) is a common treatment for cardiac problems in humans such as threat of heart failure and high blood pressure. b -Adrenergic receptors are structurally and presumably also functionally similar in fi sh and mammals (Owen et al. 2007 ) , raising concern that these chemicals in sewage ef fl uent could pose a problem for fi sh in the receiving surface waters.

3.2.2.2 Pharmaceuticals Are Constantly Released into the Environment

Another reason pharmaceuticals are thought to be of special concern is their con-stant release from wastewater treatment plants because of their widespread usage by the human population. Consequently, pharmaceuticals are constantly present in the aquatic environment even though the individual substances might degrade quickly once there. Such a constant presence would result in continuous (chronic) exposure of aquatic organisms over multiple generations. Thus, concerns have been discussed that such multigenerational continuous exposure could result in subtle and unno-ticed changes in exposed populations over time (Daughton and Ternes 1999 ) .

Among pharmaceuticals, antibiotics represent a special concern. The risk of selecting antibiotic-resistant bacteria is already considerable in normal application patterns in humans and animals. Selection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria due to failures in medical application procedures can lead to antibiotic-resistant pathogens in humans. Such resistant pathogens pose a considerable risk to the human popula-tion as they are more dif fi cult to treat clinically and may cause diseases for which


there are no reliable cures. There is concern that the constant emission of low amounts of antibiotics into the environment promotes resistance in environmental bacteria. The issue of antibiotic-resistant pathogens in the environment is currently being studied, but the research is still in its infancy. A possible solution to the prob-lem would be to invent new classes of antibiotics to which no resistance yet exists and may not develop easily in pathogenic and environmental bacteria.

3.2.2.3 Ethical Implications

Ethical implications constitute a particular aspect regarding the environmental risks of pharmaceuticals. Whatever the outcome of an environmental risk assessment, it is generally agreed and legally fi xed that an indication of an environmental risk may not lead to banning a human medicine. As medicines are authorized for use only after they have proved that they offer bene fi ts for humans (i.e., that they ef fi ciently treat the condition for which they are prescribed), restricting their mar-keting because of environmental concerns would mean withholding a cure from sick people. This is considered unethical. Thus, the respective legislation for the marketing of human pharmaceuticals states that banning an approved medicine because of environmental concerns is not an option. Yet, other management options—restrictions on the methods of administration, labeling on packaged medicines, collection and special treatment of the patients’ feces—may be applied. A thought-provoking suggestion in the context of ethical implications consists of emphasizing the “sustainable character of the drug that was never prescribed” (Wennmalm et al. 2010 ) . In other words, critically considering the necessity of a medicine and eventually reducing its prescription would clearly result in a lower likelihood of it having an environmental impact.

Ethical considerations apply to a lower degree to veterinary pharmaceuticals and their marketing may consequently be restricted because of environmental concerns if no other management options are considered suf fi ciently protective. There are a number of management options for pharmaceuticals that generally intend to reduce their release into the environment (lowering the potential exposure). These options include, for example, extended housing of livestock (e.g., for cattle treated with a veterinary pharmaceutical) to prevent release of pharmaceutical residues into the environment via the dung of free-ranging cattle. In the case of human pharmaceuti-cals, one option is to improve wastewater treatment technology for better removal of pharmaceutical residues from wastewater.

The situation is different in the case of industrial chemicals and pesticides, where intense research into the environmental fate and effects has resulted in strict limita-tions on the use of some certain compounds, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the insecticide DDT. There are times when a claim can be made that a substance is essential to human society (e.g., the use of DDT against malaria-trans-mitting mosquitoes) and no substitute is available. In contrast to the situation with human pharmaceuticals, the arguments must be very strong to deny the use of sub-stances of high environmental concern.


3.3 Consequences

It is well known that in addition to the intended effect on the patient, pharmaceuti-cals may also engender undesirable side effects. Can such effects also be caused by exposure of humans to pharmaceuticals present in the environment? Do effects similar to the intended or unintended effects in humans occur in wildlife exposed to pharmaceuticals via environmental contamination? In the context of the illustration in Box 3.2 , “exposure” re fl ects the likelihood that an event occurs, and “effects” re fl ect the consequences of that event.

It is a basic principle of pharmacology that the dose makes the effect, meaning that a substance is poisonous only when it reaches a certain dose or concentration. This statement is attributed to Paracelsus, a Swiss physician (1493–1541). In other words, the risk posed by a chemical is a function of the likelihood of exposure and the signi fi cance of the effects. Therefore, to decide whether environmental contamination with pharmaceuticals presents a threat to the health of humans and other living organ-isms, we need to know the doses and the effects the doses engender.

Based on this principle, the environmental impact of any group of chemicals or an individual chemical is the result of exposure to the substance under consideration and its effects. Both aspects are considered within the process of an environmental risk assess-ment, a procedure described in detail in the following section and illustrated in Box 3.5 .

The fi rst step is to identify the environmental compartments where problems are most likely to occur. The relevant compartments differ among substances, depend-ing on their usage pattern. Environmental compartments routinely evaluated by a risk assessment procedure encompass surface freshwater bodies, groundwater, marine systems, sediments, soil, and air.

3.3.1 Exposure Assessment

The aspect of exposure relates to the amount of the substance in use and the amount eventually entering the environment (more precisely, the environmental compart-ments identi fi ed as relevant in the fi rst step of the assessment procedure). The prop-erties of the substance in fl uence, for example, the degree to which it can be eliminated from the environment by biological degradation and thereby the range of concentra-tions that may occur in the environment. Prospective and retrospective approaches can be used to answer the question of exposure.

The concentration of a given substance can be measured in various environmental compartments (e.g., rivers, groundwater, soil) through monitoring programs to derive the measured environmental concentration (MEC). This approach constitutes a retro-spective assessment as it relates to substances that have already entered the environ-ment. The level of contamination already present can only be assessed in selected locations and at selected times by this approach, and the environmental quality is judged accordingly by comparing the MEC to environmental quality standards.


Box 3.5 Key Aspects of Environmental Risk Assessment Procedures for Chemicals, Particularly Pharmaceuticals

The key aspects of an environmental risk assessment (e.g. the environmental compartments most likely to be contaminated) are de fi ned according to the actual or planned usage of the substance. Assuming the proposed usage pat-terns, the prospective exposure assessment aims to predict the concentration of the substance in these compartments (e.g., the predicted environmental con-centration in surface water, or PEC

surface water

). With the retrospective

approach, concentrations of the substance in the environment are monitored by chemical analysis at selected times and locations. The concentrations are then compared to prede fi ned environmental quality standards or to the PEC to inform the prospective approach. The hazard of the substance is characterized by investigating the effects that the substance has on living organisms. This is achieved with standardized laboratory tests using certain species from differ-ent trophic levels. The concentration (predicted no effect concentration, or PNEC) is derived from these tests. It is expected that it is a concentration that has no adverse effects on living organisms in the environment. The PEC and the PNEC are compared in the last step of the risk assessment. If the PEC is equal to or larger than the concentration at which effects are expected to occur (PEC/PNEC ³ 1), it cannot be excluded that the substance poses a risk to the environment. An option for addressing such an outcome is to re fi ne the effect assessment. That is, instead of the standard laboratory tests, higher-tier studies are conducted to determine if effects occur at the same concentration under more realistic environmental conditions. See text for further explanation.

Characterization of exposure Characterization of effects

Co

llect

ing

an

d v

erif

yin

g d

ata

Selection of relevant environmental compartments

Retrospective approach:monitoring

concentrations in the

environment

Prospective approach:calculating

environmental concentrations using models

Standard laboratory tests

with single species

Higher tier Studies with

more ecological complexity

Characterization of environmental risk by relating exposure to effects:if the risk quotient PEC/PNEC is below 1, no risk is anticipated

Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC)for various compartments

Predicted Environmental Concentration(PEC) for various compartments


The prospective approach is used particularly for the formal process of authoriz-ing commercial use of a substance. This approach utilizes mathematical modeling to predict the concentration of a substance based on its properties and a number of assumptions. The prospective approach has the great advantage that it can be applied to substances that are not yet on the market (i.e., no environmental release) and for already marketed substances for which no analytical methods are available to mea-sure their environmental concentrations. The prospective approach aims to predict average environmental concentrations for de fi ned environmental compartments, whereas measurements obtained by a monitoring program can be confounded by a nonrepresentative selection of locations. The outcome of a prospective exposure assessment is often a PEC: the average concentration of a substance predicted to occur in a speci fi ed compartment given the proposed usage patterns of the sub-stance. Because the PEC and the MEC are derived by different methods, the results can deviate for a given substance in the same environmental compartment.

3.3.2 Effect Assessment

The second component of environmental risk assessment concerns the effects that a substance may have on living organisms (i.e., the nature and severity of effects on different species). The standard procedure for assessing potential effects are laboratory tests where selected single species are exposed to a range of concentrations of the substance in question, and the effects on the organisms are recorded and evaluated statistically. Box 3.6 illustrates the results typically obtained with a common, simple ecotoxicological standard test, the Daphnia magna acute toxicity test.

Guidelines have been developed for standard tests at national and international levels. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) have been particularly involved. It is important to perform tests according to established guidelines to enable comparison of test results across laboratories and substances. Based on a range of criteria, test species are selected for each environmental compartment that requires assessment. There are two main criteria: the species should have an impor-tant function in the ecosystem (e.g., exhibit a multitude of interactions with other species), and it should be easy to maintain the species under laboratory conditions. For the aquatic compartment, the three standard test species come from three trophic levels: an algae species, an aquatic invertebrate species (often the water fl ea Daphnia magna ; see Boxes 3.1 and 3.6 ), and a fi sh species (see Box 3.7 ).

In the case of an environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals, these three standard test organisms are exposed to the pharmaceutical over a long period to account for the presumably long-term exposure to low concentrations in the envi-ronment (chronic toxicity tests). From the test results for the most sensitive of these species, a PNEC is derived, which is the concentration at which no adverse effects on any organism in the environment is expected. It is important to note that this


concept implies that the effects observed in the three species under laboratory con-ditions can be extrapolated to all kinds of species exposed under actual environmen-tal conditions that may impose additional stress on organisms (e.g., food shortage). Because of this extrapolation, an additional safety margin, a so-called assessment factor, is applied when deriving the PNEC from the laboratory tests results. In the case of a complete set of three standard chronic tests with algae, aquatic inverte-brate, and fi sh, an assessment factor of 10 is usually applied. This means that the lowest concentration at which no (statistically signi fi cant) effect on any of the three

Box 3.6 Daphnia magna Acute Toxicity Test

For the Daphnia magna acute toxicity test, groups of newborn water fl eas ( D. magna ) are exposed in the laboratory to various concentrations of the test substance. The number of surviving water fl eas is recorded after a de fi ned exposure time (e.g., 48 h). The graph shows the results of this test with seven concentrations of the test substance (on the x-axis at a logarithmic scale) and the mortality after 48 h, expressed as the percentage of dead water fl eas on the y-axis. A function is fi tted to the seven resulting data points, illustrated by the line (also called the concentration–response curve). The median effect con-centration (EC

50 ), is calculated from this function for use in a risk assessment.

The median effect concentration denotes the concentration of a substance that affects (in this case, kills) 50% of the test population. In the example here, the EC

50 is calculated as 375 mg/L from the function. With lower precision, it can

also be directly derived from the shown concentration–response curve by graphical methods.

Box 3.7 Standard Fish Testing

Standard fi sh tests measure the effects of a substance on fi sh such as the zebra fi sh ( Danio rerio ), a small warm-water species. Fish are continuously exposed to the substance under controlled conditions (e.g., at a constant tem-perature). The continuous exposure can be achieved in a fl ow-through test system, as shown here in the drawing. The test medium, which contains the test substance, is pumped at a speci fi ed rate through the test vessels in which the fi sh are placed. Note that this schema relates only to the test of one con-centration level of the test substance—here the ef fl uent of a wastewater treat-ment plant. For a test with several test concentrations, the setup is more complicated and includes devices to prepare different test media automati-cally, each at a given test substance concentration. The temperature is con-trolled by keeping the test vessels in a water bath that has a cooling/heating unit. The test is undertaken for several weeks, after which the survival and growth of the fi sh are measured. The photograph shows several test vessels containing groups of fi sh, with the peristaltic pump in the background. (provided by P. Ferreira and M. Weil)

( a ) (Source: fi gure provided by M. Weil) ( b ) (Source: photograph provided by P. Ferreira)


organisms was observed—the no observed effect concentration (NOEC)—is divided by 10 and the resulting concentration (the PNEC) is expected to be protective for all species. The value of the assessment factor to be applied and the degree of uncer-tainty it can cover (in the assessment itself and extrapolation to other species and fi eld conditions) is frequently subject to intensive discussions.

3.3.3 Compare Exposure to Effects

The key step of an environmental risk assessment is to relate exposure to effect. The concentration of the substance expected to occur in the environment (the PEC) is compared with the concentration at which this substance is expected to have no rel-evant adverse biological effects (the PNEC). The resulting risk quotient (PEC divided by PNEC) indicates the degree of environmental risk related to the substance in the compartment under consideration. If the risk quotient is <1, the risk is considered acceptable. The basic idea behind using a risk quotient for the risk assessment is that a highly toxic substance may not pose a relevant risk if it does not enter the environment (i.e., low PNEC but a much lower PEC), and a substance abundant in the environment is not considered to pose a risk so long as it has no ecological effects (i.e., higher PEC but still higher PNEC). These extreme situations are rarely found as most substances are positioned somewhere on the continuum between these two poles.

The initial risk assessment includes a number of worst-case assumptions that result in a rather conservative and protective outcome. If the risk quotient in an initial risk assessment is ³ 1, the exposure, the effects, or both assessments can be re fi ned, depending on the substance-speci fi c regulation. Re fi nement of the exposure estimation may involve complex models using elaborate information on the sub-stance’s properties. For some substance groups, re fi nement of the effects assess-ment can consist of “higher-tier” studies. These studies can assess effects on complex ecological systems (i.e., communities in model ecosystems). When using results from an effect assessment conducted in more ecologically realistic and complex systems, the assessment factor in the environmental risk assessment is usually reduced, eventually down to a factor of 1. Generally, re fi nement of a risk assessment is a highly complex process that requires expert judgment. The following section illustrates some aspects of exposure and effects and addresses the issue of environ-mental risk assessment for the special case of pharmaceuticals.

3.3.4 Determining the Presence and Amount of Pharmaceuticals in Freshwater

Since the 1990s, various surveys have evaluated how frequently and at what concen-trations pharmaceuticals occur in the environment. Until the beginning of the 2000s, environmental risk assessments were not mandatory for pharmaceuticals. Hence,


these research programs monitoring pharmaceutical concentrations in the environ-ment were not driven by legal requirements. The results of such projects in Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Canada, and the United States were summarized in editions of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment , (Kümmerer 2001 , 2004, 2008). In Italy, mea-surement campaigns in 1997 and 2001 targeted about 20 pharmaceuticals widely used in the human population. Most of the pharmaceuticals were detected at some time point in the river Po but none at a concentration >0.25 m g/L. Similarly, many pharmaceuticals were detected in the ef fl uents of wastewater treatment plants in Canada, with the maximum concentration of each single compound <1 m g/L. In the adjacent surface water receiving the treated wastewater, the measured maximum concentrations of a single pharmaceutical was also <1 m g/L. A more recent publica-tion compiles the available information for Dutch surface waters measured between 1996 and 2005 (Walraven and Laane 2009 ) . These data showed that only 58 of 102 targeted pharmaceuticals were detected at least once in surface waters. The highest concentration found among all samples was 0.83 m g/L for the anti-in fl ammatory drug diclofenac in the river Meuse. A group of pharmaceuticals frequently detected in surface waters were contrast media used for radiographic diagnoses. Another example was the above-mentioned contraceptive pharmaceutical ethinyl estradiol. The highest measured concentration of this substance in surface water was reported to be 0.0067 m g/L (Liebig et al. 2006 ) . Given that the daily dose of ethinyl estradiol taken by women for birth control is 0.025 mg, the measured concentration of 0.0067 m g/L equals the amount of ethinyl estradiol in a single contraceptive pill dis-solved in about 3700 l of water. This is about the amount of wastewater produced by 15 households per day.

Regardless of how comprehensive or elaborate the monitoring campaigns, the basic problem remains that they can con fi rm the absence or presence of pharmaceu-ticals only at preselected time points and preselected locations (i.e., where the sam-ples for chemical analysis are taken). To obtain a general idea about concentrations of pharmaceuticals across seasons and geographic locations, the above-mentioned method of predicting concentrations with the help of mathematical models is used. These exposure models need input information regarding the usage pattern of the pharmaceutical in question, its metabolism in the human body, its degradability in wastewater treatment plants, and several other parameters. In the study of Liebig et al. ( 2006 ) , the PEC for the synthetic hormone ethinyl estradiol was calculated to range from 0.00013 to 0.0008 m g/L depending on the applied model. Hence, the PEC as an average estimate is about 5- to 50-fold lower than the maximum mea-sured concentration, found presumably at some contamination hotspots.

3.3.5 How Pharmaceuticals Reach the Environment

Pharmaceuticals reach the environment via different routes. For pharmaceuticals used by humans, the main route is assumed to be municipal wastewater (i.e., con-tamination of the aquatic environment by means of pharmaceutical residues in the


Box 3.8 Wastewater Treatment Facility

Wastewater enters the treatment plant after large particles and sand have been removed during the fi rst treatment step. The wastewater then fl ows to a pri-mary settlement tank before biological treatment occurs (e.g., an activated sludge treatment step).

ef fl uents of wastewater treatment facilities). Pharmaceuticals enter the municipal wastewater stream (see Box 3.8 ) via excretion by patients or by disposal of unused medications in toilets. Contamination of the terrestrial environment can occur by land application of biosolids—that is, sludge produced in a wastewater treatment plant to which some pharmaceuticals are adsorbed. Disposal of unused medication with household waste may result in pharmaceuticals ending up in land fi ll and fi nally contaminating groundwater by in fi ltration of land fi ll leachate. Today, thermic waste treatment (i.e., municipal waste incineration) and bottom sealing of land fi lls limit this route of environmental contamination.


In the case of veterinary pharmaceuticals, other routes of contamination are of greater relevance. In particular, medical treatment of animals that may afterward freely enter surface waters and excrete on pasture land can result in direct release of pharmaceutical residues into the environment. An example is when sheep are dipped in a water bath containing an antiparasitic medication prior to their release into pasture. Another source is the dung or manure of medicated animals applied as fertilizer to agricultural land. In addition to the predominant potential contamina-tion of soil, surface waters can be contaminated by runoff from agricultural land.

A source of contamination that became the focus of research only recently is the manufacturing of pharmaceuticals. Although production-related release of pharma-ceuticals in Europe is expected to be of minor relevance because of strict environ-mental laws, the actual situation is not known. Generic pharmaceuticals (i.e., substances that are no longer protected by patent rights) are manufactured largely in developing countries, particularly India and China (Larsson 2008 ) . In the case of India, scientists reported the presence of large amounts of pharmaceuticals in the ef fl uents of a treatment plant that receives wastewater predominantly from a number of pharmaceutical manufacturing plants. In fact, 23 pharmaceuticals were detected at concentrations of >1 m g/L and 11 at concentrations of >100 m g/L (Larsson et al. 2007 ) . This fi nding is both worrying with regard to the potential environmental impact and astonishing because this large loss of manufactured pharmaceuticals in the wastewater stream implies a considerable loss of potential pro fi t. The authors of the study pointed out that the production price of these pharmaceuticals in India is presumably lower than the costs that would be incurred by appropriate measures to prevent loss of pharmaceuticals in the manufacturing waste stream.

3.3.6 How Pharmaceuticals Unintentionally Affect Organisms in the Environment

The most prominent and drastic example of environmental effects of pharmaceuti-cals is related to the medication of livestock with diclofenac, used in both human and veterinary practices in some countries. Diclofenac was identi fi ed as the main reason for a strong, rapid decline of Asian vultures (Box 3.9 ).

Pharmaceuticals are designed to express low acute toxicity in humans. As a result, the toxicity of pharmaceuticals in other organisms has generally been found to be low. The relatively high acute toxicity of diclofenac in Asian vultures repre-sents a unique situation. In a review article, Fent et al. ( 2006 ) compiled data on the acute toxicity of 24 human pharmaceuticals obtained with aquatic standard test organisms. Only two pharmaceuticals were identi fi ed as acutely toxic at concen-trations of > 1 g/L. However, several scientists raised the question that the assess-ment of acute toxicity may not provide suf fi cient information for an appropriate effect assessment as it relates only to the death of an organism within a short time period. Endpoints other than acute toxicity should be assessed, particularly those related to the known intended and unintended effects of pharmaceuticals. Subtle


Box 3.9 Case of the Oriental White-Backed Vulture and Its Near Extinction

The populations of a once common scavenging bird, the Oriental white-backed vulture ( Gyps bengalensis ), declined heavily in Pakistan during the 1990s. Populations of other vulture species (e.g., Gyps indicus ) are also rap-idly declining in India. The population declines were considered so serious that the species were listed as critically endangered by BirdLife International in 2001. In an article published in Nature , a group of scientists from Pakistan and the United States (Oaks et al. 2004 ) solved the riddle of the extremely rapid vulture population decline. They examined a large number of fi eld-collected dead vultures and identi fi ed acute renal failure as the cause of death in many of the birds. The researchers detected considerable amounts of the pharmaceutical diclofenac in the kidneys of 100% of the vultures that died of renal failure but no diclofenac residues in any of those that died for other reasons. Based on postmortem examinations, other factors such as infectious diseases and pesticide poisoning were excluded as the cause of renal failure. The scientists observed considerable levels of diclofenac residues in livestock treated with this pharmaceutical and were able to prove that these levels were high enough to cause death by acute renal failure in vultures fed with the meat of this livestock. Hence, the treatment of livestock with this anti-in fl ammatory and pain-killing pharmaceutical and the residues of this substance in livestock carcasses, typically left in the fi eld for removal by scavengers in this part of the world, has led to the near extinction of a bird species. Another team of scientists (Schultz et al. 2004 ) later con fi rmed diclofenac as the cause of the rapid decline of vultures in India and Nepal. Oaks et al. ( 2004 ) demonstrated that the Oriental vulture dies from acute renal failure at doses of diclofenac typically administered to humans, thus demonstrating high susceptibility of the bird to this drug. Interestingly, kidney failure is a known side effect of diclofenac in humans (Risebrough 2004 ) , but no one had foreseen that these side effects could lead to death in a different species. The case of the near extinction of Asian vultures due to poisoning with diclofenac is an example—so far the sole example—that the residues of a pharmaceutical in the environ-ment can have a strong impact on natural populations of higher organisms. Risebrough ( 2004 ) compared this example to the use of DDT. Environmental contamination by this persistent insecticide, widely used in large amounts, was identi fi ed after long, intensive research efforts as the cause of eggshell thinning and heavy population declines in birds of prey, including the American bald eagle and the peregrine falcon. Their populations recovered considerably after DDT was banned from most uses (although it is still in use in some parts of the world for malaria control). For the vultures in south Asia, the risk of extinction is still imminent.


effects that could result from long-term exposure at low concentrations should also be considered.

Potential negative effects (i.e., side effects) of pharmaceuticals on humans are extensively investigated during their development and approval. They are tested by means of in vitro tests, studies in mammals (e.g., mice, rats, rabbits), and fi nally clinical tests with human volunteers. It has been stated that these results should also be used in the environmental risk assessment to extrapolate to potential effects in the environment. However, this is problematic as details of the data are usually classi fi ed as con fi dential and remain unavailable for public environmental risk assessment. However, we still need to validate if and how these data enable predictions of their effects on the environment.

3.4 Actions and Challenges

The reliability of the outcome of a risk assessment depends to a large degree on the reliability and quality of the information used. There always remain uncertainties regarding the effects and the exposure of pharmaceuticals (and other chemicals) in the environment. It is basically impossible to test all potentially exposed organisms under all potentially possible conditions. Furthermore, it is not feasible to invest huge amounts of money and work in monitoring programs that aim to determine exactly the environmental concentration of all kinds of pharmaceuticals. This fact is an inherent part of a risk assessment. The main questions regarding the environmen-tal impact of pharmaceuticals therefore remains: How large is the risk? How can it be better assessed in an ef fi cient way?

When the issue of pharmaceuticals in the environment became evident, members of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC; www.setac.org ) organized an international workshop. The book resulting from this workshop (Williams 2005 ) summarizes the fi rst scienti fi c fi ndings on this new topic. Since then, national and international funding agencies have funded intensive research on this subject.

The European Commission speci fi ed a series of research topics that aimed to study the occurrence and fate as well as the effects, risks, and risk management of emerging pollutants. Projects were initiated to evaluate the ef fi ciency of existing and new technologies to reduce the release of pollutants into the environment. These topics were integrated into European research funding schemes, known as the Framework Programmes. The 5th Framework Programme (1998–2002) integrated the REMPHARMAWATER, POSEIDON, and ERAVMIS projects into the Pharma-Cluster projects. REMPHARMAWATER studied the fate, persistence, and ecotox-icity of pharmaceuticals in various sewage treatment plants and their ef fl uents. The results contributed new information on the occurrence and concentrations of antibi-otics in wastewater and how these pharmaceuticals can be better removed during the treatment process. POSEIDON evaluated technologies for removing pharmaceuti-cals and personal care products from sewage and drinking water facilities. Among

http://www.setac.org

http://www.setac.org


others, a pilot plant testing enhanced removal was constructed and subsequently investigated for its performance. ERAVMIS focused on assessing the environmental impact of veterinary medicines released through the spreading of manure, slurry, and sludge on agricultural land. The research conducted in this project informed the development and validation of models that can be used to predict the environmental fate of veterinary pharmaceuticals. Another output comprised the fi rst guidance documents and recommendations on how to conduct an environmental risk assess-ment of veterinary pharmaceuticals.

The sixth Framework Programme (2002–2006) funded the ERAPharm project (Box 3.10 ). ERAPharm builds on the outcome of the Pharma-Cluster projects by

Box 3.10 ERAPharm : Environmental Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals: Research Project Funded by the European Union

ERAPharm was funded within the priority “Global change and ecosystems” of the sixth Framework Programme of the European Commission (project no. SSPI-CT-2003-511135). ERAPharm started in October 2004 and ended in September 2007. ERAPharm consisted of 14 partners from eight countries (Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Spain, Switzerland, The Netherlands, United Kingdom). More than 50 scientists cooperated within ERAPharm, including many students who conducted research for their university theses (Master, Diploma, PhD) within the project.

The overall objective of the research project ERAPharm was to advance existing knowledge and procedures for use in the environmental risk assess-ment (ERA) of human and veterinary pharmaceuticals. The work addressing the speci fi c objectives of ERAPharm was organized in nine work packages and four working groups. The working groups addressed speci fi c aspects of ERA of pharmaceuticals. A key aspect of ERAPharm was to propose improve-ments for the current methods used in ERA of pharmaceuticals by focusing a considerable amount of experimental work on three case study compounds: two human pharmaceuticals ( b -blocker atenolol and antidepressant fl uoxetine) and the veterinary parasiticide ivermectin. Other human and veterinary phar-maceuticals were also investigated as part of individual work packages.

More information on ERAPharm and the fi nal public report can be found at www.erapharm.org and in a published special edition of the scienti fi c journal Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management (Volume 6, Supplement 1, July 2010) ( http://www.setacjournals.org/view/0/ieamspe-cialerapharm.html ).

http://www.erapharm.org

http://www.setacjournals.org/view/0/ieamspecialerapharm.html

http://www.setacjournals.org/view/0/ieamspecialerapharm.html


improving knowledge and procedures used in the environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals. An aim of ERAPharm was to perform exemplary environmental risk assessments for two human pharmaceuticals ( fl uoxetine and atenolol) and for a veterinary pharmaceutical (ivermectin, a parasiticide). The results revealed the strengths and weaknesses of existing environmental risk assessment schemes and simultaneously provided several options for amending these schemes. The three case studies were published together with other results of ERAPharm (see Box 3.10 ).

The following section describes the results regarding fl uoxetine as an example of an environmental risk assessment of a human pharmaceutical.

3.4.1 Fluoxetine as an Example of an Environmental Risk Assessment

In the case of the human pharmaceutical fl uoxetine, research beyond just acute toxic effects has been conducted with aquatic organisms. Fluoxetine is a psychoactive pharmaceutical prescribed, for example, in the case of severe depression. It belongs to a group of substances called serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which in fl uence the level of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain. Fluoxetine is the active ingredient of the product Prozac ® and has been marketed worldwide for more than two decades.

3.4.1.1 Effect Assessment for Fluoxetine

Because of its well-known and speci fi c effects on serotonin-related biological mechanisms, it was proposed that fl uoxetine would have speci fi c and subtle effects at low concentrations in other organisms. Fish in particular have been the focus of extensive research. As vertebrate organisms, it was thought that fi sh might exhibit speci fi c sensitivity to fl uoxetine because of the presence of serotonin-related physi-ological functions. Yet, recent research indicated that the effects of fl uoxetine on fi sh behavior and various physiological and reproductive functions are similar to the con-centrations that inhibit the growth of green algae, a standard test species (Oakes et al. 2010 ) . Hence, unicellular green algae without a nervous system turned out to be as sensitive to the effects of a neuroactive pharmaceutical as were the higher organisms, in particular fi sh. From all the available data on the effects of fl uoxetine in aquatic organisms, a PNEC

surface water of 0.012 m g/L was derived (Oakes et al. 2010 ) .

3.4.1.2 Exposure Assessment for Fluoxetine

The exposure assessment for fl uoxetine was conducted according to the default approach prescribed by the respective guidelines and using recently developed mathematical models that predict the removal of substances in the wastewater


treatment process (Oakes et al. 2010 ) . The difference in the prediction by the two approaches was not large. The biggest impact on the prediction was the uncertainty about the input parameters, particularly regarding estimates of the volume of fl uoxetine that reaches wastewater treatment plants and how much is removed by binding to the sludge in those plants. Using the most extreme possible input param-eters (lowest/highest release and strongest/weakest binding), the calculated esti-mates for the PEC

surface water differed considerably, ranging from 0.0007 to 0.052 m g/L

(Oakes et al. 2010 ) .

3.4.1.3 Risk Assessment for Fluoxetine

By comparing the derived PEC surface water

with the PNEC surface water

, Oakes et al. ( 2010 ) derived a risk quotient of 0.058–4.33, a range resulting from the above-mentioned range of PEC values. The determined risk quotient spanned a rather wide range, thereby being associated with high uncertainty. Under certain assumptions, the quotient was >1, which indicates that the risk of fl uoxetine harming the environ-ment cannot be excluded in a worst-case scenario (i.e., if the most conservative assumptions of the assessment come true). This case study had no direct legal consequences as it was purely science-driven and not conducted in an of fi cial envi-ronmental risk assessment; however, it may in fl uence further policy in this area and inform risk assessment for other substances. Clearly, the study identi fi ed research gaps, among them a need to improve estimation of the input parameters used in models predicting the fate of pharmaceuticals.

3.4.1.4 Is There an Indirect Threat for Humans?

Can pharmaceuticals that are released into surface waters accumulate in fi sh and thereby threaten the health of humans that consume these fi sh? Bioaccumulation of fl uoxetine in wild fi sh has been reported (Brooks et al. 2005 ) . The determined con-centrations of fl uoxetine (up to 1.6 ng/g fi sh) were low compared to the usually prescribed amount of fl uoxetine in humans. One would have to eat more than 10,000 kg of such fl uoxetine-contaminated fi sh per day to reach the 20 mg fl uoxetine dose taken daily by a patient on fl uoxetine treatment. However, the situation may theoretically be different for other pharmaceuticals, such as those that show higher bioaccumulation.

Although the question of secondary poisoning of humans does not comprise part of the environmental risk assessment, this risk is assessed with regard to fi sh-eating birds or mammals. As the example of diclofenac and the Asian vulture has shown, indirect effects mediated through the food web can be highly relevant. Unfortunately for the vultures, the possibility of secondary poisoning of a scaven-ger is not covered in an environmental risk assessment. In Europe, at least, it is of little relevance because dead livestock is usually not left in the wild to be con-sumed by scavengers.


3.4.2 The Future

As part of the on-going seventh Framework Programme (2007–2013), the European Union issued in 2010 a call for research regarding the effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment on human health. Humans are exposed to pharmaceuticals by a number of routes including the consumption of: (1) plants that have accumulated substances from soil as a result of exposure to contaminated sludge, manure, irriga-tion water, and slurry; (2) livestock that have accumulated veterinary medicines through the food chain (e.g., as in the case of diclofenac); (3) fi sh exposed to phar-maceuticals released into surface waters either intentionally (aquaculture treat-ments) or unintentionally; and (4) groundwater and surface waters containing residues of pharmaceuticals and that is used as drinking water. Two project teams were successful in this funding round and started at the beginning of 2011 (CytoThreat and PHARMAS).

The series of projects related to the issue of pharmaceuticals in the environment, characterized in the previous section and funded by the European Union, covered a period of more than a decade and demonstrated the importance of two key aspects: (1) the ongoing approach to evaluate and understand all facets of pharmaceuticals released into the environment by human activities and their return to humans via the environment; and (2) the consistent aim to address research topics that inform European environmental policies.

Information on recent or currently running research projects regarding pharma-ceuticals in the environment can be found on related project websites provided at the end of this chapter.

Open research topics in the fi eld of pharmaceuticals in the environment include the further improvement of wastewater treatment methods to enhance the removal of pharmaceuticals (see also Chap. 4 ), an improved exposure and effects assess-ment, and the option of a “green design” (see Box 3.11 ).

Next to basic and applied scienti fi c research, other goals are targeted in various projects and initiatives. Policy aspects are of particular importance. Examples include the improvement of risk assessment methods, regulations, and agreed-upon decisions regarding various management options (e.g., reduction of release and regulation of usage of disposal). Governmental organizations are active in this area (e.g., US Environmental Protection Agency and US Food and Drug Administration). In Europe, the competent authority for the registration and assessment of pharma-ceuticals is the European Medicines Agency (EMA). There is a Committee for Medicinal Products for Veterinary Use (CVMP) with a temporary CVMP Environmental Risk Assessment Working Party (ERAWP), and the risk assessment for human pharmaceuticals seems to be fairly well established (see the EMA web-site for the adopted guideline).

Of fi cial guidelines regulating how environmental risk assessments of pharma-ceuticals are conducted were developed and adopted during the last few years. The process involved periods of expert input, public consultation, and discussions with stakeholders (among others, the pharmaceutical industry). The guidelines and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3752-9_4


documents regarding ongoing discussions are public and can be downloaded from the EMA website.

The pharmaceutical industry is also aware of the issue of potential environmental effects. A Google search for “environmental risk pharmaceuticals” in 2009 pro-duced a considerable number of hits. Websites of basically all major producers of pharmaceuticals were among the fi rst 200 of these hits. Similarly, examples of civil engagement for the proper usage and disposal of unused pharmaceuticals can be found on the Internet.

Citizens can help reduce the risk that pharmaceuticals may pose to the environ-ment by reducing their release into the environment. This includes, most importantly, appropriate disposal of unused medicines (human and veterinary), not via wastewa-ter but by delivering them to an appointed place of collection, such as pharmacies.

3.5 Websites

CytoThreat: http://www.cytothreat.eu ERAPharm: http://www.erapharm.org European Medicines Agency: http://www.ema.europa.eu/

Box 3.11 Green Design

The term “green design” implies consideration of the potential environmental effects of a pharmaceutical during its development and production. This could involve, for example, developing pharmaceuticals that are structurally designed in a way that reduces the potential of bioaccumulation or persistence in the environment or that is more selective with regard to its intended humans targets and thereby less likely to affect nontarget organisms. Today, the fi rst steps in developing a new pharmaceutical are taken by modeling the interac-tion of candidate substances with biological molecules (e.g., targeted receptor proteins). This step involves no experimental testing and has a high through-put with regard to the evaluated number of small changes in the molecular structure of a candidate substance. Similarly, these methods could be adopted to optimize a candidate substance with regard to low persistence in the envi-ronment. A fi rst successful example of such an approach was achieved by the research group headed by Prof. K. Kümmerer in Freiburg, Germany. They were exploring a pharmaceutical used for cancer treatment that showed better ef fi cacy and faster degradation after some modi fi cation of the molecular structure (Kümmerer 2010 ) . The most recent developments with regard to green design and sustainable use of pharmaceuticals have been compiled in a book (Kümmerer and Hempel 2010 ) .

http://www.cytothreat.eu

http://www.erapharm.org

http://www.ema.europa.eu/


Knowledge and Need Assessment on Pharmaceutical Products in Environmental Waters (KNAPPE): http://www.knappe-eu.org MistraPharma: www.mistrapharma.se Novel Methods for Integrated Risk Assessment of Cumulative Stressors in Europe (NOMIRACLE): http://nomiracle.jrc.ec.europa.eu/default.aspx PHARMAS: http://www.pharmas-eu.org US Environmental Protection Agency: http://www.epa.gov/ppcp US Food and Drug Administration: http://www.fda.gov/ Wikipharma: www.wikipharma.org

Acknowledgments Chapter 3 is dedicated to the memory of Thomas Knacker, whose untimely death preceded its publication. We appreciate the valuable comments of Ed Topp and Jan Koschorreck on an earlier version of this chapter.

Selected parts of an earlier version of this chapter have been published previously in German as Knacker T. and Coors A.: Ökotoxikologische Bewertung von anthropogenen Stoffen. acatech Materialien Nr. 10. Munich, 2011.

Glossary

m g/L Micrograms (one millionth of a gram) per liter Acaricide Chemical used to kill mites Anthropogenic Man-made Antibiotic Pharmaceutical used to treat bacterial infections Bioaccumulation Process by which a chemical substance increases its concentra-

tion in a living organism over time, compared to the chemical’s concentration in the environment

Biological Diversity Variety of life on earth, including diversity of ecosystems, species, and genes and the ecological processes that support them.

Biosolids Sludge produced during wastewater treatment Crustacean Subgroup of arthropods that includes, among others, crabs and lob-

sters DDT Persistent insecticide that is now banned from most uses, except in some

parts of the world (e.g., for malaria control) Diclofenac Anti-in fl ammatory pain-relieving pharmaceutical Ecosystem Complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and their in-

terrelations in a particular unit of space Ecotoxicology Field of science that integrates toxicology and ecology Endocrine Disruptor Substance that interferes with the hormonal system of living

organisms, including but not limited to humans Ethinyl Estradiol Synthetic derivative of the natural hormone estradiol; an active

substance in contraceptive pills Eutrophication Excess primary bioproduction caused by increased input of nu-

trients

http://www.knappe-eu.org

http://www.mistrapharma.se

http://nomiracle.jrc.ec.europa.eu/default.aspx

http://www.pharmas-eu.org

http://www.epa.gov/ppcp

http://www.fda.gov/

http://www.wikipharma.org

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3752-9_3


Environmental Exposure Contact of an organism with an agent (e.g., a chemical) in the environment

Fluoxetine Psychoactive pharmaceutical prescribed, for example, for severe de-pression

Food Web Ecological concept that describes an ecosystem based the connections of species in a network of energy transfer

Green Design Consideration of the potential environmental impact of a pharma-ceutical during its development and production

Habitat Area within which a particular organism lives Hazard Potential of a substance to cause adverse effects in an organism, system,

or (sub)population exposed to that substance Heavy Metal Group of metallic elements de fi ned, for example, by high atomic

weights or density (e.g., mercury, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, lead) Hormone Substance produced in one part of the body and functions as a messen-

ger to in fl uence cells in other parts of the body In vitro Test Bioassay conducted outside living organisms by using, for example,

cell cultures Intersex Individual organisms with features of both sexes MEC Measured environmental concentration of a substance under study in a

speci fi c environment Municipal Wastewater Wastewater that is the composite of liquid and water-

carried wastes associated with the use of water for drinking, cooking, cleaning, washing, hygiene, sanitation, or other domestic purposes

NOEC No observed effect concentration of a chemical Nutrients Chemical compounds that are involved in the construction of living tis-

sue and are needed by both plants and animals OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Parasite Organism that lives in or on another organism (the host) at the expense

of this host Pathogen Disease-causing organism PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl PEC Predicted environmental concentration of a chemical Persistence Relates to the time scale during which a substance can be degraded by

natural mechanisms Pesticide Substance, preparation, or organism used to control or destroy any

pest Pharmaceutical Group of chemicals designed to treat medical conditions and dis-

eases or fi ght parasites in humans and animals PNEC Predicted no effect concentration of a chemical Polar Substance Characterized by a difference in electric charge across the mol-

ecule; usually dissolve better in water than nonpolar substances Pollutant–Emerging Pollutant that has recently been discovered Pollution/Pollutants Contamination of the environment with a pollutant (e.g., a

chemical or noise) that has a negative effect Pristine Area Area thought to be not affected by human activities


Receptor Compound in the body that binds a drug and causes an effect Renal Failure Sudden loss of kidney functionality Risk Assessment Formal process by which the risk resulting from a speci fi c use or

occurrence of a chemical or physical agent is evaluated Sedimentation Tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of water and rest

against a barrier (on rocks, the bottom, plants) Sludge Semi-solid stream of materials in sewage after removal of coarse, insoluble

materials Toxicity Degree to which a substance can harm living organisms Trophic Level/Position Simple ecological food chain possibly consisting of three

trophic levels: primary producer (plant), primary consumer (herbivore), and sec-ondary consumer (predator)

Zooplankton Small animals that live fl oating in open water bodies

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Brooks BW, Chambliss CK, Stanley JK, Ramirez A, Banks KE, Johnson RD, Lewis RJ (2005) Determination of select antidepressants in fi sh from an ef fl uent-dominated stream. Environ Toxicol Chem 24:464–469.

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Kümmerer K, Hempel M (eds) (2010) Green and sustainable pharmacy. Springer Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg.

Larsson DG, de Pedro C, Paxeus N (2007) Ef fl uent from drug manufactures contains extremely high levels of pharmaceuticals. J Hazard Mater 148:751–755

Larsson DGJ (2008) Drug production facilities – an overlooked discharge source for pharmaceuti-cals to the environment. In: Kümmerer K (ed.) Pharmaceuticals in the environment – Sources, fates, effects and risks. Springer Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg.

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Framework Directive of the European Union. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 28, 150–158. Shultz S, Baral HS, Charman S, Cunningham AA, Das D, Ghalsasi GR, Goudar MS, Green RE,

Jones A, Nighot P, Pain DJ, Prakash V (2004) Diclofenac poisoning is widespread in declining vulture populations across the Indian subcontinent. Proc Biol Sci. 271 (Suppl 6):S458-460.

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101

Abstract More than one billion people lack access to safe water worldwide. In particular, in developing countries 80% of diseases and 30% of deaths are water-related [UNDP (2007) Human Development Report, United Nations Development Programme]. Industrial and agricultural activities are major sources of water pollution, but wastewater from houses (i.e., sewage or municipal wastewater containing urine, feces, and kitchen and washing wastes) is by far the main source of water contamina-tion causing health problems. Proper sewage treatment is therefore a priority.

G. E. de Vries (*) ProBio Partners VOF , Overschild , The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected]

A. Lopez Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque-CNR , Bari , Italy e-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 4 Wastewaters Are Not Wastes

Gert E. de Vries and Antonio Lopez


Contents

4.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 1024.2 Effects ............................................................................................................................... 103

4.2.1 Agriculture ............................................................................................................ 1054.2.2 Industry ................................................................................................................. 1064.2.3 Municipal Sewage ................................................................................................. 106

4.3 Actions .............................................................................................................................. 1094.3.1 Water Pollution Prevention ................................................................................... 1094.3.2 Water Pollution Control (Wastewater Treatment) ................................................. 111

4.4 Challenges ......................................................................................................................... 1144.4.1 Need to Recycle Water .......................................................................................... 1144.4.2 Applications for Wastewater Reuse ...................................................................... 118 4.4.3 Reuse of Nutrients ................................................................................................. 124

4.5 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 135Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 135References .................................................................................................................................. 139

102 G.E. de Vries and A. Lopez

Wastewater treatment generally consists of physical separation (solids from water-soluble compounds) followed by biological steps to decompose and reduce the amount of organic matter and remove compounds containing inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus. Finally, chemical processes can be used to disinfect the ef fl uent water stream. This end-product is then discharged into surface waters if its quality meets local and national requirements to protect the environment from pollution.

These principles for treating municipal wastewater have remained unchanged for more than a century. However, increasing demand for water and energy and dwin-dling global resources necessitate a serious reassessment of conventional wastewater treatment, especially as wastewater contains many valuable resources, such as reusable treated water, energy, nitrogen, and phosphorus (Watanabe 1999: Research needs to optimize wastewater resource utilization. Water Environment Research Foundation, Alexandria, VA, USA).

The major constituent of wastewater (i.e., water) could well be recovered for industrial use (recycling), for use in agriculture (reuse), and even for use as drinking water so long as safety measures are in place and the practice is accepted. So far, innovations in wastewater treatment have generally been aimed at reducing costs, saving energy, and lowering the environmental impact. New technologies are emerging that provide tools to extract and pro fi t from the constituent elements of wastewater streams.

This chapter introduces the problems dealing with various wastewaters, including the actions taken to tackle associated problems in human health and the environ-ment. Diminishing resources now pose new challenges to fi nding ways to reuse the water, nutrients, and energy retrieved from wastewater streams. Several European research projects have actively engaged with different aspects of these technologies. This chapter provides background information to aid in understanding and interpreting their results.

4.1 Background

The water that we use every day, either in the household or at work, is part of the Earth’s water cycle. In fact, we borrow water from its natural cycle for awhile before returning it to the environment in the form of wastewater. It may then contain various contaminants, ranging from soaps, wasted foodstuff, urine, and feces to toxic chemi-cals. In developed countries, wastewater is collected in a sewer system of under-ground pipes that run downward into larger pipes and fi nally to a wastewater treatment plant. The sewer system may collect water from a range of sources, including households, commercial activities, and industries as well as runoff rainwater.

Wastewater sewers were common in ancient Rome, but they were built princi-pally to remove foul-smelling water. The Romans were probably unaware of the importance of sewers for health as it was not until the nineteenth century that popu-lations had become dense and outbreaks of life-threatening diseases were traced to

1034 Wastewaters Are Not Wastes

bacteria in polluted wastewaters. The building of infrastructure and development of sewers began in London, where the quick removal of wastewater from the city envi-ronment was propounded as the solution to public health problems created by unsanitary conditions.

There are good reasons to take wastewater treatment a step further and remove contaminants before discharging it back into the environment. High concentrations of nutrients, especially phosphates and nitrates, promote excessive growth of algae in lakes and rivers. As algae die and decompose, other microorganisms deplete the water of available oxygen, causing the death of a range of organisms (e.g., fi sh). This phenomenon is called eutrophication. The various chemical compounds in wastewater can also harm aquatic life and form a risk for humans, necessitating restrictions on recreational water usage (e.g., ponds, lakes, beaches).

Human health is directly at stake if contaminated wastewater is used for cooking or drinking purposes. Indeed, more than a billion people lack access to safe water worldwide, particularly in developing countries. Deaths attributed to the use of pol-luted and microbiologically unsafe water currently numbers more than 3 million per year—exceeding the number of deaths caused by human immunode fi ciency virus infection/acquired immunode fi ciency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Indeed, more people die as a result of polluted water than are killed by all forms of violence, including wars. The development of general access to clean water sources is one of the world’s greatest health challenges, with the potential to promote economic improvements and reduce poverty, costs to health care, and lost labor productivity.

To mitigate these hazards, the technologies used to collect, transport, and treat wastewater have been greatly improved and perfected, mainly in developed countries. Current wastewater processes employ a combination of mechanical, physical, biological, and chemical techniques to remove harmful substances from wastewater before discharging it back into the environment.

The following sections highlight the need for wastewater treatment, their subse-quent impact, and the progress of wastewater management activities around the world. They provide information on the technologies involved and future develop-ments and research leading to useful and/or necessary improvements. Particular emphasis is placed on the notion that wastewater contains valuable resources that can be recovered and recycled instead of conversion to inert or safe compounds followed by release into natural waters.

4.2 Effects

There are a large number of substances that have the potential to pollute freshwater sources and cause harm in many ways (see Box 4.1 ). There is also a relation between dose and response or quantity and effect. This relation is a fundamental concept in toxicology and plays an important role in determining the harm a speci fi c com-pound (chemical) may cause in a speci fi c environment (ranging from an ecosystem to tap water).


Box 4.1 Main Pollutants in Municipal Wastewater and Their Effects

Materials that do not dissolve in water are termed solids, suspended matter, or particulate matter. While fl oating in the water column, suspended parti-cles can negatively affect the photosynthesis activity of plants and algae when the amount of sunlight and penetration depth are diminished by adsorption. If suspended matter settles at the bottom of natural waters in thick layers, anoxic conditions occur because of diminished water move-ment. It is then possible for harmful organisms to thrive, changing the existing ecosystem.

Biodegradable matter is present in abundance in municipal wastewater. It comprises all organic matter that serve as energy and metabolic resources for living organisms. If released (partially) untreated to surface waters, it is generally consumed by a multiplying population of diverse microorganisms. Oxygen is consumed as well, killing organisms that depend on it. Their decomposition requires even more dissolved oxygen and other populations of microorganisms may take over that do not need oxygen to thrive. Some of these organisms produce harmful substances such as ammonia and sul fi des. If the in fl ow of biodegradable matter to the surface water continues, the original ecological system cannot recover.

Inorganic nutrients , such as molecules containing nitrogen (ammonia, nitrate, nitrite) or phosphorus (phosphate), are excellent fertilizer sources, but they also stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and algae. In the daytime plants produce oxygen, but at night they consume it. If plants and especially algae become overgrown, an anoxic situation occurs at night, killing organisms that depend on oxygen (e.g., fi sh). A situation similar to that of high amounts of biodegradable matter occurs when the algae and plants die as well. This process is termed eutrophication. Some algae may also produce toxins that are harm-ful to higher forms of life, which can affect humans and animals that come into contact with the toxins.

Pathogens are (micro)organisms that cause infectious diseases in humans or in organisms that are useful to us. In developing countries, waterborne diseases are a particular problem. Some, such as cholera and dysentery, are endemic and can turn into an epidemic when overcrowding or poor sanita-tion situations occur, as in refugee camps. In developed countries, sewage is safely carried away from houses through sewage pipes and then treated at wastewater treatment plants. The treated ef fl uent is disinfected and gen-erally disposed of in super fi cial water bodies such as seas, rivers, and lakes. Because this procedure effectively reduces the risk of infection, wastewater treatment systems are essential for maintaining sanitation standards of suf fi cient quality.


Agriculture, industrial, and municipal wastewater are the main sources of water pollution. The origins of contaminants are often divided into two general categories: point-source (direct) and non-point-source (diffuse, indirect) pollution. Contaminants that originate from point sources enter water bodies at a speci fi c site that can readily be identi fi ed. Factories and sewage (treatment) ef fl uents are common types of point sources. If industry (including large farms) discharge untreated wastewater directly into waterways, toxic chemicals, excess nutrients, and disease-forming microorgan-isms can result in water pollution harmful to the aquatic environment. Point sources can be extremely damaging to groundwater quality. In general, it takes only small amounts (liters) of organic compounds, such as solvents or oils, to contaminate billions of liters of groundwater reserves. Clean-up actions are often dif fi cult and costly—and sometimes even impossible.

Non-point-source contaminants come from diffuse sources and enter water bodies after rainfall followed by runoff, which picks up any pollutants at ground level. Raindrops may also absorb contaminants from the atmosphere, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, forming acid rain or other toxic compounds from industrial fumes.

4.2.1 Agriculture

Agriculture (livestock and farmland) uses an average of 70% of all freshwater supplies globally (UNESCO 2009 ) . Most water fl ows back to surface water and/or groundwater, where it may be polluted with nutrients, pesticides, pathogens, and salts. Fertilizers, which are usually used in excess, contain nutrient species such as nitrates and phosphates. Pesticides used to increase crop yields and control weeds and insects are often toxic. In livestock farming, (part of the) manure may end up in water fl ows, contributing nutrients in addition to pathogenic microorganisms and pharmaceuticals (e.g., antibiotics).

Excess nutrients in water bodies stimulate the growth of water plants and algae. Changes in the ecosystem may already be occurring at this stage because of the enhanced production of oxygen during photosynthesis and changes in light conditions. Physical and chemical changes may affect the nature of a habitat and its existing biodi-versity, thereby causing a change in the overall ecosystem. Some algae produce toxins that are harmful to higher forms of life, disrupting complete food chains. An overabun-dance of plants and algae leads to oxygen depletion at night, when these organisms also consume oxygen, causing problems for other life forms (e.g., fi sh) that depend on it. If plants and algae die and decay, the problem worsens because of the use of all available oxygen by microorganisms that metabolize the dead plant matter. Fish and other organisms, which depend on the availability of suf fi cient levels of dissolved oxygen, die, leading to dead zones in deep lakes and marine waters, such as the Baltic Sea. This phenomenon—eutrophication—becomes apparent when excess nutrients from agriculture or wastewater enter natural waters, resulting in algal bloom and excessive aquatic plant growth. Efforts to prevent or reverse eutrophication in freshwater typi-cally focus on reducing the amount of phosphate entering the system in runoff waters as phosphate is generally the limiting element for plant growth in natural waters.


4.2.2 Industry

Many industries use freshwater for cooling purposes or for transporting waste from the production site into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Industrial wastewater usually contains speci fi c, readily identi fi able contaminants, mainly organic micropollutants, heavy metals, and a broad range of man-made chemicals, depending on the type of industry.

Industry can be considered the most harmful source of water pollution in the environment. Industry uses and produces chemicals that are extremely hazardous. Pollutants include caustic soda, various acids, petrochemicals, corrosives, chemical toxins, noxious chemicals, lubricants, plastics, and adhesives, among others. Most problematic are heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury) and chlorinated hydrocarbons, in particular the environmentally persistent polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Further details on these compounds are provided in Box 4.2 .

The mix of chemicals used by society is under constant and rapid change. The latest products of interest are nanoparticles, with as-yet unknown health risks. The chemical industry produced some 50,000 chemicals during the last decades, and an additional 500 new chemicals are introduced each year. Some will be used in larger quantities, and a subset will prove to be harmful to human health. These “emerging contaminants” and their by-products fi nd their way into liquid streams and ultimately may enter the aquatic environment. Keeping track of these compounds and making sure that water supplies are kept safe is proving to be a great challenge (Houtman 2010 ) .

It may be surprising to the reader that wastewater from cooling systems is considered a form of pollution. Thermal pollution degrades natural water quality by changing ambient water temperature, causing a drop in dissolved oxygen levels and resulting in adverse effects on existing ecological balances. If these thermal changes are rapid and fl uctuating, the thermal shock can affect organisms that are not adapted to such changes. The end result is a change in local ecosystems and food webs, where some plant and animal species cannot survive and others are favored by the new environmental conditions.

4.2.3 Municipal Sewage

Pollution from municipal sewage (mainly wastewater from households and rain/storm runoff) and associated sanitation systems has been a major challenge for communities worldwide. Although municipal wastewater mainly consists of water (99.9%), the problem is the relatively low concentrations of suspended and dis-solved organic and inorganic solids. The mixture of waste consists of organic sub-stances such as carbohydrates (undigested celluloses and lignin), fats, proteins, soaps, synthetic detergents, and any decomposition products (see Box 4.1 ). The amount of biodegradable organic matter in wastewater is calculated by the biologi-cal oxygen demand (BOD) value, using degrading microorganisms at 20 °C over 5 days. Municipal wastewater may also contain a low concentration of heavy met-als, fuels and oils, insecticides, fi re retardants, and pharmaceuticals (e.g., antibiot-


Box 4.2 Relevant Properties of Heavy Metals and Chlorinated Organics

Heavy metals are natural components of the Earth’s crust. Some—the trace elements (copper, selenium, zinc)—are necessary to support life although in minute amounts. Heavy metals become problematic when present at higher concentrations, and they are most poisonous when dissolved as ionic forms in water. Examples of severe poisons include mercury, cadmium, arsenic, chro-mium, thallium, and lead. If metals bioaccumulate (bioconcentrate, build up) in biological systems, they become a signi fi cant health hazard for the particu-late organism and/or the food chain to which it belongs. Bioaccumulation occurs if organisms excrete or metabolize (break down) compounds at a lower rate than they are taken up. It causes an increase in the concentration of a chemical over time compared to the its concentration in the environment.

Cadmium hazards are present in a number of materials, including paints, batteries, and phosphate fertilizers. Cadmium poisoning leads to a number of chronic ailments, a serious consequence being lung or prostate cancer. Exposure to arsenic at low levels for extended periods of time can cause discoloration of the skin and the appearance of small corns or warts. Hexavalent chromium compounds include chromate pigments in dyes, paints, inks, and plastics. Chromates are also added as anticorrosive agents to paints, primers, and other surface coatings. Repeated or prolonged exposure to hexavalent chromium can damage the mucous membranes of the nasal passages or result in ulcers. It is regarded as carcinogenic to workers. Lead poisoning is also a major potential public health risk; sources include paint and urban dust. Lead poisoning is the leading environmentally induced illness in children because of it interferes with neurological and physical development.

Halogenated organics are hydrocarbons that can have many forms and shapes and have attached chlorine, fl uorine, or bromine atoms. The presence of halogens in these compounds makes them resistant to degradation by micro-organisms, and they persist in the environment long after their release. It is an extensive group of chemicals that are mainly man-made with a complex diversity of properties and biological effects. Dioxins belong in the subgroup of chlorinated organic compounds (chlorocarbons or organochlorides) and have long been recognized as some of the strongest poisons humans have produced. They cause cancer of the liver and lung, interfere with the immune system, and cause malformations in unborn children. Examples of other chlo-rinated organic compounds are trichloroethylene, ethylene dichloride, vinyl chloride, PCBs, chlorobenzene, and many chlorinated solvents, insecticides, and herbicides. Most organochlorides are insoluble in water but soluble in fat, which is the biocompartment in which these compounds bioaccumulate (see heavy metals earlier in this section). The bioaccumulation of DDT caused decimation of fi sh-eating birds as it caused birds’ eggshells to thin to the degree that they were unable to support the weight of the incubating birds.


ics, hormones). It is uncertain whether these compounds have (in any combination) direct measurable effects on the health of humans. This knowledge is essential, as rivers usually contain wastewater discharged upstream, whereas downstream water inlets may be used by a drinking water treatment plant .

It is also important to determine whether wastewater can be safely used directly in agriculture as an alternative water supply. This would be quite an advantageous undertaking in view of the many areas with drought problems. In this context, the contaminants of greatest concern are disease-causing microorganisms (e.g., viruses, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella ), protozoa ( Entamoeba histolytica ), and parasitic worms (e.g., Ascaris lumbricoides , hookworms). The presence of E. coli is the most widely adopted indicator of fecal pollution. As various pathogenic organisms can survive in the environment for a long time and may even proliferate under certain circumstances, wastewater must be treated in such a manner that their numbers are low before it can be considered safe enough for use in agricul-ture. Studies in developing countries have shown that the use of untreated waste-water to irrigate agricultural crops has caused the transmission of cholera bacteria or parasitic worms (diseases endemic among the population) via uncooked food (Shuval et al. 1986 ) . Precautions are thus absolutely essential when investigating the routes of recycling wastewater.

Most of the world’s fastest growing cities have inadequate wastewater infra-structures, and the separation maintained between disposed human excreta and the source of drinking water is inadequate. In fact, more than 80% of the world’s wastewater is discharged untreated into the environment. Because wastewater is an excellent transport medium for human pathogens, lack of proper wastewater management has a direct effect on child mortality, human health, and labor productivity.

Wastewater management is thus a key component of health risk management, and when done properly there are numerous associated environmental bene fi ts. The value of the quality of biological diversity in aquatic ecosystems is closely linked to services on which local communities and economies depend. A wide range of sec-tors—from property markets to food production ( fi sheries), industry, and tourism—depend on a sustainable environment and a healthy community. Although investment in wastewater management generates signi fi cant returns, with bene fi t-to-cost ratios as high as 7:1 for basic water and sanitation services in developing countries (OECD 2011 ) , it is not always easy to calculate the value of these bene fi ts. The economic valuation of sustainable development should take into account the dependence of other economic activities on a local ecosystem of good quality. Using shadow pricing, the negative cost to the environment and economy can be estimated for the dis-charge of speci fi c contaminants (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus). Subsequently, rational and economic judgments can be made on necessary investments. Figure 4.1 shows that investments to improve basic access to a safe water source and sanitation can have a signi fi cant return on health and increased productivity. It also demonstrates the differences in the impact of these investments on human health in different regions of the world.


4.3 Actions

4.3.1 Water Pollution Prevention

Protection of water resources is a key activity in environmental conservation efforts worldwide. Because water resources and valuable natural habitats do not respect boundaries or national borders, joint actions are necessary to ensure effective care of these areas and resources. A prime activity is prevention of pollution in surface waters and underground reservoirs. Intervention to reduce risks is possible at the international, national, and local community levels. Laws and regulations help pre-vent and reduce water pollution incidents, and local level community initiatives can make a difference. Legislation dealing with water pollution and quality control exists at national, European, and international levels. Together, these regulations are designed to safeguard or minimize economic, social, and public health risks from pollution. These forms of legislation differ from those governing the quality of water supplied by (public) utilities for human consumption, washing, or other uses. For example, the Drinking Water Directive (1998/83/EC) sets quality standards for tap water and imposes regular monitoring activities.

Fig. 4.1 Wastewater, health, and human well-being—investing in water supply and sanitation ( Source: UNEP/GRID-Arendal, http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/wastewater-health-and-human-well-being-investing-in-water-supply-and-sanitation_120c )

http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/wastewater-health-and-human-well-being-investing-in-water-supply-and-sanitation_120c

http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/wastewater-health-and-human-well-being-investing-in-water-supply-and-sanitation_120c


The European Union (EU) determined that water pollution control was a prior-ity at its First Action Programme on the Environment in 1973. Since then, the EU has passed several directives to reduce and control pollution in European waters. The EU is also a signatory to international agreements to prevent pollution of international aquatic ecosystems. Through the years these directives have been repealed, revised, or combined. Current relevant legislation comprises the follow-ing directives.

Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (1991/271/EEC). It is concerned with the • collection, treatment, and discharge of wastewater from domestic sources and certain industrial sectors. Nitrates Directive (1991/676/EEC). It aims to protect water quality across Europe • by preventing nitrates from agricultural sources polluting ground and surface waters and by promoting the use of good farming practices. Water Framework Directive (WFD, 2000/60/EC). It commits EU member states • to achieve good qualitative and quantitative status of all water bodies (including marine waters up to 1 nautical mile from shore) by 2015. The WFD also requires the phasing out or substantial reductions in the discharge of hazardous substances to water bodies. Bathing Waters Directive (2006/7/EC). It aims to preserve, protect, and improve • the quality of the environment and to protect human health. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive (IPPC, 2008/1/EC). It is a • legislative instrument that addresses integrated pollution prevention and control of industrial emissions. Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD, 2008/56/EC). It directs member • states to take the necessary measures to achieve or maintain good environmental status in the marine environment by 2020 at the latest. The MSFD seemed to overlap with the WFD. Therefore, it was determined that coastal waters, includ-ing their seabeds and subsoil, are an integral part of the marine environment and so should be covered by the MSFD—but only insofar as particular aspects of the environmental status of the marine environment are not already addressed through the WFD.

In addition to legislative tools, “best practices” should be implemented to prevent or mitigate pollution of water resources. For industry, best practices include reducing the use of hazardous synthetic chemicals or replacing them with less harmful com-pounds; modifying pollution-producing processes; recovering and recycling excess raw materials that end up in the waste stream; and minimizing water usage in waste streams.

Community and individual initiatives can also make a signi fi cant contribution to protecting the environment and supporting optimal operation of the wastewater treatment plant. Here are some suggestions.

Use low-phosphate detergents, as increased phosphate levels in the environment • are a prime cause of eutrophication. Do not fl ush down the drain solid wastes, such as tissue paper and trash. Use the • trash bin instead.


Make sure that household wastes or other items (e.g., motor oil, paint) do not end • up in the sewer. Use dry methods fi rst for a spill cleanup or when cleaning an area with water. • Limit or refrain from using herbicides and pesticides. • Join efforts in recycling wastes (e.g., grease, oil) and other discarded products. • Make use of a compost unit for organic household waste. • In case leakage is suspected or a septic tank does not operate normally, check the • integrity of the sewage system in and around the house.

4.3.2 Water Pollution Control (Wastewater Treatment)

Even if the best possible measures have been taken to avoid pollution of water resources and reduce the amount of wastewater, there will always be sewage that needs to be treated before it can be safely released into the environment. The direct disposal of wastewater into natural waters compromises human health and damages other life forms in the natural environment. Indeed, this happens too often: An esti-mated 2.6 billion people lack access to adequate sanitation. Although the Millennium Development Goals call for halving the number of people without access to improved sanitation by 2015, it is clear that current efforts are inadequate (WHO/UNICEF 2010 ) .

Septic tanks : In the developed world, individual households without connection to a sewage system are generally required to employ a septic tank or similar method of treatment (Fig. 4.2 ). The simplest designs merely consist of a concrete box of one or many cubic meters where incoming sewage mixes with previously stored con-tent. Dirt and solids settle in the lower parts of the septic tank, where anaerobic bacteria decompose organic matter, releasing methane and carbon dioxide. The vol-ume of solid waste is signi fi cantly reduced during this process; therefore, it is neces-sary only periodically to pump out indigestible remains. The separated liquid sewage, containing only water and dissolved contaminants, usually fl ows out of the tank through a pipe into a drain fi eld (the optimal situation) or a ditch. Because of the presence of oxygen, aerobic microorganisms are then able to thrive on the remain-ing soluble organic materials in the ef fl uent and break them down to simple com-pounds that can be taken up and used by plants. The more advanced systems employ additional steps, such as a sand fi lter and an isolated plant bed to further purify the ef fl uent. If only greywater (water from washing dishes, showering, other washing activities) is treated in such a system, it is safe enough for regular reuse. Modern septic tanks have mixers and air pumps installed and use separate compartments for the settling, anaerobic degradation, and aerobic degradation phases.

Wastewater treatment plants : In areas where many people live in close proximity, it is sensible to provide a system for collecting and transporting wastewater via a sewage system to a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Here, wastewater is pro-cessed using mechanical, physical, biological, and chemical methods. The WWTP is designed in such a way that suspended solids, biodegradable organic matter,


nutrients, pathogenic microorganisms, and other pollutants are removed using cost-effective methods. The WWTP is held to standards set by local or national agencies. They include maximum allowable concentrations of a range of pollutants. Figure 4.3 represents a typical conventional municipal WWTP.

When the raw sewage arrives at the WWTP, large objects (e.g., pebbles, sticks, rags) are fi rst removed using a coarse grid or screens. However, solids such as tampons, sani-tary napkins, diapers, plastic disposables, and small materials are also becoming com-monplace in the waste stream. Therefore, a grinder (also known as a comminutor) is used to reduce the particle size and prevent blocking of downstream rotary equipment and nozzles. A grit chamber is then employed to catch sand, gravel, and other small heavy materials. Together with the debris from the grid and screens, these solids are disposed of at a land fi ll or, less commonly, sent to a recycling facility.

The wastewater then fl ows into a primary clari fi er, or settling tank, for a few hours to separate solids (sinking to the bottom) and greases ( fl oating on top). This

Fig. 4.3 Biological, physical and chemical processes in a wastewater treatment plant

Fig. 4.2 Advanced septic tank and wastewater treatment system ( Source: Adopted from Hans Lönn, Fastighetsanalys, Älg)


primary treatment removes approximately 50% of the organic matter in the form of sludge, which may contain various contaminants and pathogenic bacteria. An anaerobic digester is then used to treat the sludge, employing a community of anaer-obic bacteria to convert the organic materials through subsequent steps into water, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and a small amount of indigestible materials. The biogas that is produced in this process can be used by the WWTP as energy source. The remaining material, when fi ltered, squeezed, pressed, or centrifuged, is called biosolids. The product is generally safe enough to be used as fertilizer and land fi ll, or it can be incinerated.

The wastewater subsequently fl ows as “primary ef fl uent” into an aeration tank, where a secondary treatment takes place. Aerobic bacteria, which are added in the form of “activated sludge,” degrade and convert the organic matter present in the wastewater stream into simpler inorganic substances (e.g., carbon dioxide, nitrate, phosphate). Compressed air is mixed in the aeration tank to ensure the presence of suf fi cient oxygen to stimulate the growth and digestive power of the microorgan-isms at work. This biological step, which removes up to 85% of organic materials, is a key phase in wastewater treatment and the operational success of the WWTP depends on it. For this reason, it is important to understand that noxious substances (e.g., solvents, oils) or chemicals (e.g., pharmaceuticals) that would kill the micro-organisms should not be fl ushed down the drain or enter the sewage system.

If denitri fi cation (removal of nitrate) is necessary or required, aeration can be omitted in a special zone of the tank. The oxygen concentration quickly drops, and denitrify-ing bacteria convert nitrate to gaseous nitrogen, which escapes into the atmosphere.

The wastewater stream, now called “secondary ef fl uent” (containing microor-ganisms, coagulated materials, inorganic salts, water), is sent to the “secondary clari fi er.” Some of the phosphate in the original wastewater has already been removed in the sludge fraction, but excess phosphate in the solution can be removed by a process called enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) or through (costly) chemical precipitation with calcium or iron ions. With the EPBR process, polyphosphate-accumulating organisms are selectively enriched and lower the phosphate concentration in the wastewater. These microorganisms also accumulate carbon in the form of polyhydroxyalkanoate polymers, a useful raw material for bioplastic (discussed at the end of the chapter).

Part of the sludge from the secondary clari fi er is recycled to the aeration tank as “activated sludge.” The rest of sludge is treated in combination with sludge from the primary treatment. The remaining water must then be disinfected to kill pathogenic microorganisms before it is released into the environment. Although numerous methods are available to kill microorganisms, chlorine and ultraviolet disinfection are most commonly used. Following disinfection, the treated wastewater can be discharged into receiving surface waters.

Industrial wastewater treatment : Wastewater generated from industrial operations has distinctive characteristics and should not be treated in municipal WWTPs because of the presence of nonbiodegradable or even toxic compounds. Some indus-tries produce wastewaters that are either highly acidic or highly alkaline, or they contain high levels of heavy metals or high concentrations of oils, detergents, salts,


complex organic chemicals, and so on. It is clear that the widely variable characteristics of industrial wastewaters requires a variety of technological solutions. Advanced treatments and/or processes are usually employed (e.g., activated carbon adsorp-tion, membrane fi ltration, chemical oxidation, ion exchange), but description of these methods is beyond the scope of this chapter.

4.4 Challenges

The conventional treatment of wastewater focuses on the removal of unwanted sub-stances and on returning water into the environment only after pollutants have been removed and the ef fl uent is safe enough to cause no harm. Contaminating sub-stances in municipal waste are broken down into inorganic molecules that escape as gaseous molecules (e.g., carbon dioxide, nitrogen) or reach such low concentrations (e.g., nitrate, phosphate) that the ef fl uent can safely be discharged into surface waters. It has taken more than a century to develop, use, and try to perfect this general approach to contaminants removal.

In the developed world, each household produces around a ton of rubbish each year. The amount of discarded materials continues to increase because of the grow-ing global population, increasing wealth, and changing lifestyles (reliance on con-venience foods and the short life-span of consumer goods). A growing environmental problem is the fact that an ever-greater proportion of discarded materials does not break down easily. Although current world economies depend on expanding pro-duction capacities, it is also realized that some raw materials (e.g., metals, forests, oil) are becoming limiting factors. Shortages of raw materials can be postponed or avoided only if serious thought is given to the possibilities of reuse and recycling technologies. There are many reasons for promoting research and development and for investing in recycling technologies, such as to save raw materials, reduce costs, protect the environment, and develop sustainable production methods.

It is for these reasons that the EU is funding scienti fi c research to investigate pos-sibilities for the recycling of water, nutrients, and raw materials from wastewater. Other valuable products that can be recovered from wastewater include energy (heat, electricity, oil, methane) and bioplastics. The following paragraphs examine some of the options available for recovering these hidden values in wastewater. Some technologies have been realized in practice, whereas others need further research to ascertain their economic value and contribution to sustainability.

4.4.1 Need to Recycle Water

Europe is, by and large, considered to have adequate water resources; indeed, only a relatively small portion of the total renewable water resources is used in Europe each year. However, there are regional differences because the natural water supply


and people are unevenly distributed. In many areas of Europe, water scarcity is a problem of growing importance and magnitude. Scarcity refers to long-term imbal-ances when water demand exceeds the supply capacity of the natural system. High population densities, intensive agriculture, or water-demanding industries cause water stress in areas with low rainfall and high temperatures.

An interesting idea is the concept of “embedded water.” This method highlights the amount of water used to grow, process, package, transport, and use a product. Embedded water is also referred to as “virtual water.” Examples of estimates are: one sheet of A4 paper (10 L), one cup of coffee (140 L), one cotton T-shirt (4,100 L). Note that these estimates could vary and have different effects at different loca-tions. For example, growing wheat and brewing beer in Italy uses more water (evaporation) and is more problematic than in Scotland, where suf fi cient water will be available.

By using embedded water numbers for a large range of products, it is possible to calculate the “water footprint” of an individual, a community, industries, or even nations. The water footprint concept was introduced in 2002 by Hoekstra from UNESCO-IHE (Chapagain and Hoekstra 2004 ) as an alternative indicator of water use. The footprint may vary according to lifestyle, type of products produced, or the level of development. The water footprint of U.S. citizens is 2,840 m 3 per year, whereas a Chinese individual uses only 1,070 m 3 .

A high (calculated) water footprint value does not automatically indicate negative effects on the environment or on water resources. High footprint values may present no problem for Norway but are out of the question for southern Italy. Another com-plicating factor is that many countries import part of their water footprint, meaning that water-intensive goods come from elsewhere. This puts pressure on the water resources in the exporting regions. Too often quality water management mecha-nisms and environmental conservation regulations are lacking in these countries.

Figure 4.4 shows that the southern regions of Europe experience quantitative water stress mainly because of climatological circumstances and because water withdrawals are dominated by a water-hungry agriculture-based economy. In con-trast, in densely populated regions around Belgium, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, water stress exists because of the high demands from industry and house-holds and increased pollution of available water resources (qualitative stress).

The European Environment Outlook (EEA 2005 ) documented the future devel-opment of water use in Europe, taking into account the effects of economic, demo-graphic, and technological developments as well as the in fl uence of climate change and agriculture on European water resources. Water withdrawals are expected to decrease by about 11% across the Europe-30 region by 2030, to <275 km³, whereas in southern Europe irrigated areas are predicted to expand. Thus, in combination with reduced precipitation because of climate change, water usage is expected to increase by more than 10%.

For the rest of the world, similar arguments point toward increased water scarcity for densely populated regions and for regions that face prolonged drought periods due to climate change. During the twentieth century the world population increased fourfold, but the amount of freshwater that it used increased ninefold.


It is estimated that nine countries hold 60% of the world’s usable freshwater reserves: Brazil, Canada, China, Columbia, Democratic Republic of Congo, India, Indonesia, Russia, United States. In 1997, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) projected that more than 2.8 billion people in 48 countries will face water stress or scarcity conditions by 2025, and that most of these countries are found in West Asia, North Africa, or sub-Saharan Africa. By 2050, a total of four billion people (40% of the expected world population) in 54 countries could be facing water stress or scarcity (Gardner-Outlaw and Engleman 1997 ; UNFPA 1997 ) . Since that projection, these numbers have increased according to other projections and future analyses prepared by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFFPRI 2011 ) . Indeed, there is a water crisis today. There is, however, suf fi cient water to satisfy our needs: More ef fi cient water management and implementation of sustain-able methodologies can at least reduce the risks and challenges from severe water scarcity for more than a billion people.

How can access to freshwater be secured when and where it is needed, and how can the competing demands for freshwater from the environment, agriculture, indus-try, and households be more effectively managed? The challenges to use water in more sustainable ways can be outlined as follows: (1) water-saving practices for households, industry, and agriculture; (2) strict conservation of natural resources; (3) improved (international) management of water resources; (4) ef fi cient distribu-tion systems and development of water recycling and recovery methodologies. The last challenge constitutes a prime focus for wastewater treatment plants because reuse of wastewater provides a valuable, massive source of water that currently is usually lost to surface waters and evaporation or to rivers and ultimately the sea.

Fig. 4.4 Water stress in European river basins during 2000 and under the Long Range Energy Modeling scenario (LREM-E) by 2030 ( Source: European Environment Agency, http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/ fi gures/water-stress-in-europe-2000-and-2030 )

http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/water-stress-in-europe-2000-and-2030

http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/water-stress-in-europe-2000-and-2030


A concomitant bene fi t is a reduced pollution load in the natural water environment by declining amounts of (treated) wastewater discharges.

Treated and reclaimed wastewater can be recycled or reused. A note must be made here on a point of terminology: Wastewater recycling refers to the use of treated waste-water for the same industrial process from which it originated. It often occurs in indus-tries with high water demands. Requirements for wastewater reuse depend on its application and can be totally different from its previous use. Properly treated waste-water that meets certain standards can be reused for the purpose for which the stan-dards were designed, ranging from water for irrigation to bottled drinking water.

To date, no European directive exists to regulate wastewater treatment plants to meet speci fi c technical requirements or to control the environmental quality of the treated wastewater that is discharged. However, the European Water Framework Directive (WFD, 2000/60/EC) calls for the implementation of a range of measures by member states to develop sustainable water management processes. It is expected that further implementation of the WFD will support and stimulate the reclamation of water from municipal wastewater for reuse on a larger scale.

A number of other European Directives address water reuse efforts in a general way. Whereas the WFD stated that “indirect water reuse for potable supplies is com-mon practice in Europe,” the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD) mentioned in Article 12 that “treated wastewater should be reused whenever appro-priate.” The Integrated Pollution Prevention Control directive (IPPC) also encour-aged wastewater reuse. Therefore, only the UWWTD speci fi cally stated that member states should reuse treated wastewater “whenever appropriate.” This article is par-ticularly important as it is the fi rst of fi cial EU statement where water reuse is acknowledged as a valuable resource. Up to now, however, the term “appropriate” lacks a legal de fi nition.

Despite the fact that no guidelines or regulations exist at the EU level, several member states or even autonomous regions have issued their own standards or regu-lations and have implemented wastewater reuse practices designed to meet local needs (Bixio et al. 2006 ) . In other member states, economic need is not (yet) thought to be high enough, or budgetary limitations overshadow the bene fi ts of upgrading wastewater treatment schemes for water reuse. In a study on wastewater reuse in Europe, Bixio et al. ( 2006 ) concluded that:

“In order fully to tap the signi fi cant potential for water reuse, clearer institutional arrange-ments, economic instruments, and water reuse guidelines are very much needed (top-down approach); technological innovation and the establishment of a best practice framework will help, but there can be few more pressing and critical goals than to produce a change in the underlying stakeholders’ perception of the water cycle (bottom-up approach).”

The European Commission (EC) has funded a range of scienti fi c research projects that have a focus on wastewater reuse (see Box 4.3 ). In the southern European countries, a sharp increase in water reuse practices is expected in the near future, in line with water stress expectations, as published by the European Environment Agency (2007) (see Fig. 4.4 ). The following sections describe the needs, bene fi ts, risks, and required technologies for various applications of wastewater reuse.


Box 4.3 Relevant European Funded Research Projects on Wastewater Reuse

Acronym Title Funding period

VIVACE Vital and viable services for natural resource management in Latin America

FP7

REFRESH Adaptive strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change on European freshwater ecosystems

FP7

RECLAIM WATER

Water reclamation technologies for safe arti fi cial groundwa-ter recharge

FP6

AQUASTRESS Mitigation of water stress through new approaches to integrating management, technical, economic, and institutional instruments

FP6

WATER REUSE Sustainable wastewater recycling technologies for irrigated land in NIS and southern European states

FP6

CORETECH Development of cost-effective reclamation technologies for domestic wastewater and the appropriate agricultural use of the treated ef fl uent under (semi-) arid climate conditions

FP5

MED-REUNET Mediterranean network on wastewater reclamation and reuse FP5 REINTRO Reuse of industrial mineral waste for wastewater treatment

and improvement of land fi lls FP5

WAM-ME Water resources management under drought conditions: criteria and tools for conjunctive use of conventional and marginal waters in Mediterranean regions

FP5

POSEIDON Assessment of technologies for the removal of pharmaceuti-cals and personal care products in sewage and drinking water facilities to improve indirect potable water reuse

FP5

AQUAREC Integrated concepts for reuse of upgraded wastewater FP5 SWIMED Sustainable water management in Mediterranean coastal

aquifers: recharge assessment and modeling issues FP5

COLD WSPS Development of low-cost methods for treatment and reuse of drainage and urban wastewater by adaptation of waste stabilization ponds for extreme continental climates

FP4

CATCHWATER Enhancement of integrated water management strategies with water reuse at a catchment scale

FP4

WASSER Utilization of groundwater desalination and wastewater reuse in the water supply of seasonally stressed regions

FP4

Note : Consult the European Cordis Internet site for further details ( www.cordis.lu )

4.4.2 Applications for Wastewater Reuse

Urban applications : Industries and authorities are seeking solutions for sustainable water management as a key element of sustainable urban development. The key challenges are water conservation, minimizing wastewater production, and fi nding

http://www.cordis.lu


alternative water sources instead of using drinking water for all uses. The bulk of the water used in urban environments does not need to be of the highest achievable quality. Advanced methods of water reuse can thus follow the “ fi t for purpose” rule—an appropriate water quality for its intended usage. Sustainable developments therefore play an important role in limiting water consumption and dependence on natural resources, reduction of pollution load, and maximizing dynamic water reuse in the urban environment.

Treated wastewater can be reused for variety of applications, ranging from irriga-tion of public parks and sports fi elds to fi re protection to toilet fl ushing in buildings with greywater facilities. Potential alternative water sources include rainwater (reasonable quality), stormwater runoff (moderate quality), greywater (wastewater from laundry, the shower, and dishwashers—the waste is of low quality because of the variable content of organic pollutants although few pathogens), and blackwater (lowest quality—to be collected in a sewage system). To upgrade water quality, treatment is usually required to remove pollutants, but selection of an alternative water source is a priority before making the choice and evaluating water treatment technologies. The complete process is termed the “integrated water cycle management strategy.”

In many cases there is no infrastructure present to collect wastewater fl ows sepa-rate from the sewage system, and the choice to save drinking water would lead to using treated wastewater from a conventional WWTP. A reliable treatment is then

Fig. 4.5 Indirect reuse of wastewater ef fl uents is common practice, as shown by this schematic representation


essential to ensure minimization of health risks, primarily associated with exposure to pathogenic microorganisms. In this respect, higher standards are generally required because there is the potential for human exposure to pathogens to increase when using WWTP ef fl uents. Pathogenic organisms in waterways can be classi fi ed as viruses, bacteria, and parasites (protozoa and parasitic worms). For risk assess-ment, pathogens must be characterized and quantitatively evaluated using indicative species tests for each type of organism.

Whatever technologically sound solution and practices are chosen, public opinion has a strong in fl uence on the success of integrated water cycle management strategies. The use of treated wastewater is more readily accepted in areas that experience severe droughts regularly and when used for toilet fl ushing and outdoor use. Acceptance is reduced when reused water comes closer to human ingestion, such as for washing laundry and certainly when used as drinking water (Po et al. 2004 ) . Public awareness and education has proven essential for adoption of any water reuse project.

Drinking water : Direct use of treated wastewater for potable reuse is not yet implemented in Europe. However, facilities exist at other locations in the world, proving that the possibility for it in Europe at some future time cannot be excluded. A widely quoted example is direct water reclamation from domestic sewage, a sys-tem pioneered in 1968 at the Goreangab Reclamation Plant in Windhoek, Namibia. Reused water augments the potable water supply to the city, especially during droughts (Haarhoff and Van der Merwe 1996 ) .

The conventional WWTP at Gamams supplies its ef fl uent to the physically sepa-rated Goreangab potable water-producing plant. At the WWTP, industrial and other potentially toxic wastewater is kept away from the main municipal wastewater stream for the purpose of producing an ef fl uent of adequate, consistent high quality. Conventional wastewater treatment technologies such as clari fi cation, sand fi ltration, and the use of activated carbon rely on physical contact and adsorption, and these steps do not reliably exclude small particles such as viruses and microorganisms.

It is therefore important to employ a multibarrier treatment sequence at the Goreangab plant to safeguard removal of all pathogens. The relevant steps include the use of further chlorination steps, ozonation, and membrane fi ltration. Membrane fi ltration is now used as a fi nal step to ensure total, reliable removal of microorganisms. Membranes cannot be used to remove other pollutants. In fact, organic compounds and metal precipitates are critical foulants in ultra fi ltration and decrease ef fi ciency (because of increased maintenance) of the reclamation process at the plant.

The operation and experiences of the Windhoek facilities are seen as a great suc-cess and stimulation for other arid and semi-arid regions in the world. It has been shown that: (1) by using proper technologies it is possible to produce drinking water of consistent quality from municipal wastewater, (2) these technologies can be used in less developed countries, and (3) consumers accept wastewater reclamation for direct potable purposes if properly informed.

Another interesting case is the Singapore Water Reclamation Study (NEWater Study), initiated in 1998 by Singapore’s national water agency (PUB) and the


Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR). Singapore does not have a dry climate, in fact quite the contrary; but it lacks natural rivers or lakes to store water, resulting in rapid loss of freshwater to the sea. Because the inhabitants rely heavily on imported water, the fi rst wastewater reclaiming plant was initiated in 2001 to increase water supply from unconventional sources for nonpotable use only, freeing up large amounts of drinking water. Currently, NEWater meets the requirements to distribute its reclaimed wastewater as branded potable “NEWater” via Singapore’s water utility to the tap (Fig. 4.6 ). The technology used includes conventional domestic wastewater treatment, followed by an additional three-step puri fi cation process: dual-membrane micro fi ltration, reverse osmosis, ultraviolet treatment. This ultra-clean water, known as NEWater in Singapore, is used by industries for wafer fabrication and air cooling purposes. A small percentage of NEWater (about 2.5% of the country’s daily water needs) is blended with regular reservoir water and undergoes conventional treatment at the waterworks before being supplied to homes. In May 2010, the fi fth (and to date largest) NEWater water-reclaiming plant was opened. The Singapore government has con fi dence in the technology and decided to let the 1961 water-import contracts with neighboring Malaysia expire in 2011 and 2061.

The indirect reuse of wastewater is a well-established practice that is easily overlooked. Wastewater treatment plants can discharge treated ef fl uents into surface waters, natural waters, and rivers if the requirements regulations are met. At down-stream locations the (diluted) wastewater, however, may be used at the inlet of a drinking water treatment plant (Fig. 4.5 ). In the Thames River basin, for example, water is abstracted, treated for use as drinking water, subsequently collected as wastewater, and treated in WWTPs to be returned to the river basin. This cycle can be repeated up to three times before the Thames fl ows into the North Sea.

Fig. 4.6 Bottled ultra-clean NEWater reclaimed from a Singapore wastewater treatment plant ( Source: Singapore National Water Agency)


This unplanned reuse method contrasts with intentional reuse, where WWTP ef fl uents are either injected directly into existing aquifers (groundwater reserves) or indirectly recharge the aquifer through surface spreading (supplementing natural rainfall). There are bene fi ts to the active recharging of aquifers compared to surface waters or reservoirs: negligible evaporation, limited chances of contamination, no eutrophication, and low costs. Aquifers are sometimes also arti fi cially recharged with excess surface water to augment groundwater supplies or to protect groundwater from saltwater intrusion in coastal regions.

A number of important guidelines should be recognized when using WWTP ef fl uents for recharging groundwater resources. Pollutants that are introduced into aquifers may have long-term effects, and for this reason strict controls should be ensured at the inlet. A distinction can be made between direct recharge through injection wells, indirect recharge through surface spreading, and potable and nonpo-table aquifers. The method of recharge and the quality of the recharging water should meet all the requirements for the intended use of the aquifer.

The Dan Region Wastewater Reclamation Project in Israel is a well-known and acclaimed example of indirect wastewater reuse. The project has been successful and has produced water of high quality since 1977 (Icekson-Tal et al. 2003 ) . Wastewater from the Tel Aviv–Jaffa region, with a population of 1.3 million, is treated and recharged into groundwater supplies via surface spreading in sand basins. The groundwater, although of drinking water quality, is used exclusively for irrigation purposes in the Negev Desert.

The European research project Reclaim Water: Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Arti fi cial Groundwater Recharge was funded from 2005 to 2008 under the Sixth Framework Programme (FP6). The strategic objective of the project was to develop hazard mitigation technologies for water reclamation, providing safe and cost-effective routes for arti fi cial groundwater recharge. The project performed studies on eight pilot or full-scale test sites (Australia, Belgium, China, Israel, Italy, South Africa, Spain, Mexico) for the overall performance of the aquifers when recharging treated municipal wastewater and/or stormwater. More than 50 basic wastewater parameters and contaminants were monitored. The project enabled conclusions on a range of parameters: comparisons between the effect of WWTP technologies, different recharge methods, different geological conditions, implications of economic differences (devel-oping and developed countries). A full report is available from: www. reclaim.org.

Reclaiming water for use in agriculture is one of the most promising concepts as this sector accounts for 70% of all freshwater withdrawals in the world (UNESCO 2009 ) . Agriculture is thus by far the largest consumer of water. All of this water, which is used for irrigation, is extracted from natural resources (surface and ground-water) and therefore directly competes with other users, including the environment. It is important to note, however, that irrigated agriculture accounts for only 20% of the world’s cultivated land. Fully rain-fed agriculture is practiced more widely, although average crop returns are lower.

The need to feed a growing world population is increasingly dependent on improved access to freshwater. How can food production increase with expected stiffer competition for available water resources? Solutions must come from a variety


of strategies and improvements that result in “more crop per drop.” The challenges include increased crop yields using new varieties (drought-resistant crops), better agronomic practices (denser crop growth, precision agriculture using satellite imag-ery), improved ef fi ciency of water usage (reduce loss via evaporation or drainage—drip irrigation), and reuse of various types of wastewater.

There are a number of bene fi ts associated with promoting wastewater reuse in a sustainable agriculture water management system: (1) conservation and ef fi cient allocation of freshwater resources; (2) reduction of pollution load via WWTPs to receiving water bodies; (3) reduced requirements of chemical fertilizers and the associated reduction in industrial water and energy for their production usage. As already stated, it is important to ensure that any wastewater stream used for irri-gation meets proper health standards. In particular, the risk of pathogen transmission via crops and their products must be minimized. Prior treatment must be adequate and regularly monitored to ensure that the reused water is suited for its intended use. In addition, care must be taken that the nutrient composition (nitrogen, phosphorus) of the reused water is in agreement with the growth requirements of the target crops.

France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain use reclaimed water for irrigation pur-poses, and one of the largest such projects has been in operation in Limagne, France since 1996. Here, ef fl uents from a WWTP in Clermont-Ferrand resulted in saving 2.5–4.0 million cubic meters for 51 farms, covering 750 ha (Riou 1996 ) . In Spain, the Santa Cristina d’Aro golf course at the Costa Brava has used treated wastewater since 1989 (Mujeriego et al. 2000 ) .

Water recycling in industry : Reclaiming water for use in agriculture can be a pro fi table activity as it amounts to approximately 25% of global freshwater with-drawals. UNESCO further estimates that annual water usage by industry will increase by more than 50% between 1995 and 2025 (UNESCO 2009 ) . Industries are therefore encouraged to invest in higher ef fi ciency of water use and to consider recycling technologies with the added bene fi t of pollution reduction and possibly recovery of valuable raw materials. In some cases, heat can be recycled or even commercialized for residential usage.

Industrial wastewater may contain all waterborne wastes from industrial or com-mercial facilities except sewage. The quantity and quality is highly variable and depends on a range of factors: the raw materials used, the industrial process employed (e.g., heating or cooling, washing, fi ltration, solvent or transport, chemical reactions, additives), the number of reuse cycles. Before planning the reuse of water for a cer-tain industrial process, it is important to identify, assess, understand, and properly manage any risks involved. Industries may recycle water only on-site, use more water than can be recycled, or share the cleaned water with others. Risk analyses are there-fore more complex than for a WWTP that treats municipal waste. If reactive chemi-cals or microbiological, physical, or radioactive pollutants are involved, short- and long-term exposure scenarios may be required. Risk assessments generally use source water quality and proposed end uses as references, but other aspects including supply, handling, collection, and storage are equally important.

The paper and cellulose industry, for example, uses vast amounts of water and is under increasing pressure to improve the ef fi ciency of its water consumption. Many


toxic chemicals are used in paper-making, especially toxic solvents and chlorine compounds used to bleach and delignify pulp. Additional toxins are used as biocides to prevent bacterial growth in the pulp and fi nished paper products. The wastewater typically contains large amounts of cellulose pulp, which is usually treated biologically. Although the quality of the ef fl uent may be good enough for disposal, it does not have suf fi cient quality to be reused in the paper-making pro-cess. Novel techniques to purify wastewater further involve the use of membrane fi ltration combined with electrostatic repulsion (to maintain the permeability of the membranes) and membrane bioreactors, which combine conventional biological treatment processes with membrane fi ltration. After such treatments, the wastewater can be reused as process water (Tenno and Paulapuro 1999 ) .

Within the Seventh Framework Programme, the European Commission has funded the Aqua fi t4Use project to develop new, reliable, cost-effective technologies, tools, and methods to maintain a sustainable water supply for use and discharge in the paper, chemical, textile, and food industries. AquaFit4Use tries to give clear answers to a number of questions: (1) What are the right water qualities in the various processes in the target industries? (2) How can these water qualities be produced and maintained? (3) How can these water qualities be monitored and con-trolled? (4) What are the effects of using a different water quality?

The European Commission also funded the research project Innowatech (innova-tive and integrated technologies for the treatment of industrial wastewater) during the earlier Sixth Framework Programme. Innowatech reported on the potential of several emerging technologies for the treatment of industrial wastewater containing food waste, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and recalcitrant leachates (Lopez et al. 2011 ) . Relevant advancements were achieved in the area of membrane-based waste-water-reuse technologies. In addition to the recovery of water, membranes sometimes also enable the recovery of pollutants, which are often raw materials from the indus-trial process that generated the wastewater. Synthetic membranes with different pore sizes are used for distinct fi ltration techniques, as can be seen in Fig. 4.7 .

It is clear that membrane technologies have great potential for a wide variety of water treatment technologies. The European Commission has therefore funded sev-eral research projects to support innovations and developments of product-recovery techniques (see Box 4.4 ). The recovery of water of any quality is always possible using ultra fi ltration techniques, but the costs for large volumes are high. Techniques can, however, be cost-effective for recovering drinking water in certain regions, such as through the use of desalination processes. In addition, there are good pros-pects for the recovery of valuable products from industrial wastewater.

4.4.3 Reuse of Nutrients

Nutrients are chemical substances found in the environment that plants need for growing and surviving. Plants are the basic food source for animal food chains. The chemical composition of the human body is similar to that of other mammals, and


the dietary requirements are about the same. Most what is ingested as complex biomolecules is converted into energy and some into body mass. Among the surplus and waste products from humans that end up in the sewer, nitrogen and phosphorus are the main elements of interest, as they are primary nutrients for plants, thereby closing the circle.

Human waste contributes about 80% of the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in domestic sewage. Nitrogen and phosphorus appear in different chemical forms in wastewater, respectively nitrate ( −

3NO ), nitrite ( −2NO ), ammonia ( +

4NH ), organic nitrogen (mainly proteins in decaying materials), orthophosphate ( −3

4PO in detergents), and organic phosphate. If wastewater with high concentrations of nitro-gen and phosphorus were released into the environment, eutrophication would occur because the nutrients would stimulate excessive growth of algae and aquatic plants. When these come to the end of their life cycle, rotting processes result in oxygen depletion and concomitant suffocation of higher organisms (e.g., fi sh).

In the European Union countries, a number of directives have been implemented to mitigate such problems. National legislation of member states requires removal of nutri-ents from sewage before treated wastewater can be discharged. Nevertheless, in natural water bodies, wastewater still constitutes the main origin and source of nutrients, although at lower levels than in the past. Another concern is that valuable nutrients, which are removed from wastewater, are lost in the atmosphere (N) or land fi ll (P). An

Fig. 4.7 Membrane technologies and pore sizes determine retention of particles, (micro)organ-isms, and dissolved (macro)molecules


analysis at CSIRO (A. Gregory, personal communication) indicated that each year the world’s human population produces about 25 million tons of nitrogen waste and about 4.4 million tons of phosphorus; and equal amounts are lost in agricultural wastes.

Phosphorus: Global stocks of phosphorus are fi nite, and there are no alternatives (unlike for fossil fuels used for energy production). Deposits of phosphate rock occur widely in the Earth’s crust, but high-grade reserves suitable for commercial exploita-tion are geographically limited (China, Jordan, South Africa, United States, western Sahara). At current usage rates, global availability of phosphorus as fertilizer will peak within the next four decades, and current reserves are predicted to last for a maxi-mum of ten decades. Lower grades of phosphate rock are contaminated with heavy metals such as cadmium and uranium. When the price of phosphorus goes up and its quality decreases, recovering it from wastewater streams becomes more attractive.

A number of processes have been developed to remove and reclaim phosphate from wastewater streams, among which are Crystalactor (calcium phosphate pre-cipitation) and Phosnix (direct precipitation from sludge liquors using caustic mag-nesium chloride). RIM-NUT is a third process that was described a decade and a half ago, but so far (because of its high cost) it is employed on only a small scale. It is an improved and ef fi cient process used to recover phosphate and nitrogen in the

Box 4.4 Relevant European-Funded Research Projects on Membrane Technologies That Can Be Used for Product Recovery from Wastewater

Acronym Title Funding period

MEM-BRIDGE Bridge between the environment and industry designed by membrane technology

FP7

AMADEUS Accelerate membrane development for urban sewage puri fi cation

FP6

EUROMBRA Membrane bioreactor technology (MBR) with an EU perspective for advanced municipal wastewater treatment strategies for the twenty- fi rst century

FP6

MBR-TRAIN Process optimization and fouling control in membrane bioreactors for wastewater and drinking water treatment

FP6

PURATREAT New energy-ef fi cient approach to the operation of membrane bioreactors for decentralized wastewater treatment

FP6

MBR-RECYCLING

Water recycling and reuse by application of membrane bioreactors (e.g., textile and municipal wastewater)

FP5

NAMETECH Development of intensi fi ed water treatment concepts by integrating nano and membrane technologies

FP7

MEMBAQ Incorporation of aquaporins in membranes for industrial applications

FP6

Note: Consult the European Cordis Internet site for further details ( www.cordis.lu )

http://www.cordis.lu


form of a magnesium salt (MgNH 4 PO

4 ), also called struvite. This high-grade prod-

uct is a slow-releasing fertilizer, marketed under the brand names MAGAMP, Crystal Green, and N-Mag. In the struvite recovery process from wastewaters, RIM-NUT makes use of ion exchangers. These are natural or synthetic charged resins that exchange their mobile counterions for another ion of similar charge. [An ion is an atom or molecule that has lost (cation) or gained (anion) one or more electrons and thus has a positive or negative charge.] Ammonia is positively charged, so it binds to cation exchangers (R

c )

+ + ++ → +c 4 c 4R - Na NH R - NH Na

whereas orthophosphate binds to anion exchangers (R a ).

( )2

a 4 a 422R - Cl HPO R HPO 2Cl− −+ → +

After wastewater has passed over the ion exchangers, ammonia and phosphate (mainly) are washed off with a small volume of concentrated solution of kitchen salt (NaCl) or seawater. The sodium ions (Na + ) exchange with ammonium, and the chlo-ride ions (Cl - ) replace phosphate. The ef fl uent solution is then mixed with a magne-sium chloride solution, resulting in struvite precipitation, which can be fi ltered and puri fi ed.

+ + − ++ + → +2 2

4 4 4 4(solid)Mg NH HPO MgNH PO H

The test results of the RIM-NUT research project proved that the process would operate with a variety of municipal ef fl uents in Italy (Liberti et al. 1986 ) and the United States (Liberti et al. 1988 ) , and that local limits for nutrient discharge require-ments could be met. Even other waste streams, such as piggery wastewaters, were treated ef fi ciently. If the environmental and economic bene fi ts associated with the recovery of struvite fertilizer are not taken into account, the RIM-NUT process is more costly than the conventional WWTP methods of nutrients removal (see the section “Actions”). Therefore, the technology has not found wide acceptance.

NOVAQUATIS is another remarkable research project undertaken by the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG). The initiative focuses on early separation of the bulk of the nutrient load in the municipal waste-water stream: urine (Larsen and Lienert 2007 ) . Although urine accounts for less than 1% of the total wastewater volume, it contains about 80% of the nitrogen and 50% of the phosphorus of all the nutrients in wastewater. This relatively small vol-ume of wastewater also contains most of the residues of pharmaceuticals and hor-mones that are used or produced by humans. Separate treatment of this wastewater stream would be more effective and entail a simpler treatment. Therefore smaller and less costly WWTPs would suf fi ce for treating the remainder of the municipal wastewaters.


The NOVAQUATIS project developed the NoMix concept, which involves the use of specially constructed toilets with a front compartment and drain connected to a special storage tank (Fig. 4.8 ). The rear side of the toilet is shaped like that of a conventional toilet, and waste is fl ushed as usual into the sewer.

The German manufacturer Roediger has produced a clever design. The urine out-let opens only when a person sits on the toilet; therefore, when fl ushing, the water does not enter the urine storage tank. Men must be aware to sit when urinating into this type of toilet, and its application requires additional investment for the separate collection of urine. It is suggested that the urine be either piped to a processing plant or collected by tanker lorries. A third possibility is that the urine be released only at night into the sewer system, so it can be diverted at the WWTP for separated processing. The projected use for the end-product is as a ( fl uid) agricultural fertilizer to replace conventional synthetic fertilizers, ful fi lling the idea of sustainable waste treatment. It would also help reduce the environmental load of heavy metals, especially cadmium, which is present in conventional phosphorus fertilizers.

The NoMix concept would signify an important advantage for WWTP design: The operational unit would become dramatically smaller because the phosphorus precipitation, nitri fi cation, and denitri fi cation steps could be largely omitted. However, further research is necessary to prevent bacterial conversion of urea, the nitrogen component of urine, into smelly, corrosive ammonia during storage. In addition, phosphorus and minerals may precipitate out in the concentrated urine fl uids, possibly causing obstruction. Processing of the collected urine waste needs puri fi cation to remove micropollutants (e.g., hormones, pharmaceuticals) and pathogenic bacteria. Solutions are thought to lie in the use of various fi ltration and precipitation techniques.

Fig. 4.8 Toilet with built-in mechanism for separate collection of urine ( Source: [email protected] )

http://[email protected]


Methane production: In all green plants and algae, photosynthesis captures light energy from the sun to form glucose from carbon dioxide and water. In chemical terms, the reaction proceeds as follows .

+ ⇔ +2 2 6 12 6 26H O + 6CO solarenergy C H O 6O

Glucose is then used as the basic carbon source to synthesize all the further biomolecules a plant needs. The above chemical reaction is reversible, which means that the energy from the sun, which is stored in biomass, can also be released under proper circumstances. This can easily be seen when biomass is burned and the heat is released quickly while mainly reforming carbon dioxide and water. A more useful return of energy would be to use it as food for human energy require-ments or alternatively using for anaerobic digestion, as the methane gas formed is an energy source that can be stored and used at will. Applications include cooking, heating, and engine fuel.

Anaerobic digestion is a natural process that takes place when bacterial commu-nities break down organic materials and produce biogas in the absence of oxygen (Fig. 4.9 ). Biogas is a gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide (20–50%) and methane (50–80%), depending on the composition of the organic materials that are digested. In the case of a WWTP, the biosolids and sludge are the input organic materials for the anaerobic digester (see the section “Actions”). The great advantage of using anaerobic digestion, apart from methane generation, is the considerable reduction in solid matter (sludge) to be discarded or burned.

Anaerobic digestion is a complex four-step process (Gunnerson 1986 ; McCarty 1982 ; Metcalf and Eddy 1979 ) . (1) During the fi rst phase, complex organic matter and macromolecules (e.g., lipids, cellulose, proteins) are hydrolyzed into simpler solu-ble organic molecules (e.g., sugars, amino acids). This step is catalyzed by extracel-lular enzymes excreted by the bacterial community to enable them to ingest and

Fig. 4.9 Conversions during the anaerobic digestion process


metabolize the smaller molecules. (2) Next, a range of (facultative) anaerobic bacteria ( Clostridium , Bi fi dobacterium , Desulphovibrio , Actinomyces , Staphylococcus ), yeasts, and molds have specialized in using these compounds as building blocks and as an energy source in a process called fermentation or acidogenesis. The intermedi-ary compounds produced by this community of microorganisms are typically short-chain fatty acids (e.g., propionic, acetic, and butyric acids) in addition to hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide. (3) A third conversion is carried out by acetogens, producing hydrogen and acetic acid from the long-chain fatty acids. (4) In the last step (although all steps happen at the same time) methanogenic bacteria ( Methanobacterium , Methanobacillus , Methanococcus, and Methanosarcina ) mainly use acetate, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide to produce methane.

It must be pointed out that all of the various microorganisms involved pro fi t from each other: mainly because the waste products—hydrogen and fatty acids in steps (3) and (4)—inhibit anarobic digestion, and the methanogenic bacteria are able to remove them while producing methane. The methane molecule retains a consider-able amount of the original sun energy in its C–H bonds, previously stored in the organic matter. The original organic waste materials contained even more energy, and the anaerobic microbial community used the difference for metabolic activity and growth during the digestion steps. Apart from a carbon source, the community also needs nitrogen and phosphate, which are normally present in abundance in the wastewater sludge. Assuming that all other conditions are favorable for biogas pro-duction, a carbon/nitrogen/phosphorus ratio of about 100:1:0.2 is ideal for the raw material fed into a biogas plant.

Methane fermentation has been in use since 1900 to treat the excess sludge produced at wastewater treatment plants. The procedure became the standard method during the 1980s, replacing all aerobic treatments and considerably reduc-ing the amount of fi nal sludge waste. The bene fi ts of energy recovery were soon realized; and today surplus food, livestock, and agricultural crop (waste) materials are also often fed to the anaerobic reactors. Several improvements have been made. When the process is carried out in an unstirred tank, the rate of conversion is severely diminished because of low microbial concentrations in the fl uid, insta-bility of the system against environmental shocks (temperature, oxygen input), and out fl ow of active microbes. Higher rates of conversion can be reached when carrier materials are used to stimulate adhesion of microorganisms, achieving higher densities of useful microorganisms. Various methods have been imple-mented that we cannot describe in detail here. They include an up fl ow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), an up fl ow anaerobic fi lter process (UAFP), and an anaer-obic fl uidized-bed reactor (AFBR). Because the various members of the microbial community react differently to these techniques (at high loads, the overall growth rate of acidogenic bacteria proceeds 10-fold faster than that of methanogenic bac-teria), two-phase methane fermentation processes have been developed (Pohland and Gosh 1971 ) .

Methane production and use from waste materials helps reduce the amount of greenhouse gases because it is a renewable (sustainable) energy source and results in lower use of fossil fuels. Methane can be considered a biofuel because it is derived


from biomass conversion, which originates from biological carbon dioxide fi xation. Other biofuels are bioethanol or biodiesel. Bioethanol is ethanol produced by fer-mentation of sugar or starch-containing crops such as maize and sugarcane. Biodiesel, similar to diesel from fossil sources, is produced from (waste) vegetable oils and animal fats using transesteri fi cation (removal of glycerine from bio-oils). Increasing the use of biofuels is one of the measures helping to meet targets, as set by the Kyoto Protocol, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The European-funded research project BIOGASMAX was initiated in 2006 to investigate the ef fi ciency of producing, distributing, and using biogas (methane) in the transportation sector. Methane is quite an interesting fuel for conventional combustion engines as studies have shown that methane-based engines provide greater ef fi ciency than gasoline- and diesel-based engines (EUCAR/JRC/CONCAWE Study 2007 ) . with a fi xed amount of biomass, serving as source for fuel, a methane-fueled car would traverse a much longer distance than a car fueled with bioethanol or biodiesel (calculated to be approximately 33% of that distance) (N. Paul, FNR Germany, personal communication). Under the BIOGASMAX proj-ect, the French city of Lille developed a full scale Centre for Organic Recovery that produces biogas for its bus public transportation system.

A number of regulatory developments have stimulated initiatives, such as in the city of Lille, using biogas as a fuel or an energy source. Apart from the Kyoto Protocol, the European Commission proposed a directive (COM (2007)18 ), amend-ing existing directives on fuel speci fi cations and monitoring the reduction of green-house gases. Next to requirements on sulfur and polyaromatic hydrocarbons, the directive states among its proposed actions:

“A mandatory monitoring of lifecycle greenhouse gases is introduced from 2009. From 2011 these emissions must be reduced by 1% per year. This will ensure that the fuel sector contributes to achieving the Community’s longer-term greenhouse gas reduction goals and parallels efforts on improving vehicle ef fi ciency. It will also stimulate further development of low carbon fuels and other measures to reduce emissions from the production chain.”

In the developing world, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) stimulated projects and government-funded programs to set up anaerobic digesting facilities for biogas production, providing small commercial operations and single homes with affordable energy sources (Kammen et al. 2002 ) . In addition, speci fi c initiatives have been taken to address reductions in greenhouse gas emissions by making use of biogas to meet local energy needs. It is interesting to note that the interest in anaerobic (waste) treatment systems is shifting from pollution control toward energy production, although both aspects contribute when decisions are made to invest in such facilities.

Electricity production: Electricity can be produced in a fuel cell, which operates like a battery, converting chemical energy to electricity. Two electrodes sit in sepa-rate compartments fi lled with a fl uid (electrolyte). The compartments are separated by a polymer electrolyte membrane (proton exchange membrane, or PEM), which is impermeable to gases but allows protons (H + ) to pass through. The membrane thus has important tasks: separation of reactants and transport of protons. In one


compartment, the anode-electrode accepts electrons from a chemical reaction. Electrons fl ow via an electrical circuit to the cathode in the other compartment. Here, electrons meet oxygen and protons, which have passed the PEM, resulting in the production of water and heat. Some highly ef fi cient industrial designs operate at high temperatures, and the PEM is then replaced by an electrolyte such as phos-phoric acid, molten carbonate, alkali, or solid oxide (Fig. 4.10 ).

Hydrogen is an ef fi cient fuel for providing electrons to the anode side, and this setup is advocated in fuel-cell-driven electric cars. Methanol or other simple organic molecules can also be used if a proper catalyst is found to speed up the reaction at the anode. Even complex organic molecules in wastewater could provide electrons, but then special anaerobic microorganisms are needed to metabolize them and supply electrons right up to the anode surface. Indeed, such remarkable microorganisms were identi fi ed and found to use oxidized forms of iron(III) and manganese(IV) (minerals that are poorly soluble in neutral environments) as electron acceptors in nature (Lovley et al. 2004 ) . These electrochemically active microorganisms are thus able to transfer electrons from the inside of the cell (where metabolism of organic molecules takes place) to the outside of the cell. This ability enables them to grow on the anode surface (anodophilic microorganisms), using it as an electron acceptor (instead of oxygen as in aerobic microorganisms), while consuming organic com-pounds (e.g., from wastewater) (Kim et al. 2002 ) .

The theoretical maximum voltage of a microbial fuel cell (MFC) with an oxy-gen-reducing cathode is around 1.1 V. In practice, however, because of losses the open circuit of a single cell is typically <0.8 V—and therefore even lower under operating conditions. Hence, several cells must be connected in series to achieve a useful device.

The principle of a (microbial) fuel cell may seem quite straightforward, but its implementation as an inexpensive, ef fi cient, reliable method for generating electric-ity is complex. There are a number of speci fi c requirements for generating electric-ity from wastewater. The large surface of the anode must be colonized by microorganisms (bio fi lm) of choice; there must be an ef fi cient supply of suitable

Fig. 4.10 Basic workings of a fuel cell


substrates to the anodic bio fi lm; protons must move through the PEM at high rates; and accumulation of waste products in the bio fi lm must be prevented.

Fuel cell technology has the great advantage that is does not use heat as an inter-mediate step for electricity production, for which ef fi ciency is usually less than 45%. Production of electricity from wastewater using MFCs therefore has great potential over multistep processes involving anaerobic biogas production, gas clean-ing, and combustion. The MFC technology is not yet commercialized, but the tech-nological progress that has been made so far holds great promise for direct electricity production from wastewater.

The research project “New sustainable concepts and processes for optimization and upgrading municipal wastewater and sludge treatment” (NEPTUNE) was carried out within the Sixth European Framework Programme. The project assessed the potential of electricity production using MFCs with wastewater as an energy source. To date, effective MFCs have not been realized. Among the limiting factors are (1) the need for inexpensive large anode surfaces; (2) optimal bio fi lm buildup and mainte-nance; (3) prevention of fouling of anode areas; (4) concentration of biodegradable compounds in currently diluted waste streams; and (5) low metabolic rates of the microorganisms used. Many efforts are being made worldwide to improve perfor-mance and reduce the construction and operating costs of MFCs. The Advanced Water Management Centre at the University of Queensland, Australia, has built a 12-unit, 3 m high, 1 m 3 capacity MFC on the site of a brewery. The initial performance of the pilot plant was well below what would be required for a practical, commercial pro-cess. A redesign is now being considered using the MFC for an electrolysis process.

Hydrogen production: A microbial fuel cell can be modi fi ed to produce hydrogen gas instead of electricity. Oxygen is excluded at the cathode side because it would snatch the protons and electrons and form water. However, direct hydrogen forma-tion at the cathode from protons and electrons does not take place simply by exclud-ing oxygen; there are just not enough reactants available. This is because the full reaction in the new setup is thermodynamically unfavorable for producing hydrogen without assistance. An external electrical supply is required, similar to that needed for electrolysis of water. However, because there is no need to split water at the anode side, a modest increase of cathode potential can suf fi ce.

The theoretically required voltage is only 0.12 V, and it can be calculated that 0.26 kWh/N is then required for the production of 1 m 3 of hydrogen gas (in practice, it is well below 1 kWh/Nm 3 H

2 ). This is much lower than the 1.24 V potential neces-

sary for direct electrolysis of water and the 4.4–5.4 kWh/Nm 3 H 2 required in com-

mercial water electrolyzers (Turner 2004 ) . Hydrogen production using a microbial fuel cell has been described as biocata-

lyzed electrolysis. It is an electrolytic process that electrically connects the oxida-tion of organic material at a biological anode to the reduction of protons at the cathode so hydrogen gas is formed. Technical problems such as the behavior of polymer electrolyte membranes, metabolic diversity in wastewater microbial ecolo-gies, and electrode potential losses (Rozendal et al. 2008 ) have thus far prevented commercial developments. In addition, hydrogen still needs to prove its role as the future energy carrier of choice.


Biofuels: The production of biodiesel from selected types of algae, storing oils as reserves for carbon and energy (dark periods), is an interesting option when compared to bio-oil production from usual land-based crops. Some say algae can grow faster than any other crop growing on land. The best oil producer— oil palm, 4 tons oil/ha/year—produces three to six times less than estimates made for algae. Algae do not need a carbon source, just water, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other inorganic elements. In wastewater these compounds are found in abundance in wastewater; in fact, we want to get rid of them. Algae, when used in WWTPs to remove phosphate and nitrates, are yet another interesting option to turn wastewater products into a useful resource.

The European research projects AQUAFUELS and BIOFAT studied the possibility of exploiting algae in the production of biofuels. The BIOFAT demonstration proj-ect will farm a 10-ha area to produce 1,000 tons of marine algal biomass per year. Biodiesel will be produced from the oil content and bioethanol from the carbohy-drate fraction. The knowledge gained may be used in the future for less-controlled algal farms using wastewater, reducing the cost of raw materials. In fact, in the Christchurch Wastewater Treatment Plant (New Zealand), a trial is being under-taken to create biofuel from algae in large pond systems, where the wastewater is treated by the growth of algae and further disinfected through ultraviolet radiation from the sun (Christchurch City Council and Solray).

Bioplastics production: Plastics are made from raw materials, which are derived from fossil fuels. Most of these plastics do not degrade easily. Plastics (and similar materials) are not found in nature; thus, microorganisms capable to metabolize these materials must still evolve. There are, however, many bacteria that produce a class of polyesters, called polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), to store carbon and energy under certain conditions. There are many types of monomers (single units in the molecular chains of these polyesters), so different PHAs have widely differing properties (e.g., melting points, brittleness, elasticity).

Conventional plastics take several decades to degrade, whereas PHAs can be completely biodegraded within a year by a variety of microorganisms (Jendrossek and Handrick 2002 ) . Unfortunately, the cost of industrial PHA production is still too high to be competitive. Reducing the costs of raw materials would be a step in the right direction, and making use of the biological potential of wastewater streams has been suggested.

During the activated sludge treatment phase of a conventional WWTP, PHA-accumulating microorganisms are enriched as part of the enhanced biological phos-phorous removal (EBPR) process. Under anaerobic conditions these organisms use stored polyphosphate as an energy source for anaerobic uptake of carbon substrates, which are temporarily stored as PHA. When conditions turn aerobic, PHA is again utilized for growth; and polyphosphate is accumulated from phosphate in solution. The European NEPTUNE research project assessed the potential of these organ-isms—present in activated sludge streams—to function as a raw material for PHA. The production of PHA biopolymers has indeed been demonstrated in a reproduc-ible fashion in laboratory-scale reactors that were fed waste-activated sludge. It was also found that PHA production from wastewater sources is able to compete with pure-culture PHA production (Morgan-Sagastume et al. 2009 )


4.5 Conclusions

This chapter illustrates the many possibilities for the reuse of energy and resources from wastewater. Current WWTPs have been designed following a linear disposal-based concept.

The rapid rise in populations in urban areas results in a scarcity of water of good quality and calls for increased attention to appropriate water management practices. An important aspect is the need to achieve ecological wastewater treatment systems that are ecologically neutral. The design and realization of near closed-loop treat-ment systems could be the model of choice.

Conventional linear treatment concepts may thus be transformed into a number of resource cycles that can capture, treat, reuse, and recapture water and nutrients, for example. If the large amounts of wastewater from urban areas are processed only up to what the laws require for disposal, huge potential savings are wasted, and further demands are made on diminishing resources.

“The goal of ecological engineering is to attain high environmental quality, high yields in food and fi ber, low consumption, good quality, high ef fi ciency production, and full utilization of wastes” (Rose 1999 ) . Sustainable wastewater treatment is now becoming a goal of technical exploration and experimentation. The view about municipal sewage has shifted, from a waste to be treated and disposed of to a resource that can be processed for recovery of energy, nutrients, and other constituents.

Citizens should be made aware that wastewaters can be viewed as resources rather than worthless wastes that cost money to discard. If wastewater treatment processes aim at recovering water and nutrients and producing energy or even bio-plastics, the ef fl uents could reach even better environmental quality than the ef fl uents from current conventional facilities. To increase general awareness and ensure acceptance and implementation of these concepts, it will be necessary to involve all potential stakeholders, including the public, decision-makers, industry, and environ-mental organizations.

Glossary

Activated Carbon Porous, highly adsorptive form of carbon used to remove impurities from liquids or gases; also used to extract and recover speci fi c chemical compounds from solvents.

Activated Sludge Biosolids containing live bacteria. Aeration Tank Container fi lled with primary ef fl uent, where a community of aero-

bic bacteria convert organic matter into simpler inorganic substances. Anabolism Biological reactions in living cells used to build cellular materials. Anaerobic Living or growing in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic Digester Container fi lled with sewage, where a community of anaero-

bic bacteria stepwise convert organic materials to water, carbon dioxide, meth-ane, ammonia, and a small amount of indigestible materials.


Antibiotic Drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other micro-organisms.

Aquifer Body of permeable rock, sand, or gravel that contains or transmits ground-water reserves.

Biodiversity Biological diversity representing the variety of life on Earth; includes diversity of ecosystems, species, and genes and the ecological processes that support them.

Bio fi lm Thin layer of microorganisms growing on a solid substrate. Biofuel Fuel derived from biomass conversion in a biological process (e.g., meth-

ane, bioethanol, biodiesel). Biogas Gas mixture of carbon dioxide (20–50%) and methane (50–80%) produced by

bacterial communities when degrading organic materials in the absence of oxygen. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Oxygen demand by degrading microorgan-

isms at 20 °C over 5 days. Bioplastic Plastic derived from a biologically produced compound, in contrast to

conventional plastics, which are synthesized using fossil fuels. Biosolids Solids that remain in sludge after anaerobic treatment. Blackwater Sewage from households, including toilet disposals. Carbohydrate Any of a group of organic compounds (containing the elements

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), including starches and sugars. Catalyst Compound that speeds up a chemical reaction. Cellulose Natural polymer that is the basic component of plant fi bers, including

wood fi bers; found in the cell wall. Contaminant Substance that is either present in an environment where it does not

naturally occur or is present at levels that might cause harmful effects to humans or the environment.

Denitri fi cation Biological conversion of nitrate into gaseous nitrogen, carried out by denitrifying bacteria.

EBPR Enhanced biological phosphorus removal: removal of phosphorus using phosphate-accumulating microorganisms.

Ecosystem Complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and their interrelations within a particular space.

Electrolyte Ionized substance (usually a liquid or gel but can be a solid, a molten solid, or even a gas) that is able to conduct electricity; often consists of a salt compound dissolved in water.

Embedded Water Amount of water needed to grow, process, package, transport, and use a product; similar to “virtual water.”

Environmental Conservation Any activity that maintains and/or restores the quality of the environment by preventing or reducing the presence of polluting substances.

Enzyme Biological molecule, usually a protein, that typically facilitates metabolic or anabolic reactions in living cells.

European Commission Executive body of the European Union (EU); represents the interests of the EU as a whole; responsible for proposing new policies and laws and their implementation after adoption by the EU Parliament and Council.


European Directive EU legislation that must be adopted by its member states. Eutrophication Condition wherein excess nutrients from agriculture or waste

water in natural waters result in algal bloom and excessive aquatic plant growth. When these plants and algae die and decay, oxygen depletion causes problems for other life forms, which can eventually lead to dead zones in deep lakes and marine waters.

Fermentation Degradation of organic compounds by microorganisms under anaerobic conditions.

Food Chain Movement of energy/matter through a food web (a complex organiza-tion of organisms in a speci fi c ecosystem); usually begins with plants and ends with carnivores and decomposers.

Framework Programme EU-funded program to support and encourage research and development. Speci fi c objectives and actions vary between funding periods.

Greenhouse Gas Mainly carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and wa-ter vapor molecules in the Earth’s atmosphere that adsorb radiation and emit heat (infrared radiation), causing a rise in temperature.

Greywater Wastewater from households, excluding toilets. Heavy Metal Metallic elements with high atomic weights (e.g., mercury, chromium,

cadmium, arsenic, lead); toxic to most organisms at low concentrations; tend to accumulate in the food chain.

Hormone Protein produced in higher organisms that functions as a messenger to control growth and development, speci fi cally the actions of certain cells or organs.

Hydrolysis Water-induced decomposition of organic compounds. Integrated Water Cycle Management Method used by local water utilities to

manage their water systems sustainably and to maximize bene fi ts to the com-munity and environment.

Ion-Exchanger Charged resin that exchanges its counterion in solution for another ion of similar charge.

Lignin Natural polymer in the secondary cell wall of woody plant cells that helps strengthen and stiffen the wall.

Macromolecule Compound or complex, usually a polymer (e.g., a protein, nucleic acid, polysaccharide) or a covalent or noncovalent complex of any of them.

Metabolism Biological reactions in living cells used for energy generation. Microbial Fuel Cell Apparatus for electricity generation that uses microorganisms

as electron donors. Microorganism Virus, bacterium, mold, yeast, protozoon. Millennium Development Goals Provide concrete, numerical benchmarks for

tackling extreme poverty in its many dimensions; set to be achieved by 2015. Municipal Wastewater Composite of liquid and water-carried wastes associated

with the use of water for drinking, cooking, cleaning, washing, hygiene, sanita-tion, and other domestic purposes.

Nanoparticle Microscopic particle whose size is measured in nanometers—of the order of about 100 millionth of a millimeter or less. These particles have the potential to penetrate proteins, nucleic acids, and other biological molecules,


perhaps making it possible to see unique adverse effects that occur in chemicals that we were unable to observe with the tools available.

Nitrate Univalent radical NO 3 or a compound containing it as a salt or an ester of

nitric acid. Non-Point-Source Pollution Originates from diffuse sources and enters water

bodies after rainfall. Runoff ensues during which pollutants are picked up at ground level.

Nutrients Chemical compounds involved in construction of living tissue; are need-ed by plants and animals.

Pathogen Disease-causing organism. Pesticide Substance, preparation, or organism used to control or destroy any pest. pH Measure of the acidity/alkalinity of water with solutes. Phosphate (in the context of this book) Trivalent anion PO 3

4 − derived from phos-

phoric acid H 3 PO

4 .

Photosynthesis Process by which green plants use light, carbon dioxide, and water to form the organic molecule glucose, the unique starting point for the synthesis of biomass.

Point-Source Pollution Contaminants that originate from point sources enter wa-ter bodies at a speci fi c site that can readily be identi fi ed (e.g., factories, sewage treatment facilities).

Pollution Contamination at concentrations high enough to endanger organisms’ lives.

Polyester Molecule composed of a chain of units that have reacted with each other to form ester bonds (reaction between an oxoacid group with a hydroxyl group).

Polymer Molecule built with repetitive units, usually in a chain-like formation. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Polymer membrane that is impermeable for gas-

es but allows speci fi c ions to pass through. Primary Ef fl uent Sewage stream from an “anaerobic digester.” Primary Treatment Conversion of organic materials, in steps, into water, carbon

dioxide, methane, ammonia, and a small amount of indigestible materials by anaerobic bacteria.

Protein Class of molecules found in all living cells composed of one or more long-chain amino acids, the sequence of which corresponds to the DNA sequence of the gene that encodes it.

Proton Exchange Membrane Polymer membrane that is impermeable for gases but allows protons (H + ) to pass through.

Reverse Osmosis Process by which pure water is produced by forcing impure water from an impure soluttion through a semi-permeable membrane. During normal osmosis, water fl ows in the opposite direction: from a compartment with a low concentration of solutes to the compartment with a higher concentration of solutes.

Risk Assessment Process of identifying and quantifying risk resulting from a speci fi c use or occurrence of a chemical or physical agent, or change in situation.

Risk Management Comprises three steps: risk evaluation, exposure control, risk monitoring.


Secondary Treatment Conversion of organic matter into simpler, inorganic sub-stances by aerobic bacteria.

Septic Tank Container measuring one to several cubic meters that stores sewage, which is degraded by anaerobic microorganisms. See Anaerobic digester.

Sewage Refuse liquids or waste matter usually carried off by sewers. Shadow Pricing Opportunity cost to society of participating in some form of eco-

nomic activity. Sludge Solid materials in sewage after removing coarse, insoluble materials. Struvite Fertilizer compound composed of magnesium, ammonia, and phosphate. Sustainability Condition of meeting population needs by actions and living condi-

tions that do not compromise the ability of future generations or populations to meet comparable needs.

Synthetic Chemical Substance produced by or used in a chemical process that does not take place in a biological system.

Toxicology Study of toxic substances using investigative methods and techniques for quantitatively assessing toxicity and the hazards of potentially toxic substances.

Toxin Speci fi c, characterizable, poisonous compound—usually a protein produced by microorganisms, higher plants, or animals—that is toxic to other living organisms.

Virtual Water Amount of water needed to grow, process, package, transport, and use a product; similar to “embedded water.”

Wastewater Recycling Use of treated wastewater for the same industrial process from which it originated.

Wastewater Reuse Properly treated wastewater that meets certain standards and can be reused for the purpose for which the standards were designed, ranging from irrigation water to bottled drinking water.

Wastewater Treatment Method, technique, or process designed to remove solids and/or pollutants from waste streams and ef fl uents.

Water Cycle Path of water movement from oceans to the atmosphere to Earth and its return to the atmosphere through various phases (liquid, ice, vapor) and pro-cesses (i.e., precipitation, runoff, evaporation).

Water Footprint Amount of water used per year; calculated, for example, for an individual, a community, an industry.

Water Stress Shortage or scarcity of water.

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Years after Rio. UNFPA, New York, pp. 1–36. WHO/UNICEF (2010) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update WHO/UNICEF

Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.

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R. Nash (*) Ecological Consultancy Services, Ltd. (Ecoserve) , B23 KCR Industrial Estate Ravensdale Park , Kimmage , Dublin 12 , Ireland e-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 5 The Oceans and Their Challenge to Conserve Marine Biodiversity

Róisín Nash


Contents

5.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 1445.2 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1465.3 Marine Environment ......................................................................................................... 147

5.3.1 Life on the Edge .................................................................................................. 1495.3.2 Estuaries .............................................................................................................. 1495.3.3 Coastal Waters .................................................................................................... 1495.3.4 Open Ocean ......................................................................................................... 150

5.4 Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 1515.4.1 Marine Biodiversity ............................................................................................ 1515.4.2 Marine Pollution ................................................................................................. 154

5.5 Consequences .................................................................................................................... 1545.5.1 Resource Overexploitation .................................................................................. 1555.5.2 Eutrophication ..................................................................................................... 1605.5.3 Aquaculture ......................................................................................................... 1615.5.4 Invasive Species .................................................................................................. 1635.5.5 Climate Change ................................................................................................... 1655.5.6 Random Flux Events ........................................................................................... 1665.5.7 Fish ...................................................................................................................... 1675.5.8 Arctic Waters ...................................................................................................... 1685.5.9 Acidification ........................................................................................................ 1695.5.10 Biodiversity Loss ................................................................................................ 170

5.6 Actions .............................................................................................................................. 1715.6.1 Resource Overexploitation .................................................................................. 1735.6.2 Climate Change ................................................................................................... 1745.6.3 Aquaculture ......................................................................................................... 1765.6.4 Biofouling ........................................................................................................... 1795.6.5 Acidification ........................................................................................................ 1815.6.6 Biodiversity Loss and Water Quality .................................................................. 181

144 R. Nash

Abstract The marine environment is often viewed as a vast expanse of clean habi-tats and ecosystems supporting a diverse range of marine life, from familiar charis-matic animals to strange creatures from the deep. Research has revealed that today’s oceans face a number of challenges including the alarming rate of biodiversity loss. Human activity is increasingly impairing the ocean’s capacity to maintain good water quality as a consequence of, for example, resource overexploitation, climate change and eutrophication. In oceans, as on land, the scope of depletion and degra-dation has no precedent in human history. Actions are being taken to halt biodiver-sity loss through tackling a number of issues including the effects of aquaculture, acidi fi cation, and water quality. By taking into consideration the results being pro-duced through research, such as the development of new management tools, the European Union can introduce legislation and monitoring programs to help reduce biodiversity loss and subsequently improve water quality throughout European waters. As information is gathered from marine research throughout the world, new challenges emerge. This chapter examines the oceans and their challenge to con-serve marine biodiversity by looking at human activities. It delves into the conse-quences of our actions and the measures that are currently being taken to protect our oceans. It also addresses the challenges that lie ahead.

5.1 Background

The worlds fi ve oceans—Antarctic, Arctic, Paci fi c, Atlantic, Indian—cover more than 72% of the Earth’s surface. The wide diversity of marine life found throughout Europe exists as the result of a rich variety of marine habitats and ecosystems: the deep sea, cold coral reefs, pelagic ecosystems, coastal waters, estuaries, enclosed seas, intertidal ecosystems.

The seas provide a unique set of goods and services to society. Unfortunately, human activities everywhere are depleting marine and coastal ecosystems in ways that are harmful to their health and sometimes irreversible. Marine biodiversity is one of the factors in fl uencing the water quality of marine ecosystems. Marine bio-diversity loss is increasingly impairing the ocean’s capacity to maintain water quality. A range of human activities are having a major impact on natural environ-ments, resulting in changes in water quality and the number, abundance, and iden-tity of species inhabiting these ecosystems. All pollution—from air, land, and freshwater sources–ultimately enters the ocean, which thereby becomes a sink for various pollutants including degradable wastes, fertilizers, plastics, thermal pollu-tion, heavy metals, halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g., DDT) and radioactivity, to mention just a few.

5.7 Perspectives: Future Challenges ....................................................................................... 1855.8 Societal Changes: What Can Be Done? ............................................................................ 186Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 187References .................................................................................................................................. 190

1455 The Oceans and Their Challenge to Conserve Marine Biodiversity

One-third of the European Union’s (EU) population is estimated to live within 50 km of the coast. Overexploitation of coastal resources through urban development, deforestation, dredging, and industrial and domestic discharges, among others, can result in increased sedimentation, oil spills, and permanent loss of biodiversity and valuable habitats, such as coastal wetlands, seagrass meadows, and rocky shores.

Nutrient enrichment through aquaculture is an example of how human activities can lead to a process known as eutrophication, considered one of the most serious ecological problems in the Baltic Sea and Black Sea. Eutrophication results in reduced water transparency, surface scum and odors, and even hypoxic dead zones.

The introduction of alien species in aquatic environments may cause distur-bances, leading to a decline in ecological quality that results from changes in the biological, chemical, and physical properties of aquatic ecosystems. This form of pollution agent has been termed “biopollution.”

Shifts in species distributions to more northern and deeper waters; changes in the seasonal timing (phenology) of life history events such as migration, reproduction, metamorphosis, and settlement; and interactions among species (e.g., predation, competition) are changing in correlation to climate change.

Climate change is resulting in rises in temperature accompanied by changes in other abiotic conditions of seawater including acidity (pH), oxygen concentration, and in some areas even the salt concentration itself (salinity). Moreover, the strength and direction of some ocean currents, on which nearly all marine species depend at some stage in their lives, could similarly change. Oceans are at present CO

2 sinks

and collectively represent the largest active carbon sink on Earth. Although this may appear at fi rst to be of positive bene fi t (e.g., to species such as phytoplankton), there is a less favorable side effect: CO

2 from human activities dissolves in seawater and

combines with other elements to form chemical compounds with acidic properties and excessive amounts of CO

2. This leads to acidi fi cation of the seas.

In oceans, as on land, the current scope of depletion and degradation has no prec-edent in human history. Research projects are working to address the many unan-swered questions and increase understanding of the current situation in relation to the consequences of biodiversity loss and changes in water quality. By taking into consideration the results being produced through research, such as the development of new management tools, the EU can introduce legislation and monitoring pro-grams to help reduce biodiversity loss and subsequently improve water quality throughout European waters.

Because international and European relations often work best within a frame-work of agreed-upon legal instruments, considerable effort has been devoted to developing a series of conventions and other international and European instruments that promote conservation of marine biological diversity and water quality. The challenge now is to ensure that the legislation in place is used effectively. In June 2008, the EU established a framework for community action in the fi eld of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive), which states that: “it is evident that pressure on natural marine resources and the demand for marine eco-logical services are often too high and that the Community needs to reduce its impact on marine waters regardless of where their effects occur” (EC 2008 ) .

146 R. Nash

5.2 Introduction

One-third of the EU’s population is estimated to live within 50 km of the coast. Even though Europe is already highly urbanized, coastal migration continues, par-ticularly around the Mediterranean region, because of rapid development of the tourist industry over the last few decades (Fig. 5.1 ). Population growth and intensi fi ed economic activity have resulted in a range of pressures in the coastal zone, includ-ing a legacy of signi fi cant land claims around estuaries and lagoons. Unfortunately, human activities everywhere are depleting marine and coastal ecosystems in ways that are harmful and sometimes irreversible (e.g., climate change, over fi shing, pol-lution). In the oceans, as on land, the scope of depletion and degradation has no precedent in human history.

Water moves in an endless cycle from the air, to the land, to the oceans, and then back to the air. This movement essentially recycles and cleans the Earth’s water sup-ply. Waters from rivers and underground reserves naturally fi nd their way to the sea. The term given to the place where freshwater meets the sea (e.g., an estuary in the case of a river) is “transitional waters,” a reference to the transition between two water types, namely freshwater and marine. The presence of salt in the water indi-cates the start of the marine realm.

Fig. 5.1 Amal fi coast


As all water ultimately enters the marine environment, all pollution from air, land, and freshwater sources also ends up in the sea. Consequently, the ocean can be referred to as “a sink.” The quality of water found in transitional waters re fl ects not only activities in the immediate vicinity but also those upstream and in neighboring coastal areas. For example, something as simple as disruption of the fl ow of water in a river may affect both the quality and quantity of available freshwater reaching the coastal waters. An increase in water fl ow, for example, may prevent water from being fi ltered through natural systems ef fi ciently, leading to an increased amount of available pollutants that have amalgamated en route. Likewise, if water moves across the land at a greater speed because of increased fl ow, it is less likely to recharge underground aquifers, a valuable water resource.

The oceans have been described as a depository for compounds such as atmo-spheric CO

2 , which is soluble in water. There are two forms of uptake: (1) passive

uptake is seen in the colder, turbulent regions of the oceans, which tend to absorb CO

2 ; and (2) active uptake, which occurs via photosynthesis of phytoplankton.

A thriving phytoplankton population removes more CO 2 through photosynthesis

than is returned through respiration by the entire surface marine community (plank-ton and other organisms). This results in the ocean working as an effective carbon sink. Conversely, if respiration of the community were to exceed photosynthesis, more CO

2 would be generated than is reduced to organic compounds (i.e., fi xed),

and the ocean would become a carbon source. Monitoring of the ocean’s plankton is therefore important for global change predictions.

Carbon dioxide is less soluble in warm water than in cold water. The increase in seawater temperature along with the rising concentrations of greenhouse gases is therefore resulting in the oceans slowly losing their capacity to buffer the environ-ment. In conjunction with this situation, dilution allows dispersal of toxic polluting chemicals throughout the entire water system but does not result in their disappearance.

Contrary to the common belief that high biodiversity is the ideal scenario, recent EU-funded research revealed that increases in biodiversity in some areas, as a result of ocean warming, are leading to food shortages for the region’s top predators.

5.3 Marine Environment

The world’s fi ve oceans—Antarctic, Arctic, Paci fi c, Atlantic, Indian—cover more than 72% of the Earth’s surface, to an average depth of 3,800 m, and account for 99% of the Earth’s known capacity to sustain life. The seas of Europe extend from the high Arctic to the subtropical waters in the south and from the open Atlantic Ocean to the enclosed and semi-enclosed waters of the Baltic, Black, and Mediterranean seas. Each of these seas and oceans provides its own challenges to marine life. As with the terrestrial and freshwater realms, there are a number of ecosystems within these geographic areas, which together make up the marine environment (see

148 R. Nash

Box 5.1 ). The wide diversity of marine life found throughout Europe exists as the result of a rich variety of marine habitats and ecosystems: the deep sea, cold coral reefs, pelagic ecosystems, coastal waters, estuaries, enclosed seas, intertidal ecosys-tems. Primary productivity—the production of organic compounds from atmospheric or aquatic CO

2 —is restricted to the tens of meters immediately below the surface and

provides for almost all life in the oceans. Marine ecosystems provide many important functions at global, national, and regional

levels (see Box 5.2 ). The seas provide a unique set of goods and services to society: They moderate the climate, process waste and toxic substances, protect the coastline from erosion, and provide vital foods and medicines. They also function as a source of employment for a signi fi cant number of people (see www.marbef.org and Box 5.3 for further information). The seas and oceans directly and indirectly create wealth, includ-ing millions of jobs in industries such as fi shing, aquaculture, and tourism.

Box 5.3 Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning (MarBEF)

MarBEF, a network of excellence funded by the EU and consisting of 94 European marine institutes, is a platform designed to integrate and dissemi-nate knowledge and expertise on marine biodiversity, with links to research-ers, industry, stakeholders, and the general public.

MarBEF has created a virtual center for durable integration and improving access to resources around Europe. Specialist training is provided, which encourages scientists to travel around Europe. An integrated data and infor-mation management system has been developed that has helped increase our understanding of large-scale, long-term changes in marine biodiversity. To date, MarBEF has published 415 scienti fi c articles on a wide range of topics within marine biodiversity. Source : www.marbef.org .

Box 5.2 Ecosystem Functioning

Ecosystem functioning can be de fi ned as the sum total of processes operating at the ecosystem level (e.g., cycling of matter, energy, and nutrients) and pro-cesses operating at lower ecological levels that have an impact on the patterns or processes at the ecosystem level (e.g., interactions among species, transfer of genetic material).

Box 5.1 What Is an Ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a dynamic collection of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and their physical environment (e.g., salinity, temperature), which interact as a functional unit. Ecosystems are not only important in terms of the species they contain but also in terms of the functions they carry out.

http://www.marbef.org

http://www.marbef.org


5.3.1 Life on the Edge

Europe sits on a continental shelf, a gently sloping rocky platform covered with a veneer of sediments. The result is that the coastal regions tend to be relatively shal-low (<150 m). The coastal zone in Europe is hugely diverse, with a wide range of distinct environments in terms of geomorphology as a result of wave and tidal con-ditions. These coastal regions are among the most hostile environments for animals and plants on the planet. Yet in many cases they are heavily populated with organ-isms that have adapted to survive and even thrive under these conditions.

5.3.2 Estuaries

The term “estuary” is derived from the Latin words aestus (tide) and aestuo (boil), indicating the effect generated when the tidal and river fl ows meet. Interaction between these two major aquatic realms can result in a wide variety of systems of which an estuary is just one type. Estuaries are distinct, challenging ecosystems for organisms in fl uenced by both aquatic realms. The main challenge and at the same time the most important feature governing species diversity in transitional waters is the variable salinity. Most estuaries encounter a gradient in salinity from full seawa-ter at 33.0–37.5% to freshwater in the upper reaches. Being less dense than seawa-ter, freshwater fl oats on seawater when the two meet. The waters begin to mix at the point of their meeting, but the degree of mixing depends on a number of environ-mental factors, such as the base and shape of the estuary, tidal fl ow, rainfall, and so on. The physiochemical regime of estuaries, such as parameters that are often asso-ciated with water quality (pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity), dem-onstrate regular fl uctuations in environmental conditions, which can create a highly stressful environment for organisms. Therefore, estuaries are sometimes perceived as low-diversity, muddy, inhospitable places when in fact they provide a fascinating environment for organisms. They are inhabited by a variety of invertebrates, often in high numbers, and are vital nursery grounds for fi sh and feeding grounds for birds. Furthermore, rivers enhance the productivity of marine coastal areas through the input of nutrients and organic matter of terrestrial origin.

5.3.3 Coastal Waters

The sea is continually changing the shape of the coastline. Rocky coasts attacked by the waves form steep cliffs, at the foot of which a level wave-cut rocky platform run-ning seaward is produced. Softer parts of the cliffs are worn away more quickly, so the coastline becomes irregular, with bays separated by headlands of more-resistant rock. The latter may become separated, forming islands before fi nally being reduced to reefs by the waves. Pieces of rock breaking away from the cliffs are thrown around by the waves and are reduced to rounded boulders, then pebbles, and fi nally sand.

150 R. Nash

As a result, the shores around the coastline are composed of rock, sand, or mud, or a combination of the three. Each of these habitats is characterized by a community of animals and plants. Together with these factors and the associated abiotic factors (e.g., salinity, exposure, particle size), coastal waters can be classi fi ed according to the European Nature Information System (EUNIS) Habitat Classi fi cation Scheme.

The intertidal area, as the name suggests, is the area between the highest level that the tide reaches on the shore and the lowest level when it retreats. It is com-monly thought of as a place where the land meets the sea, such as a rocky or sandy shore, where one of the most dominant gradients in fl uencing the distribution of organisms is the emersion times, during the twice daily rise and fall of the tide. The ability of animals and plants to cope or adapt to desiccation determines their upper limits of habitation on the intertidal area, and competition with other species de fi nes how low they can extend down the shore. Vertical zonation is often evident in an intertidal area, with distinct bands of species occurring along the shore (Fig. 5.2 ). Coastal ecosystems are extremely productive and provide a range of economic and social bene fi ts (e.g., fi sheries, coastal protection).

5.3.4 Open Ocean

The term “pelagic” means “of the open sea.” The pelagic realm is a largely open, unbounded environment in which animals and plants have freedom, within their physiological limits, to move in three dimensions. From the coastal

Fig. 5.2 Exposed shore zonation on Lambay Island, Ireland


boundaries and above the seabed, the pelagic environment comprises the entire water column of the seas and oceans, extending from the tropics to the polar regions and from the sea surface to the abyssal depths. Contrary to common perception of the sea as an unchanging relentless expanse, the open ocean is a heterogeneous and dynamic three-dimensional habitat and an environment where variability is the norm.

Despite the enormous size of the open ocean, it does not support a dense popula-tion of organisms. Patchiness in physical properties (e.g., temperature, salinity, tur-bidity), biological production, and biomass exist at a range of scales in space (centimeters to hundreds of kilometers) and time (minutes to decades). Whereas the biomass is limited, diversity is remarkably high. There are two lifestyles typically adopted by animals and plants living in open ocean: (1) a lifestyle wherein animals, such as jelly fi sh, are not actively mobile but have adapted to take advantage of cur-rents to travel across the ocean through the development of fl otation devices, leav-ing them at the mercy of the waves and wind; and (2) an actively mobile lifestyle wherein, for example, the torpedo shape of some fi sh allows ef fi cient, rapid move-ment through the ocean, or the lifestyle of deep-sea animals that go on vertical night migrations, which allow them to feed on phytoplankton and avoid predation by day when they would be more visible. A key challenge to understanding open ocean function lies in understanding the mechanisms that cause patchiness and the consequences.

5.4 Water Quality

5.4.1 Marine Biodiversity

Although it is often impossible to decipher the intertwined effects of the many envi-ronmental in fl uences occurring in any particular marine ecosystem, the marine bio-diversity of the system is often a de fi ning factor that both in fl uences and re fl ects the ecosystem’s water quality (see Box 5.4 ). In fact, scienti fi c research shows that marine biodiversity loss is increasingly impairing the ocean’s capacity to maintain water quality.

Box 5.4 Marine Biodiversity

Marine biodiversity is an all-inclusive term used to describe the total variation among living organisms (genetic diversity, species diversity, habitat diversity, ecosystem diversity) in the marine environment—in other words, life in the seas and oceans. Note : see the MarBEF website for further information: www.marbef.org/ .

http://www.marbef.org/

152 R. Nash

Marine research during the late 1990s indicated that marine biodiversity—speci fi cally the loss of species diversity—was occurring at an alarming rate. Loss of marine biodiversity has been documented extensively for large vertebrates (e.g., dramatic decline in marine turtles and monk seals, along with the disappearance of some dolphin species) and a few invertebrate species directly exploited by humans. A spectacular worldwide example is the loss of diversity in pelagic fi sh as a conse-quence of the long-line fi sheries industry. However, there are also examples of spec-tacular recoveries among marine mammal populations following protection measures, such as several seal species in Europe and sea lions, sea otters, and some whale species elsewhere. Available data suggest that at this point biodiversity loss is still reversible (Worm et al. 2006 ) .

It is important to bear in mind that high (species) biodiversity is not always nec-essarily good as some ecosystems, such as those found at the poles, have naturally low biodiversity. Any increase in biodiversity can simultaneously lead to food short-ages for the top predators (Weslawski et al. 2009 ) .

The theoretical foundations and the experimental approach required to under-stand marine biodiversity and the causes of biodiversity loss have and are being developed and updated as additional information becomes available. However, they are poorly developed in comparison to the work carried out in terrestrial and freshwater ecology. In fact, the entire scienti fi c literature is so dominated by the-ory developed for terrestrial ecosystems that until early this century it was dif fi cult to fi nd mention of a marine biodiversity fi eld. A basic question is whether terres-trial and marine systems are similar enough to allow theory from one domain to be used for the other. In most cases it cannot as marine systems have a series of

Fig. 5.3 Sea urchin from the Kish Bank on the East coast of Ireland


characteristics that distinguish them from terrestrial systems, as follows (adapted from Heip et al. 1999 ) .

1. Life originated in the sea and is therefore older than life on land. As a conse-quence, the diversity at higher taxonomic levels is greater in the sea, where there are 14 endemic (unique) animal phyla in comparison to only one endemic phy-lum on land. The phylum Echinodermata is exclusively marine and includes the star fi sh, urchins, cucumbers, and sea lilies (Fig. 5.3 ). There is also marked diver-sity of life-history strategies in marine organisms. The sum total of genetic resources in the sea is therefore expected to be more diverse than on land.

2. The physical environment of the seas and land is totally different. Marine organ-isms live in water, whereas terrestrial organisms live in air. As a consequence, there is a lower frequency of environmental change in the sea than on land, in both time and in space.

3. Marine systems are more open than terrestrial systems, with the dispersal of several species via their planktonic larvae occurring over broader ranges. Planktonic larvae can remain fl oating in the water for a period of days to months at the mercy of the currents, which results in an increased dispersal capacity for several benthic species.

4. For the most part, primary production of marine life is restricted to a thin surface layer, and the primary producers are small and often mobile (phytoplankton), whereas on land primary producers are large and static (plants) and are found throughout the realm. The standing stock of grazers in the sea is larger than that of primary producers, whereas the opposite is true on land. On average, ocean productivity is far lower than land productivity.

5. High-level carnivores often play key roles in structuring marine biodiversity but are exploited heavily, with unquanti fi ed but cascading effects on biodiversity and ecosystem functions. This does not occur on land, where ecosystems are domi-nated by large herbivores and increasingly by humans, who monopolize about 40% of the total world primary production.

6. A greater variety of species at a higher trophic level is being exploited in the seas than on the land: Humans exploit more than 400 species as food resources from the marine environment, whereas on land only tens of species are harvested for commercial use. Exploitation of marine biodiversity is not managed as it is on land, which has resulted in a strategy that hunter-gatherers abandoned on land more than 10,000 years ago. The advances in exploitation technology are such that many marine species are now threatened with extinction. Insuf fi cient con-sideration has been paid to the unexpected and unpredictable long-term effects to which such primitive food-gathering practices give rise (Duarte et al. 2007 ) .

7. The sea is the ultimate sink of all pollution from air, land, and freshwater. Therefore, marine biodiversity is exposed to and in some cases critically in fl uences the fate of pollutants in the world. The resistant of marine species to toxins is highly variable; and a number of species bioaccumulate toxins, which are in turn passed up the food chain, having an impact on the quality of marine food people consume.

154 R. Nash

5.4.2 Marine Pollution

Naturally, increased levels of pollution in a water body results in decreased water quality of that body. The types of pollution that typical end up in the seas and oceans include degradable wastes, fertilizers, plastics, thermal pollution, heavy metals, halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g., DDT), and radioactivity, to mention just a few. These pollutants are discharged and/or dumped daily into the marine envi-ronment from estuaries through to the deep sea, resulting in a diverse range of ecological changes in marine ecosystems. Having reached the marine environ-ment from a variety of sources—urban wastes, coastal power plants (thermal pol-lution), oils spills, oil drill cuttings, sewage ef fl uent, lost or dumped munitions, garbage and waste from ships, washout of atmospheric pollutants (e.g., heavy metals), dumped nuclear and industrial waste, lost or dumped vessels and their cargos—each of them inevitably results in, at minimum, a small-scale alteration in the environment. As more pollutants enter the marine environment, however, they can accumulate in organisms (bioaccumulation) and sediments to greater cumulative effect, having an impact over a broader spatial and temporal scale. Marine birds are the most notable victims of accidental oil spills, such as from the Erika in Brittany in 1999, the Prestige off Spain in 2003, and more recently the Gulf of Mexico oil spill in 2010.

5.5 Consequences

Human activities are having an ever-increasing in fl uence on marine ecosystems and, in particular, water quality. They are modifying the marine environment through the removal of biomass and habitats and via the addition of contaminants and physical structures. Marine biological resources are heavily exploited for consumption and economic gain, and habitats are often altered incidentally. Rivers convey terrestrially derived material loaded with sewage and agricultural and industrial pollutants onto the continental shelf. Understanding the ecological responses to these human activities requires an appreciation of both the watershed and marine environmental processes. Marine traf fi c, oil and gas extraction, and dredging are concentrated in shelf areas. Further offshore, in the mid-ocean, direct human in fl uences are limited to oceanic crossing by marine vessels and fi shing activities. The decreasing in fl uence of human activity with distance from the coast is related to the physical limitations imposed by the environment (wave height and depth) and the logistics of getting there.

European researchers, funded through the EU Framework Programme (see Box 5.5 ), have invested time and effort to identify the effects and implications of topics such as climate change, eutrophication, dispersal of invasive species, and resource overexploi-tation. Despite these efforts, many uncertainties remain.


5.5.1 Resource Overexploitation

The exponential growth in human population over the last few decades has led to overexploitation of coastal resources to meet growing demands for human goods and services—in simple terms, harvesting the oceans. Marine systems provide important goods and services to humans, such as food provision, gas and climate regulation, 1 cultural heritage and identity, leisure and recreation, nonuse values, 2 raw materials, nutrient recycling, natural barriers to erosion (resistance), resilience, nursery ground, and bioremediation of waste 3 (Airoldi and Beck 2007 ; Costanza et al. 1997 ; Heip et al. 2009 ; Worm et al. 2006 ) .

The last century has witnessed an increase in land reclamation, coastal protec-tion, and development including ports, harbors and industries, over fi shing, habitat conversion, oil and gas exploration, aggregate extraction, and pollution. These activities have drastically reduced European natural coastal ecosystems and habi-tats, such as wetlands, seagrass meadows, shell fi sh beds, and others. It has been

1 Climate regulation refers to the balance and maintenance of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans by marine living organisms. 2 Non-use values are values associated that does not concern the use, either direct or indirect, of the environment, its resources or services. They are bene fi ts that are derived from marine organisms without using them. 3 Bioremediation of waste refers to the removal of pollutants through storage, burial and recycling.

Box 5.5 European Framework Programme

The European Framework Programme is the principle instrument of the EU for funding research in Europe. Each framework covers one of the main areas of EU research policy, which are constantly being updated as new information comes to light and new priorities come to the fore. The current framework is the Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP7), which runs from 2007 to 2013. FP7 is designed to respond to Europe’s employment needs, competitiveness, and quality of life.

The previous framework, FP6, highlighted the importance of marine biodi-versity and the new research information, which led to successful application of projects such as the Pan-European Species directories Infrastructure (PESI) within FP7. There will be no Eighth Framework Programme. The new integrated funding system that will cover all research and innovation funding is entitled Horizon 2020. The EU sees the new name as a step toward establishing research innovation at the heart of EU policy-making and hopes it will help research con-nect with the wider public.

156 R. Nash

estimated that each day between 1960 and 1995 a kilometer of European coastline was developed, causing permanent losses of valuable habitats, such as coastal wet-lands, seagrass meadows, and rocky shores (Airoldi and Beck 2007 ) . Additionally, the increasing number of tourists visiting coastal areas presents a signi fi cant threat to many coastal habitats in Europe, where trampling or direct harvesting (e.g., sea-weed, shell fi sh) can have an impact on coastal habitats. Aside from habitat loss, a number of other consequences occur as a result of resource overexploitation, such as resource depletion of target and nontarget species, reduced water quality, and changes in community composition and abundance of species.

Overexploitation of coastal resources through urban development, deforestation, dredging, industrial and domestic discharges, and so on can result in increased sedi-mentation (Airoldi and Virgilio 1998 ; Barko et al. 1991 ; O’Reilly et al. 1996 ; Vitousek et al. 1997 ) . Sedimentation can lead to increased water turbidity and del-eterious effects on biodiversity over a range of scales and habitats (Airoldi 2003 ; Anderson et al. 2004 ; Balata et al. 2007 ) . In soft bottom systems, signi fi cant decreases in the abundance and diversity of infaunal assemblages over large spatial scales has been associated with increased sedimentation rates (Edgar and Barrett 2000 ) . In coral reef systems, increased sedimentation regimens has been linked to dramatic changes in species composition and abundance and irreversible deteriora-tion and loss of coral reefs and associated fi sheries resources (de Zwaan et al. 1995 ; McClanahan and Obura 1997 ) . In rocky shore habitats, high sedimentation rates have been associated with changes in assemblage structure owing to the response of invertebrates and macroalgae to the stress imposed by sedimentation (Airoldi and Cinelli 1997 ; Airoldi and Hawkins 2007 ) .

Over the last few decades, there has been an increase in exploration and develop-ment of oil and gas activities in offshore waters while, in parallel, regulations have been put in place to minimize their impact. Despite improvements in technology, the construction and operational phases still pose a potential threat to the marine habitats, fl ora and fauna, and water quality in their vicinity. The construction phase of such development can result in the direct loss of habitat and species, although the heavily regulated industry now operates with the highest environmental standards. However, the most regulated industry cannot prevent accidents and oil spills, which have a number of consequences to wildlife, including the deleterious impact of oil on the insulation of feathers and fur on seabirds and mammals, respectively, and the reduction in photosynthesis resulting from oil slicks. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (2010) in the Gulf of Mexico was one of the largest oils spills in the world. Although it affected marine habitats and species, because of its scale it damaged the Gulf of Mexico fi shing and tourism industries. It is thought that a spill of this scale could take the ecosystem years, possibly decades, to recover from such an infusion of oil and gas (see Box 5.6 ).

When overexploitation is mentioned, the fi rst thing that springs to mind is over fi shing or removal of marine living resources (Fig. 5.4 ). However, it also includes the extraction of raw materials such as sand and gravel. Where these resources are of suf fi cient quantity, of the right composition, and accessible to commercial dredgers, they may be used as a source of aggregate for the construction industry to supple-ment land-based sources, or as sources of material for beach nourishment (Singleton


2001 ) . The dredging of billions of cubic meters of sand and gravel each year is not restricted to European waters; it is a worldwide phenomenon. These commercial dredge sites can alter valuable habitats and destroy the nurseries of numerous species far outside the excavation areas. Dredging causes an initial reduction in the abun-dance, species diversity, and biomass of the benthic community. For example,

Fig. 5.4 Stall at the fi sh market in Istanbul

Box 5.6 Fossil Fuels

The highly regulated operational discharges from oil tankers now constitute only 4% of the oil entering the sea. Discharges from other vessels and acci-dental spills still account for some 450,000 tons of oil pollution from ships each year (GESAMP 2007 ) .

Fossil fuels continue to dominate total energy consumption in Europe. Total gross inland energy consumption increased, on average, by 0.5% per annum in Europe during the period 1990–2007 (8.7% overall), thus offsetting some of the environmental bene fi ts that resulted from fuel switching. From 2006 to 2007, gross inland energy consumption decreased by 1.1%. The share of fossil fuels in gross inland energy consumption was 78.6% in 2007 com-pared to 83.1% in 1990. The share of renewable energy sources was 7.8% of total gross inland consumption in 2007, almost double that in1990 (4.4%). The share of nuclear energy in total gross inland consumption increased slightly to 13.4% in 2007 from 12.2% in 1990 (EEA 2010 ) .

158 R. Nash

Desprez ( 2000 ) showed that for an industrial extraction off Dieppe, France, the struc-ture of the benthic community changed from coarse sands characterized by the lance-lot Branchiostoma lanceolatun to fi ne sands composed of the infaunal polychetes Ophelia borealis , a bristle worm, and Nephtys cirrosa , a ragworm . Thus, the change in assemblage structure re fl ected a change in sediment composition caused by dredg-ing; in other words, the area has become more sandy over time.

5.5.1.1 Fisheries

Fishing provides food, income, and employment for millions of people and consti-tutes one of the most widespread human activities in the marine environment. A once sustainable industry is now threatening not only fi sh species but also many wild marine species ranging from algae to invertebrates to whales. Commercial fi shing, by its nature, is clearly having an impact on the marine environment. Fishing is the harvesting of a product that is itself part of natural biodiversity. Fish stocks are important as a component of marine biodiversity in their own right and an integral part of marine food chains. It is in everyone’s interest, particularly that of the fi shermen, to ensure that fi sh stocks are not depleted and marine ecosystems are not disrupted. Only through limiting catches to sustainable levels can fi sheries be sustained in the long term and marine biodiversity be protected.

Overexploitation has major effects on marine systems as a whole, but target spe-cies (commercial species) are generally the most affected, which this can have other consequences for species in the ecosystem (Heip et al. 2009 ) . Over fi shing can ulti-mately lead to resource depletion of target species and put a number of threatened and endangered species at risk of extinction. Different populations of the same spe-cies may differ in their sensitivity to exploitation; this could lead to a decline of less-resilient populations whereas other populations of the same species are less affected (Heip et al. 2009 ) . On many temperate reefs, shifts from macroalgae-dom-inated habitats to habitats grazed by sea urchins, termed “urchin barrens,” have been linked to the over-harvesting of top predators (Shears and Babcock 2002 ) .

Commercial fi shing has an impact on nontarget species (of low or no commercial value), which often end up being discarded. Physical disturbance by fi shing gear (e.g., trawling for demersal species) can cause scraping, scouring, and resuspension of the sediment and disturbance of the sea fl oor, which is a habitat for a large number of noncommercial species. It has been estimated that all of the seabed of the North Sea is trawled over at least twice per year, and the gear is getting heavier over time (Sydow 1990 ) . These trawls are destroying long-lived species of molluscs and echi-noderms. Some of these species may play important functional roles in biogeochem-ical cycling. Although relatively little information or research is available on many of these species, the consequences may be far-reaching. Research into gear develop-ment has allowed exploitation of new environments where long-lived species occur.

Fishing affects fi sh populations in many ways—reducing the numbers, changing the age and size composition of populations, and changing life history patterns (including evolutionary changes in maturation). Many fi sh populations have been


reduced to low numbers because of the long-term effects on fi shing (e.g., cod in the Baltic Sea). Some populations may even be approaching collapse (e.g., blue fi n tuna in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea).

Research examining historical studies has shown that cod in the eastern Baltic Sea were more abundant 400 years ago than during the late twentieth century. This result is surprising because the Baltic Sea at that time did not provide optimal conditions for cod and in fact was less productive than today. The productive waters seen today are a result of an increase in nutrients and primary production during the mid to late twentieth century. Similarly, marine mammal predators of cod (seals) were more abundant. It is thought that cod were probably more abundant, despite the lower productivity, because of the overall lower level of exploitation during the 1500s .

Blue fi n tuna were abundant in northern European waters (e.g., North and Norwegian seas) until the late 1960s–1970s, when they disappeared; to date, they have not returned. The reasons for this disappearance are still not clear. However, since the 1970s, the overall biomass in the entire northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean region has declined, and landings have been too high for too many years to allow the population to recover. Legitimate fi shing quotas are exceeded by illegal landings and catches of undersized fi sh. As a result of these illegal landings, the population is not only at risk of collapse, but the blue fi n tuna have already began to disappear from other areas within its known distribution, including the Black Sea and parts of the Mediterranean (MacKenzie and Myers 2007 ) .

Heavy exploitation of fi sh populations can also have consequences for the other species in the ecosystem, including effects on the abundance of prey species and the ways in which predators and prey interact (e.g., the structure and functioning of ecosystems). They can include “cascading” effects in which the abundance of prey species increases in response to decreases in the abundance of predators. The increase in the prey species then has a controlling effect on prey in the next lower trophic level in the food web, and so on (Jennings and Kaiser 1998 ) .

An early example of this ecological cascade occurred in the Limfjord, Denmark during the early 1800s, when heavy fi shing pressure contributed to the collapse of a local herring population and the subsequent dominance of jelly fi sh, including Aurelia aurata . The ecosystem became so dominated by jelly fi sh that fi shermen were complaining that they could not haul their nets, and the issue was discussed in the Danish parliament. This example seems to have been repeated in other areas around the world, including the Mediterranean, where fi shing has removed large quantities of zooplanktivorous fi sh such as herring, sardines, and anchovy, with the result that jelly fi sh subsequently became abundant (Poulsen et al. 2007 ) .

Fishing is by nature a selective process: Some individuals are more likely than others to avoid capture, thereby surviving and reproducing. This may be because of individual differences in size, morphology, and/or behavior. Fishing may therefore act selectively on reproductive age and size groups. If these differences are herita-ble, fi shing will have evolutionary effects on the population over time. In addition, different populations of the same species may differ in their sensitivity to exploita-tion, which could lead to a decline of less-resilient populations, whereas other popu-lations of the same species are less affected.

160 R. Nash

5.5.2 Eutrophication

The input of nutrients into coastal systems through runoff from agricultural activi-ties, aquaculture, and industrial or urban developments has greatly increased during the last few decades (Diaz and Rosenberg 2008 ; Howarth 2008 ) . Nutrient enrich-ment can lead to a process known as eutrophication. The word eutrophication is derived from the Greek words eu , meaning well, and trope , meaning nourishment. The use of the word in aquatic ecology refers to an increase in the concentration of nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem, which enhances plant productivity of the system. This enhanced plant growth, often called an algal bloom, reduces dissolved oxygen in the water when dead plant material decomposes and can cause other organisms to die. The EU de fi nes eutrophication as “enrichment of water by nutrients, especially nitrogen and/or phosphorus, causing an accelerated growth of algae and higher forms of plant life to produce an undesirable disturbance to the balance of organisms present in the water and to the quality of water concerned” (EC 1991 ) . The detri-mental effects of eutrophication on aquatic ecosystems include reduced oxygen lev-els, increased turbidity, habitat degradation, alteration of food web structures, loss of biodiversity, and increased frequency and the spatial and temporal extent of harmful algal blooms (Andersen et al. 2006 ; Clarke et al. 2006 ; Devlin et al. 2007 ; Howarth 2008 ; Pranovi et al. 2008 ; Valiela et al. 1997 ) .

A wide range of chemical compounds can enter aquatic systems as nutrients, and most are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans over distances of 160 km (see Chap. 3 for more details on pharmaceutical compounds). However, the number of chemicals that are considered a potential source of harm and that are related to human activities is quite small. The nutrients relevant to eutrophication processes are gener-ally restricted to inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus compounds (Allen et al. 1998 ; Clarke et al. 2006 ; Howarth et al. 2000 ; Schindler 1974 ; Schindler et al. 2008 ) .

In general, the sources of nutrient pollution can be classi fi ed as non-point sources and point sources (Clark et al. 1997 ) . A point source of pollution is de fi ned as a sin-gle identi fi able, localized source that has a de fi nite position but limited spatial extent (e.g., a sewage outfall). Non-point sources, also known as diffuse, are generated by runoff from land-use activities, rather than from an identi fi able well-de fi ned point source, such as runoff of fertilizers applied to agricultural fi elds, golf courses, and suburban lawns. Another non-point source of nitrogen in aquatic systems is atmo-spheric deposition (e.g., in the form of acid rain), especially in industrialized regions. The combustion of fossil fuels is large source of atmospheric nitrogen pollution.

Eutrophication has been a widespread threat to water quality in Europe for cen-turies (Lotze et al. 2006 ) . It is considered one of the most serious ecological prob-lems in the Baltic Sea and Black Sea in that it is responsible for increased primary production and the subsequent increase in algal sedimentation, causing a decrease in the oxygen content of deep water. The proliferation of microscopic algae over large areas of the Baltic Sea has reduced water transparency and sometimes created surface scum and odors. This reduction in water transparency has also affected the distribution and composition of algae communities and, indirectly, invertebrate

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3752-9_3


and fi sh communities (Crouzet et al. 2007 ) . The deposition of organic matter from the enriched water column has caused extended periods of hypoxia, which has resulted in the loss of more than 5,000 km 2 of bivalves and drastically reduced bio fi ltration. Fish stocks have shown a general trend toward declining cod and increasing sprat populations. Cod lay eggs in deeper, saltier water than sprat and so are more vulnerable to hypoxia (Langmead and McQuatters-Gollop 2007 ) . Similarly, in the Black Sea durinig the 1970s there was a catastrophic collapse of a benthic red algae ( Phyllophora sp . ) ecosystem, which dominated the northwest shelf; concurrently a hypoxic “dead zone” appeared on the shelf. Each subsequent summer, the dead zone appeared for a longer time over an increasing area, result-ing in massive loss of life among the benthic organisms. Both phenomena were consequences of eutrophication-related factors, among others, due to increased application of fertilizers, particularly in the 11 countries of the Danube basin from the 1960s to the 1980s (Mee 2001 ) .

5.5.3 Aquaculture

The exponential growth of fi sh farms in Europe over the last decades has raised concern about the waste produced and its impact on the ecological quality of the sea bottom. However, the tolerance limits of water quality depend on the species culti-vated, especially with respect to salinity and temperature. Aquaculture—particularly intensive aquaculture activities—are another important source of nutrient input to water bodies, which can lead to eutrophication (see Box 5.7 ). Researchers have shown how organic loading is increased and nutrients dynamics are altered in sites near fi sh farms (Pusceddu et al. 2007 ) . Constant deposition of large amounts of waste can create azoic zones devoid of macrobenthic organisms underneath cage farms. An impoverished area of microfauna, dominated by opportunistic species characteristic of enriched sediments, may develop in the vicinity of the farm. Studies have also shown how seagrass meadows ( Posidonia oceanica ) situated near fi sh farms are affected by farming activity in terms of cover and biomass. In contrast, herbivore pressure and epiphyte and macroalgae cover increased closer to the net cages (Pusceddu et al. 2007 ) .

Box 5.7 European Aquaculture Production

European aquaculture production increased rapidly over the past decade and a half because of expansion in the marine sector in EU and European Free Trade Agreement countries. This increase represents a rise in pressure on adjacent water bodies and associated ecosystems, resulting mainly from nutri-ent release from aquaculture facilities. The precise level of local impact varies according to production scale and techniques as well as local and regional hydrodynamics and chemical characteristics (EEA 2009 ) .

162 R. Nash

Aside from the wastes derived from natural processes and wastage of feeds, the ef fl uents from an aquaculture farm may contain the remains of chemicals used to disinfect the farm, control pests and predators, or treat diseases. The nature and extent of the chemicals depend on the locality, nature, and intensity of culture operations and the frequency of diseases. Anesthetics, disinfectants, and biocides used in farms may have lethal or sublethal effects on nontarget organ-isms in the environment. It is also important to consider the potential effect of chemicals derived from farm construction material and antifouling compounds used to treat net cages. Tributyltin (TBT), an active ingredient in certain antifoul-ing paints used on ships, is one of the most dangerous substances ever deliber-ately introduced into the marine environment. TBT has been observed to cause reproductive failure in oysters (Inoue et al. 2004 ) , and accumulates in the tissues of fi sh and other species.

Aquaculture in Europe is moving toward raising higher trophic level species, which require large quantities of food (i.e., small pelagic fi sh) (Fig. 5.5 ). It takes 4 kg of small pelagic fi sh to raise 1 kg of salmon. This creates a large demand for small pelagic fi sh, which may in turn further disrupt ecosystem functioning (Naylor et al. 2000 ) .

The release of exotics and/or farmed fi sh into the environment can have adverse effects. In addition to predation or competition with local fauna, there are dangers of hybridization and reduced genetic diversity. The inadvertent introduction of pathogens and diseases carried by the exotics is a particularly serious danger, if precautions are not taken.

Fig. 5.5 Salmon farm in Kinvarra Bay, Ireland


5.5.4 Invasive Species

A species is considered alien when it is outside its natural range as a direct or indi-rect result of human activities. The opening of the Suez Canal connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea allowed large-scale migration of species beyond their native ranges (Gollasch 2007 ) . Among the many man-made canals, the Suez Canal is considered such an important vector of introduction that the migration of species through it has received a unique name: the “Lessepsian migration.” Aquaculture introduces new species both intentionally and unintentionally. Sometimes these species, such as the deliberately introduced Red King Crab, estab-lish themselves in large numbers or act as carriers of harmful parasites.

Marine, coastal, and estuarine ecosystems across all European seas are poten-tially threatened by invasions of nonindigenous species. In some cases, these spe-cies locate an ecological niche devoid of natural predators, cause serious ecosystem damage by altering the food web structure, and result in large costs to humans.

The larges group of nonindigenous marine species are invertebrate animals (e.g., jelly fi sh, shell fi sh, barnacles) followed by plants (including microalgae) and then vertebrate animals, mostly fi sh. The cumulative number of nonindigenous marine species has grown steadily since we began to keep records and has risen dramati-cally during the last decade (EEA 2007 ) . It was estimated to have reached 1376 by May 2009. Among them, 108 species were recorded in the Baltic Sea, 164 in the Black Sea, 376 in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, and 931 in the Mediterranean Sea. Some species have been recorded in more than one sea.

The introduction of alien species in aquatic environments causes disturbance, which leads to a decline in ecological quality. The decline results from changes in biological, chemical, and physical properties of aquatic ecosystems. It can thus be viewed as a pollution agent, and the condition has been termed “biopollution.” Research carried out has led to the development of an index for assessing the impact of alien species by classifying them according to fi ve levels of biopollution, similar to, and indeed fi tting within, the existing schemes for water quality assessment (Olenin et al. 2007 ) .

The EU-funded project Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe (DAISIE) has established an invasive species website that provides “one-stop shop-ping” for information on biological invasions in Europe (see Box 5.8 ). It includes a list of the top most-unwanted species, including several marine species. The slipper limpet ( Crepidula fornicata ), Paci fi c oyster ( Crassostrea gigas ) (Fig. 5.6 ), and nomad jelly fi sh ( Rhopilema nomadica ) are among the top 100 worst invasive species. Scientists con fi rmed that intensive shipping trade and construction of canals connecting different river basins, in particular, have allowed the extension of ranges. The removal of natural barriers has furnished aquatic organisms with many opportunities for dispersal beyond their native range (Galil et al. 2006 ; Gollasch 2007 ; Panov et al. 2007 ) .

Shipment has been responsible for carrying species around the globe in ballast tanks and attached to their hulls. Ballast tank “hitchhikers” include organisms bur-ied in the tank sediment, such as the Chinese mitten crab ( Eriocheir sinensis ), a species that recently expanded its range in Europe (Minchin 2006 ; Panov 2006 ; Shakirova et al. 2007 ) .

164 R. Nash

Fig. 5.6 Paci fi c oyster in the Shannon Estuary, Ireland

Box 5.8 Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe

DASIE is funded by the 6th Framework Programme of the European Commission (contract no. SSPI-CT-2003-511202). It provides one-stop shop-ping for information on biological invasions in Europe, delivered via an inter-national team of leading experts in the fi eld of biological invasions, latest technological developments in database design and display, and an extensive network of European collaborators and stakeholders. DAISIE does the following.

1. Creates an inventory of invasive species that threaten European terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments

2. Provides the basis for prevention and control of biological invasions through understanding the environmental, social, economic, and other fac-tors involved

3. Summarizes the ecological, economic and health risks, and the impact of each of the most widespread and/or noxious invasive species

4. Uses distribution data and the experiences of the individual member states as a framework for considering indicators for early warning

Data have been collated for vertebrates, invertebrates, and marine and inland aquatic organisms as well as plants from up to 93 countries/regions (including islands) in wider Europe. Experts have assembled and veri fi ed more than 248 data sets, representing the largest database on invasive species in the world. Source : www.europe-aliens.org/ .

http://www.europe-aliens.org/



Climate change is expected to be one of the major environmental challenges of the twenty- fi rst century; and its effects are starting to be observed in the marine envi-ronment, one of which is increasing seawater temperatures. Temperature measure-ment is the most common physical assessment of water quality. Temperature afects the chemical and biological characteristics of surface water, including the dis-solved oxygen level in water, photosynthesis of aquatic plants, metabolic rates of aquatic organisms, and the sensitivity of these organisms to pollution, parasites, and disease. A climate change-induced rise in sea temperatures is analogous to the thermal pollution that generally occurs near power plants. The sea temperature increases as a result of the introduction of water warmer than the body of water into which it fl ows.

Research scientists have measured rising temperatures in European waters and observed how the warmer temperatures are affecting marine biodiversity (Weslawski et al. 2009 ) . In waters from the Arctic southward to the Mediterranean, research projects have recorded shifts in species distributions to northern and deeper waters; changes in the seasonal timing (phenology) of life history events, such as migration, reproduction, metamorphosis, and settlement; and the ways in which interactions among species (e.g., predation and competition) are changing. Climate change, however, will not only affect the thermal environment of marine ecosystems; rises in temperature will be accompanied by changes in other abiotic conditions of sea-water, including acidity (pH), oxygen concentration, and in some areas the salt con-centration itself (salinity). Moreover, the strength and direction of some ocean currents, on which nearly all marine species depend at some stage in their lives, could alter because of climate changes. Research has found that some of these cli-mate-related changes are already happening and has revealed how these changes are affecting, and will affect, marine biodiversity in the years ahead.

In temperate zones, many phytoplankton species form blooms during speci fi c periods of the year (see Box 5.9 ). Under the in fl uence of global warming, some spe-cies show a propensity to bloom in places earlier than previously recorded. In addi-tion, the distribution patterns of these plankton blooms tend to move poleward. New species are appearing in regions, partly through ballast water dumping, for example,

Box 5.9 Plankton

Plankton is a collective term for all organisms living in the water column that lack their own means of active movement or whose range of movements are more or less negligible in comparison to the movement of the water mass as a whole. Planktonic organisms can range in size from a few meters for large jelly fi sh and salp (free fl oating tunicate) colonies to less than a micrometer for bacteria.

166 R. Nash

and partly through the range expansion of warmwater species toward the North Pole. Over the last century, several species of the genus Ceratium (a dino fl agellate) have disappeared from study sites in Villefranche sur mer and Naples or have become far less common. New dino fl agellate species have recently appeared, and other species have become more common (Tunin-Ley et al. 2009 ) .

Many phytoplankton species produce toxins or otherwise constitute a nuisance to other species, including humans. Such species are considered harmful; and if they occur in large numbers, they can form harmful algal blooms (HABs). In the Baltic Sea, blooms of toxic cyanobacteria pose a health risk to humans and domestic ani-mals swimming in the sea. Bloom-forming cyanobacteria are a natural component of the Baltic Sea phytoplankton (Bianchi et al. 2000 ) . In the current scenario of global change, coastal regions such as the Baltic Sea are suddenly fi nding them-selves confronted with increasing numbers of HABs.

5.5.6 Random Flux Events

Research has shown that the eastern Mediterranean is periodically subject to chance increases in the fl ow of particles (random fl ux events) that deliver large amounts of food to the sea fl oor, turning the “desert” into an “oasis” over short periods. These changes are thought to relate to both climate change and natural-to-interannual vari-ability. Climate models predict an increasing variance in rainfall regimes, with an increased frequency of droughts paralleled by unusual amounts of rainfall and fl oods. In anticipation of these predictions, the Mediterranean region is now being subjected to extensive river damming. However, although this may protect the river banks and hin-terland from the predicted fl ooding events, it can also have an extensive impact on the current coastal food webs, particularly through the predicted variation in river fl ow.

For example, research was carried out to examine fl uctuations of populations of animals living on and in the sea fl oor to determine whether there is a link between climate-driven river runoff and the sole fi shery yields in the Gulf of Lions (Salen-Picard et al. 2002 ) . The research showed that a highly variable amount of terrestrial material is exported to the sea by the River Rhone and deposited on the continental shelf for the most part. Soft-bottom communities off the Rhone estuary were domi-nated by polychaetes (marine worms), which are deposit feeders feeding on organic matter deposited on the estuarine bed. In this case, the organic matter was of ter-restrial origin. These polychaetes were seen to exhibit strong seasonal fl uctuations in size and numbers, mainly related to fl ooding events as the latter cause pulses of organic matter to be deposited. Opportunistic, short-lived polychaete species, such as Mediomastus sp. and Aricidea claudiae , exhibit high short-term peaks in their numbers a few months after fl ooding events. Conversely, long-lived species, such as Laonice cirrata and Sternaspis scutata , peaked after 1–3 years, and their population increase lasted a few years. The common sole, Solea solea , is a voracious predator of these polychaetes, which represent more than 80% of its diet. A relation was found between the average annual discharge of the Rhone River and the annual


commercial landings of sole in the two fi shing harbors (Sete and Martigues) located close to the Rhone delta. The long-term increase in food after fl ooding events favors the different stages of the sole life cycle, enhancing its population size for several years and consequently stabilizing the associated fi sheries. Research indicates that the fl uctuations in the sole fi shery yields in the Gulf of Lions could be in fl uenced by climate as: (1) the Rhone river fl ow is related to the North Atlantic Oscillation that drives precipitation over Western Europe, and/or (2) an increase in the damming of the Rhone River upstream.

In some areas, climate change could potentially in fl uence the salinity of the sea-water through an increase in precipitation and freshwater runoff from rivers and lakes (Mariotti and Arkin 2007 ) . In the Baltic Sea, the salinity of the water is already so low that some fi sh species have adapted physiologically to live there, and other marine fi sh species are prevented. Some climate–oceanographic models predict that the salinity of the Baltic Sea will fall even more because climate change in this area will increase precipitation (Mackenzie et al. 2007 ) . If climate change leads to a fall in Baltic Sea salinity, it will reduce the number of marine fi sh species, even though one might otherwise predict that the increasing temperature should allow warmer adapted species to immigrate. The Baltic Sea example shows the importance of considering multiple aspects of climate change, especially in coastal areas, when estimating how marine biodiversity will change in the future.

5.5.7 Fish

Climate models predict a 2–4 ºC rise in water temperature along with a rise in sea levels for the twenty- fi rst century. It would have major implications for species, ecosystems, and food webs: spatial distributions, life histories, phenologies, and biotic interactions among species will be altered. Archaeological evidence from the waters around Denmark (the Kattegat and Skagerrak rivers, the Belt Sea, Bornholm Island) during a warm period from 7000 to 3900 bc indicate the presence of several warmwater fi sh species (Enghoff et al. 2007 ) . These species were the smooth-hound shark ( Mustelus sp.), common stingray ( Dasyatis pastinaca ), anchovy ( Engraulis encrasicolus ), European sea bass ( Dicentrarchus labrax ), black sea bream ( Spondyliosoma cantharus ), and sword fi sh ( Xiphias gladius ). These species pres-ently have a southerly distribution, and their presence near Denmark was presum-ably due partly to the warmer temperatures at that time. Some of these same species have now been, or are being, captured regularly in this area by fi shermen in com-mercially important quantities (reaching tens and thousands of tons annually). Research is showing that warming temperatures have contributed to an overall increase in fi sh species diversity in the North Sea since the mid-1970s. This is mainly the case for small southern species; large northern species have shifted their distributions to more northern and deeper waters. These changes have been seen in scienti fi c fi sheries surveys that annually monitor the species composition of the North Sea fi sh community (Enghoff et al. 2007 ) .

168 R. Nash

During the times of substantially colder climate and severe winters during the seventeenth century, the herring ( Clupea harengus membras ) fi shery in the north-eastern Baltic Sea (Gulf of Riga) mostly operated during the summer months (June–July). This was probably because of the later migration of herring to the spawning areas close to the coast where the fi sh were caught. In contrast, in today’s warmer climate conditions, the coastal trapnet herring fi shery operates in spawning grounds a few months earlier than the historical colder times.

Climate change will also have many nonthermal effects on fi sh populations, including, for example, changes in the strength, direction, and location of ocean currents, which affect the likelihood that fi sh eggs and larvae can survive and grow. Also, as temperatures rise, the ability of the ocean to retain oxygen will decrease. In many coastal areas in Europe (e.g., bays, straits, estuaries), the combination of ris-ing temperature and decreasing oxygen—particularly in areas that already also receive high levels of nutrients (eutrophication)—will reduce the size of habitats, especially for bottom-living fi sh species such as cod and fl at fi shes. These species will therefore become less abundant and widespread if coastal areas experience longer and more frequent anoxic periods (Heip et al. 2009 ) .

5.5.8 Arctic Waters

Another impact of climate change will be a rise in sea level. This is because of the melting of land-based glaciers and the expansion of seawater as it warms up (warmer water occupies more space than cold water). Both factors will cause fl ooding of existing coastal lowlands. The newly fl ooded coastal areas will provide more fi sh habitat, especially for benthic juvenile stages, which are common in coastal areas.

Warming in the European Arctic has not only caused sea ice to melt and the temperature to increase but also an increasing advance of Atlantic waters to high latitudes by way of the prevailing North Atlantic current. Research shows that Atlantic water stemming from a biologically diverse marine region (Norwegian Sea, Norwegian shelf, British shelf) is introducing additional species to the relatively species-poor Arctic (Weslawski et al. 2009 ) . Pelagic herbivores (e.g., krill) from the relatively warm Atlantic water are typically smaller than the cold-water Arctic her-bivore species. Naturally, top predators of the Arctic (seabirds, seals, whales) feed ef fi ciently on these relatively large herbivores, often with no intermediate small predators between the herbivores and the top predators (Fig. 5.7 ). The process of warming is causing a substantial shift in the food web from large Arctic herbivores to smaller Atlantic species, thus reducing the food resources available to the top predators. In the warming Arctic, primary production is utilized by smaller, faster-growing species. Additionally, small carnivores are becoming more diversi fi ed and numerous, which is dissipating the energy fl ow considerably. In this way, warming effects lead to higher biodiversity in the Arctic and simultaneous food shortages for the top predators as a consequence (Weslawski et al. 2009 ) .



Another driver of global change is the increased concentration of CO 2 in the atmo-

sphere, which means that the CO 2 concentration in the upper layers of the ocean

also goes up. Oceans are at present CO 2 sinks and represent the largest active carbon

sink on Earth. Although this may appear from the outside to be of positive bene fi t to phytoplankton, there is a less favorable side effect. CO

2 dissolves in the seawater

and combines with other elements to form chemical compounds with acidic proper-ties, while excessive amounts of CO

2 resulting from human activities lead to a global

impact on water quality (Feely et al. 2009 ) . Acidi fi cation of the seas as a result of climate change is one of the greatest threats

facing the marine environment. It poses signi fi cant implications for shell-forming (calcifying) organisms and other lifeforms, as well as for the global carbon cycle.

Biogenic calci fi cation is dependent on the pH balance of water and becomes increasingly dif fi cult with the increasing acidity of seawater (Fabry et al. 2008 ) . Acidity increases in line with levels of CO

2 in the seawater; in other words, the pH

balance disappears. As the pH of seawater decreases, several phytoplankton species that utilize calcium carbonate as construction material in their cell walls will have increasing dif fi culty sequestering it from the seawater and keeping it in their cell walls. This includes shell fi sh such as mussels and oysters but also single-celled planktonic calcifying organisms, among which coccolithophores are the most abun-dant (De Bodt et al. 2008 ; Gazeau et al. 2007 ) . These tiny organisms bear calcium carbonate plates (coccoliths) to which they owe their vernacular name. Cocolithophores are so abundant that their blooms can be detected by satellites.

Fig. 5.7 Minke whale

170 R. Nash

They are responsible for about half of the calcium carbonate production of the oceans. (It is the calcium carbonate of coccolithophores that formed the white cliffs of Dover.)

Calcite skeletons play a major role in the carbon cycle of the oceans. When pelagic organisms (e.g., cocolithophores) die, their skeleton acts as a ballast, allow-ing them to sink to the ocean fl oor, temporarily locking the carbon contained in the organism and increasing the carbon storage capacity of the ocean (Martin et al. 2008 ) . Globally, the carbon assimilation capacity of oceans signi fi cantly reduces the atmospheric level of CO

2 . A signi fi cant portion of anthropogenic CO

2 has been

removed from the atmosphere in such a way (Cao et al. 2008 ; Sabine et al. 2004 ) . The Atlantic Ocean is particularly potent in this context (Steinfeldt et al. 2009 ) .

The capacity for oceans to store CO 2 may be overestimated, however, as research-

ers have shown that the effectiveness of the oceans to act as a carbon sink is decreas-ing (Schuster and Watson 2007 ; Steinfeldt et al. 2009 ; Thomas et al. 2008 ) . The exact mechanisms behind this decrease in capacity are still under investigation, but one concept theorizes that the ocean’s natural capacity to store the CO

2 depends in

part on the “biological pump,” de fi ned as vertical transport of carbon from organic matter being produced near the surface by living organisms, which then falls into deeper layers. According to this concept, the process is being affected by acidi fi cation (Martin et al. 2008 ) .

5.5.10 Biodiversity Loss

It is estimated that every 20 min around the world another species of plant or ani-mal becomes extinct. During the same period, 3,500 humans are born. Thoughts of marine biodiversity conjure up images of tropical coral reefs, but coral reefs are not restricted to the tropics. Europe has several areas of warm coral reefs, and recently reefs have been discovered in the nutrient-rich deep-sea cold water, some up to several kilometers long. These represent true biodiversity hotspots where the spe-cies richness and diversity rivals that of tropical corals. In fact, there are many instances of biodiversity hotspots in temperate waters; for example, the diversity of kelp forests has been compared with that of tropical forests on land. However, human activities are causing major impacts to these natural environments, produc-ing changes in the number, abundance, and identity of species inhabiting these ecosystems. They affect a wide range of species including some keystone species (see Box 5.10 ), such as large seaweeds, corals, grazing limpets, sea grasses, and

Box 5.10 Keystone Species

A keystone species is one that plays a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community and whose impact on the community is greater than would be expected based on its relative abundance or total biomass.


burrowing worms, which in turn indirectly cause a reduction in the number and abundance of other species with a potential loss of ecosystem functioning and pro-vision of goods and services.

Although there are clearly consequences of a changing biodiversity for the function-ing of ecosystems, it raises fundamental questions: Is the abundance of animals more important than the number of species? Does an impact have similar consequences at different locations? Does an area with high biodiversity result in a stable ecosystem?

Some of the results of a large-scale collaborative project between marine ecology institutions across Europe (MarBEF) showed that, in general, changes in abundance of species in the intertidal zone were more important than changes in the number of spe-cies. The key result of this research showed that whereas effects of changes in diver-sity are context-dependent (i.e., vary according to habitat and location), the effects of changes in species abundance are more consistent. For example, an experiment con-ducted on a rocky shore showed how the loss of several species of gastropod grazers (marine snails) affected algal cover (a measure of productivity) in rock pool habitats. The key fi nding indicated that it was not a reduction in the number of species per se that affected ecosystem functioning but the loss of a keystone species in this ecosys-tem (species identity), the china limpet. Removing the china limpet caused changes in the functioning of the system (increased algal cover), regardless of the number or abundance of other grazer species removed. Similarly, other studies have corroborated the fi nding that changes in the abundance of key species is more important and consis-tent in affecting ecosystem functioning than changes in species diversity.

In hotspots such as coral reefs there are a number of key species, and many of the associated species are of commercial interest. In warm water, reef fi sheries often tend to focus on populations of large, long-lived species at the top of the food webs, such as apex predators (Myers and Worm 2003 ) , resulting in changes to marine community structures as effects cascade through lower trophic levels (Mumby et al. 2006 ) . However, top predators, such as sharks, were being heavily fi shed around warm water coral reefs prior to the study and monitoring of the reefs, making it dif fi cult to establish the natural baseline for these ecosystems. What is accepted today as biodiversity rich in fact is a depleted scenario for what was originally thought to be in place.

In the case of cold-water coral ecosystems, the major trawling areas overlap because of the presence of associated species that are of commercial interest. These areas are heavily exploited locally, leaving a physically damaged and ecologically altered seabed behind.

5.6 Actions

Research projects are working to address many of the unanswered questions relat-ing to the consequences of biodiversity loss and water quality. This scienti fi c infor-mation/advice is provided to policymakers through a variety of channels, including formal reports, interactions with individual scientists, and via the public and news

172 R. Nash

media. Important mechanisms for providing such advice include formal rendering of advice by scientists internal or external to the responsible agency, through the critical review of reports and proposals, and workshops and informal advisory groups. Internal information from scientists, acting as agency employees or whose services are obtained through contracts, often constitutes the fi rst available advice for forming policy.

By taking into consideration the results/advice being produced through research, such as the development of new management tools, the EU can introduce legislation and monitoring programs to help understand and ultimately reduce biodiversity loss, thereby subsequently improving water quality throughout European waters. There is also recognition of the need for an appreciation of the Earth’s natural resources. As such, outreach programs in connection with research projects and in isolation have been established to help educate people on resource ef fi ciency. Outreach plays an important role in changing people’s attitudes and increasing their appreciation of the marine environment into the future. The information resulting from the research projects within the Framework Programme is made as policy-relevant as possible, and the outreach programs are aimed at a broad variety of target groups (e.g., policymakers, the public, students, pensioners ).

Science and research are the basis of environmental policy, more so now than in previous decades. Meanwhile, Europe has seen inclusion of the environment in the political agenda. As international and European relations often work best within a framework of agreed-upon legal instruments, considerable effort has been devoted to developing a series of conventions and other international and European instruments to promote conservation of marine biological diversity and water quality. The chal-lenge now is to ensure that the legislation in place is used effectively (see Box 5.11 ).

Box 5.11 Process of Prosecution Against EU Environmental Infringement

The legal consequence of breaking EU environmental law, such as the Water Framework Directive, can be examined in two stages. At the fi rst stage [under Article 258 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) (ex Article 226 of the EC Treaty)], the European Commission can refer the member state to the European Court of Justice (ECJ), which passes judgment on whether a breach of EU law has occurred. At this stage, no accompanying fi nancial penalties are enforced on the member state by the ECJ, so the judgment is not usually considered to be a major concern from the state’s perspective.

The second stage of the prosecution by ECJ against member state legisla-tive infringement [under Article 260 TFEU (ex Article 228 of the EC Treaty)] occurs only if the member state fails to comply with stage one of the judgment. The penalty for infringement is usually a fi nancial sum. (NB: A fi ne is legally possible only after the deadline for responding to the written warning at the second stage has passed.)


In June 2008, the EU established a framework for community action in the fi eld of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive), which states that “it is evident that pressure on natural marine resources and the demand for marine ecological services are often too high and that the Community needs to reduce its impact on marine waters regardless of where their effects occur.”

5.6.1 Resource Overexploitation

Overexploitation is commonplace in the marine realm. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the worldwide commercial fi shing industry. This overexploita-tion has led to ecosystem-based fi sheries management (EBFM), which aims to conserve the ecosystem through essentially reversing the order of management priorities so management starts with the ecosystem rather than a target species. Another area where action was taken was the EU Common Fisheries Policy (see Box 5.12 ), and in 2002 a radical reform was brought about to ensure sustainable exploitation of living aquatic resources. However, research in the interim on pre-dicted cycles in population size over time is showing that quotas in response to declining numbers of fi sh and wildlife may be making the problem worse as they do not respond quickly or accurately enough to changes in population size (Fryxell et al. 2010 ) .

At present, less than 1% of the oceans are fully protected. Research indicates that the creation of marine reserves and protected areas is the key to protecting not only important fi sh stocks but also the oceans’ biodiversity, which are under pressure as a result of overexploitation. Research in the United States suggested that connecting

Box 5.12 Common Fisheries Policy

The fi sheries policy is set within the context of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) of the EU. Under this policy, annual catch levels are set for the main commercial species. It is important that these quotas are determined on the basis of scienti fi c advice and monitoring, rather than short-term expediency. The CFP is widely criticized as the quota system leads to anomalies such as dumping of excess catches, which are therefore lost to the market and, as liv-ing organisms, to the marine ecosystem. While each country’s fi sheries policy is based at the European level, there is also scope for local initiatives (e.g., shell fi sh). These initiatives also include measures aimed at reducing the speci fi c impact of fi sheries on biodiversity.

Research has yet to reveal the full picture of what undoubtedly is a complex story. Greater research efforts are resulting in a better under-standing of how and to what extent the dynamics of marine communities are affected by fi shing.

174 R. Nash

marine protected areas (MPAs) into networks can produce simultaneous bene fi ts for conservation and fi sheries (Gaines et al. 2010 ) . This is analogous to studies on land where the need to conserve biodiversity corridors is being explored to prevent declining species from becoming isolated (Spring et al. 2010 ) . The Convention on Biological Diversity (see Box 5.13 ) has agreed to establish a global network of MPAs by 2012.


To assess the impact of climate change in aquatic systems and take the necessary action we must identify reliable environmental indicators and introduce cost-effec-tive monitoring programs. In recent years, these actions have been driven by global sustainable development (UN WSSD 2002 ) , climate change (IPCC 2007 ) , conser-vation of biological diversity (UN CBD 1992 ) , and European initiatives such as the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (EC 2008 ) (see Box 5.15 ) and the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) (EC 2000 ) (see Box 5.14 ).

Box 5.13 Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a legally binding interna-tional agreement dedicated to promoting sustainable development. It has been signed by more than 145 countries worldwide since it was launched at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The Convention establishes three main goals: conservation of biological diversity; sustainable use of its components; fair and equitable sharing of bene fi ts from the use of genetic resources.

Several actions are critically important for the application and success of the CBD Convention to the marine and coastal realm.

Institute integrated coastal zone management (ICZM), including commu-• nity-based coastal resource management and prevention and reduction of pollution from land-based sources. Establish and maintain marine protected areas for conservation and • sustainable use. Use fi sheries and other marine resources sustainably. • Ensure that mariculture operations are sustainable. • Prevent the introduction of harmful alien species; control or eradicate those • already present

Countdown 2010 was adopted as part of the Strategic Plan for the CBD to achieve a signi fi cant reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, and national level by 2010. It would contribute to poverty alleviation and to the bene fi t of all life on Earth.


The WFD is proactive. It not only gets European member states to monitor the water bodies (from freshwater streams and lakes to the coastal zone) throughout their countries, it requires that all water bodies achieve at least “good ecological status” by 2015. The EU-funded project under the FP7 framework WISER (water bodies in Europe: integrative systems to assess ecological status and recovery) (see Box 5.16 ) is supporting implementation of the WFD by developing tools for inte-grated assessment of the ecological status of European surface waters, including new assessment methodologies, databases, models, and software (WISER 2010 ) .

Box 5.14 Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)

Almost every human activity produces waste that if not controlled eventually arrives “downstream” in the sea. Some toxic wastes have a major impact on biodiversity around outfalls. The EU has introduced numerous pieces of leg-islation in relation to water protection and management, such as cooperation between member states in the fi eld of accidental and deliberate marine pollu-tion (2850/2000/EC).

The EU has established a European Community framework for water pro-tection and management. The objectives of the WFD are to protect all high-status waters, prevent further deterioration of all waters, and restore degraded surfaces and groundwaters to good status by 2015.

The Framework Directive provides, among other things, identi fi cation of European waters and their characteristics on the basis of individual river basin districts and adoption of management plans and programs of measures appro-priate for each body of water. Each member state is obliged to implement this directive, and river basins located in more than one member state are assigned to an international river basin district. By means of this Framework Directive, the EU provides management of inland surface waters, groundwater, transi-tional waters, and coastal waters to prevent and reduce pollution, promote sustainable water use, protect the aquatic environment, improve the status of aquatic ecosystems, and mitigate the effects of fl oods and droughts.

Box 5.15 Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC)

The Marine Strategy Framework Directive is a framework for community action in the fi eld of marine environmental policy. The directive establishes a common framework and objectives for the protection and conservation of the marine environment. To achieve these common objectives, member states must evaluate requirements in the marine areas for which they are responsible. They then have to draw up and implement coherent management plans in each region and monitor their application. Member states must fi rst assess the eco-logical status of their waters and the impact of human activities.

176 R. Nash

For the WFD, the ecological status of a water body is determined from biological, physicochemical, hydromorphological, and chemical assessments whose indicator species/characteristics are determined through preliminary research carried out to establish standards/levels that are applicable across Europe. The biological assess-ment numerically measures communities of plants and animals (e.g., phytoplankton, macrophytes, macroinvertebrates, fi sh), whereas the physicochemical assessment looks at elements such as dissolved oxygen, nutrient levels and other chemicals, including dangerous substances (e.g., heavy metals, solvents, pesticides). The hydro-morphological assessment looks at water fl ow and physical habitat. In marine systems, soft bottom benthic invertebrates are frequently used as bioindicators of ecological quality because it has been demonstrated that they respond relatively rap-idly to anthropogenic disturbance (e.g., nutrient input). Additionally, most are seden-tary or move so slowly that they cannot avoid deteriorating water/sediment quality conditions, have relatively long life-spans (thus indicate and integrate water/sediment quality conditions over time), consist of different species that exhibit different toler-ances to stress, and have an important role in cycling nutrients and materials between the underlying sediments and the overlying water column (Borja et al. 2000 ) . The future management of aquatic habitats will be strongly in fl uenced by the WFD.

5.6.3 Aquaculture

Rigorous standards have been introduced to “shell fi sh waters” to protect the public from potential health issues resulting from exposure to contaminated shell fi sh. Actions have been taken to control recreational and commercial harvesting of bivalve shell fi sh because these bivalve shell fi sh “bioaccumulate” bacteria, viruses, and toxins in their tissues (Fig. 5.8 ). Bioaccumulation occurs partly as a result of their method of feeding: Shell fi sh are fi lter feeders—they fi lter the surrounding waters for particles such as phytoplankton. A small number of phytoplankton spe-cies contain potent toxins. These toxins concentrate in and are harmless to shell fi sh but if ingested by humans can lead to serious gastrointestinal and neurological dis-orders. For the most part, these instances are just extremely unpleasant, but they are

Box 5.16 Water Bodies in Europe: Integrative Systems to Assess Ecological Status and Recovery (WISER)

WISER supports implementation of the WFD by developing tools for inte-grated assessment of the ecological status of European surface waters.

The project will analyze existing data from more than 90 databases com-piled in previous and ongoing projects, covering all water categories, organ-ism groups, and environmental stressor types. Field-sampling campaigns will supplement the data on lakes and coastal systems. The data will be used to test and complement existing assessment schemes with a focus on uncertainty. Source : http://www.wiser.eu/

http://www.wiser.eu/


on rare occasions fatal. Population explosions of phytoplankton, which either dete-riorate water quality or contain toxins, are referred to as harmful algal blooms (HABs). Some HABs occur as a result of anthropogenic loading of nutrients into European marine waters. Past research in this area included the active biological monitoring and removal of toxins in aquaculture ecosystems and shell fi sh – includ-ing the development of a solid-phase in situ ecosystem sampler (SPIES) and detoxi fi cation of shell fi sh (DETOX) (see Box 5.17 ). Current research includes the EU project “Warning of Algal Toxin Events” to support aquaculture in the northern periphery program coastal zone region (WATER) (see Box 5.18 ).

Box 5.17 Solid-phase In Situ Ecosystem Sampler and Detoxi fi cation of Shell fi sh

The projects Solid-phase In Situ Ecosystem Sampler (SPIES) and Detoxi fi cation of Shell fi sh (DETOX) have been developed to undertake active biological monitoring and removal of toxins in aquaculture ecosystems and shell fi sh.

The objectives of the project the following.

Enhanced food safety for shell fi sh products • More ef fi cient, effective monitoring of water quality in areas of aquacul-• ture and inshore fi sheries Reduced disruption and economic loss to the fi sh-farming and shell fi sh • industries Increased training of quality control personnel in the industry • Information and data to inform future EU directives and standards •

Source : http://www.spies-detox.eu/

Fig. 5.8 Commercial scallop dredges

http://www.spies-detox.eu/

178 R. Nash

The European MARAQUA project held a series of aquaculture workshops involving industry, government, and research scientists. They provided best practice guidelines for the aquaculture industry (see Box 5.19 ) (Fig. 5.9 ). The guidelines cover avoidance and minimization of the need to use medicines and other chemicals and how to record and monitor their use and effectiveness through exchanging expe-riences at the industrial and research levels. The guidelines for usage recommenda-tions were accompanied by guidelines for manufacturers of medicines and other chemicals and for regulatory authorities.

Box 5.18 Warning of Algal Toxin Events to Support Aquaculture in the Northern Periphery Programme Coastal Zone Region (WATER)

The pristine waters of the northern periphery (NP) coastal zone provide an ideal environment for shell fi sh aquaculture, a low environmental impact industry that has expanded considerably across Europe over the past years, providing employment in remote coastal regions. Its development has, how-ever, been hampered by episodic contamination with naturally occurring bio-toxins derived from phytoplankton, which are harmful to human health.

Monitoring the environment for potentially harmful phytoplankton and their biotoxins in shell fi sh is a requirement in EU member states. Time delays in achieving results, however, cause unnecessary losses to industry, particularly in peripheral regions. This project focuses on new methodologies that provide (1) rapid, on-site analysis for the presence of toxins in shell fi sh and (2) simple pro-cedures with which harmful phytoplankton events can be predicted.

These techniques are highly suited to peripheral regions. A sustainable service will be put in place to provide these methods for industry, thereby facilitating the development of aquaculture throughout the region. This is important as the capacity to forewarn about harmful events is essential to the development of the shell fi sh aquaculture industry. Source : http://www.northernperiphery.eu/en/projects/show/&tid=60

Box 5.19 Monitoring and Regulation of Marine Aquaculture (MARAQUA)

MARAQUA is a “concerted action” and therefore does not involve new research. Instead, it concentrates on reviewing existing information and establishing agreed-upon guidelines for monitoring and regulating marine aquaculture. The project will facilitate establishment of a European Network to bring together scientists, producers, regulators, and voluntary organizations in an effort to coor-dinate and provide means for the ef fi cient exchange and review of information. Source : http://www.lifesciences.napier.ac.uk/maraqua/

http://www.northernperiphery.eu/en/projects/show/&tid=60

http://www.lifesciences.napier.ac.uk/maraqua/


5.6.4 Biofouling

The colonization of man-made structures by marine or freshwater organisms, or “biofouling,” is a problem for maritime and aquaculture industries. A wide range of the chemicals applied in response can cause damage to marine wildlife. One of the most widely known cases was the antifouling paint tributyl-tin (TBT). This paint is used to keep boat hulls free of organisms and hence reduce their residence in the water, making the boats faster and more fuel-ef fi cient. TBT can cause deformities in oysters and sex changes in marine snails.

The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships (AFS Convention) (see Box 5.22 ), which was adopted in 2001, prohibited the use of harmful organotins in antifouling paints used on ships, beginning in September 2008. The European Union banned the application of TBT-based paints on EU- fl agged vessels in 2008 and made it an offense for any ship visiting an EU port to have TBT present on its hull.

Increasing restrictions on the use of toxic coatings that prevent biofouling cre-ated a gap in the market for new approaches to produce novel nonbiocidal alterna-tives. Advanced Nanostructured Surfaces for the Control of Biofouling (AMBIO), an EU-funded FP6 project, developed a fundamental understanding of key surface properties that in fl uence settlement and adhesion of fouling organisms. By taking this approach the project contributed to the understanding of fundamental phenom-ena involved in biofouling and to the development of environmentally benign solu-tions by coating manufacturers.

Fig. 5.9 Salmon farm

180 R. Nash

Box 5.22 International Convention on the Control of Harmful Antifouling Systems on Ships (AFS Convention)

The purpose of the AFS Convention is to ban the use of organotin compounds, which act as biocides in antifouling paints on ships, speci fi cally tributyl tin (TBT)-based antifouling paints. From January 1, 2008, with minor exceptions ships were required to either remove any organotin compounds on their sur-faces or ensure that the organotin compound on external surfaces were sealed to prevent their leaching into the water.

The Convention de fi nes an antifouling system as “a coating, paint, surface treatment, surface, or device that is used on a ship to control or prevent attach-ment of unwanted organisms.”

Antifouling systems are used to prevent the growth of algae, barnacles, and other marine organisms on a ship’s hull, enabling the ship to move faster through the water, thus reducing fuel consumption.

Box 5.20 EU Birds and Habitats Directives

The importance of marine biodiversity in Europe was highlighted in 2000 by the enactment of EU legislation under the 1992 EC Habitats Directive to con-serve natural habitats and species of wildlife considered rare, endangered, or vulnerable in the European Community. The EU Birds and Habitats Directives set up a network of designated areas (i.e., Natura 2000), several of which are marine sites located throughout Europe. The Natura 2000 network includes two area types: a Special Area of Conservation and a Special Protected Area (which is solely dedicated to conservation of wild birds and their habitats).

Box 5.21 Noncompliance with the Birds and Habitats Directives

To date, across the EU there have been nine fi nes (four in Greece; three in France; one each in Spain and Portugal). Single fi nes distributed by the European Court of Justice (ECJ) in the past have amounted to substantial sums: For example, in 2005 France was fi ned a lump sum of €20 million plus €57.7 million for each 6 months of continuing noncompliance with the ECJ’s judgment (C-304/02).

A case of particular note that was examined by the ECJ at the fi rst stage concerned the Birds Directive. It refers speci fi cally to aquaculture licensing in Ireland and its potential impact on Special Protection Areas for birds. It was held by the ECJ that Ireland, as a member state, failed to ensure systematically that aquaculture programs likely to have a signi fi cant effect on Special Protected Areas, individually or in combination with other projects, were made subject to an appropriate prior assessment under Article 6 of the Habitats Directive.



Ocean acidi fi cation is a relatively young topic in science, and further research is required to understand the processes better before any direct action can be taken. However, research and long-term observations show that pH values have been decreasing for a period of 20–25 years and that the pH of seawater is linked inextri-cably to CO

2 levels. Therefore, any actions to reduce global CO

2 emissions will

indirectly bene fi t the oceans. The European Project on Ocean Acidi fi cation (EPOCA) (see Box 5.23 ), currently underway, aims to advance understanding of the biologi-cal, ecological, biogeochemical, and societal implications of ocean acidi fi cation.

5.6.6 Biodiversity Loss and Water Quality

For the last 250 years there has been a standard approach to naming species but no inventory as to what has been described. Even though species names constitute criti-cal data for marine biodiversity management and for most branches of biodiversity-related applied and fundamental research, probably one- fi fth of all recently described names are synonyms (Bouchet 2006 ) . For example, a sponge widely used in medi-cal research into cell biology and cancer is widely misnamed as Microciona prolif-era —it should be called Clathria prolifera . There are 61 aliases for the sponge Halichondria panacea (Fig. 5.10 ). More surprisingly the distinctive and widely known sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus , has been described as 19 different species and three times by the famous taxonomist Linnaeus. Pan-European Species-directories Infrastructure (PESI), an EU-funded project within the 7th Framework Programme, aims to produce a badly needed validated species list. PESI will list

Box 5.23 European Project on Ocean Acidi fi cation (EPOCA)

The overall goal of EPOCA is to advance current understanding of the bio-logical, ecological, biogeochemical, and societal implications of ocean acidi fi cation. EPOCA aims to document the changes in ocean chemistry and biogeography across space and time; determine the sensitivity of marine organisms, communities, and ecosystems to ocean acidi fi cation; integrate results regarding the impact of ocean acidi fi cation on marine ecosystems in biogeochemical, sediment, and coupled ocean–climate models to understand better and predict the responses of the Earth’s system to ocean acidi fi cation; and assess uncertainties, risks, and thresholds (“tipping points”) related to ocean acidi fi cation at scales ranging from the subcellular to the ecosystem and at local and global levels. Source : http://www.epoca-project.eu/

http://www.epoca-project.eu/

182 R. Nash

species in Europe in electronic form, to be used as a standard reference for marine biodiversity training, research, and management in Europe. In most cases, experts on the various taxonomic groups will compile these lists. Such research enhances the quality and reliability of European marine biodiversity information and enables more accurate determination of losses incurred in any area. It can also lead to improved management practices around European coastlines (see Box 5.24 ). This project is an example of current research being funded to strengthen information on marine biodiversity.

Fig. 5.10 Breadcrumb sponge Halichondria panac

Box 5.24 Pan-European Species-directories Infrastructure (PESI)

PESI provides standardized and authoritative taxonomic information by integrating and securing Europe’s taxonomically authoritative species name registers and nomenclators (name databases) and the associated expert(tise) networks that underpin the management of biodiversity in Europe.

PESI de fi nes and coordinates strategies to enhance the quality and reliabil-ity of European biodiversity information by integrating the infrastructural components of four major community networks on taxonomic indexing into a joint work program. It will result in functional knowledge networks of taxo-nomic experts and regional focal points, who will collaborate on establishing standardized and authoritative taxonomic (meta-) data. Source : http://www.eu-nomen.eu/pesi/

http://www.eu-nomen.eu/pesi/


The CBD is addressing biodiversity loss by developing biodiversity strategies and action plans, drawing up guidelines and frameworks for conservation and sus-tainable use, and extending political awareness of biodiversity loss. A long-term approach to engaging with the issue of biodiversity loss lies in education, in particu-lar an increased awareness of the threats posed to the prolonged existence of species and the responsibility humankind has for the environment.

Stakeholders of the coastal zone range from the very young to the very old and as a result constitute different audiences. Awareness and therefore perception of marine biodiversity, water quality, and the surrounding issues vary enormously across com-munities, even within a single audience. Although more than 50% of the European population lives within the coastal zone, some people rarely visit the seashore.

Science and technology play an increasingly important role in everyday lives, and many of life’s decisions now depend on some sort of scienti fi c or technical knowledge; therefore, the spreading of excellence should not be limited to the scienti fi c community. Promoting and developing interest, awareness, and “owner-ship” of marine biodiversity should also focus on the nonscientist. Marine biodiver-sity and water quality issues are appreciated by a much wider audience than the scienti fi c community. Unfortunately, the experience of the general population is limited to hearing about pollution incidents, such as the Prestige disaster, or to broader international issues, such as coral reefs. Recently, awareness of climate change and its potential impact and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico have focused the public’s attention on environmental issues to a some degree. In an attempt to bridge this information gap, European-funded research projects are now obliged to develop an outreach strategy. Such a strategy should have a structured approach to disseminating information aimed at all ages, from the very young to the very old, and consist of all levels of knowledge. With the advances in modern technology, people now to to the Internet rather than libraries to obtain answers to their questions. Therefore, websites have been developed that allow easy access to information on marine biodiversity. They include easily available outreach material, such as educational resources for teachers and home educators, a marine biodiversity wiki, and information on how to become involved in European moni-toring programs.

The OSPAR Commission (see Box 5.25 ) identi fi ed cold-water coral ecosystems as one of the most vulnerable ecosystems for which action was required to mitigate further loss of biodiversity. Since then, between 2004 and 2006 a number of bans have been introduced.

A ban by the Northeast Atlantic Fisheries Commission on bottom trawling to pro-• tect cold-water coral on the Hatton and Rockall Banks outside Scotland (Fig. 5.11 ) A ban on bottom trawling in the Mediterranean Sea at depths below 1,000 m, the • fi rst ban of its kind in the world An EU ban on bottom trawling around the Azores Islands and a ban on the use • of gill nets and other entangling fi shing nets at depths >200 m in the areas around the Azores, Madeira, and Canary Islands

184 R. Nash

A ban by the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) on bottom • trawling, bottom-set gill nets, and longline fi shing in fi ve vulnerable deep sea areas in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean An EU regulation to eliminate trawling near the United Kingdom’s cold-water • coral Darwin Mounds

Fig. 5.11 Cold water coral

Box 5.25 OSPAR and HELCOM

The OSPAR Commission is the mechanism by which 15 governments of the western coasts and catchments of Europe, together with the European Community, cooperate to protect the marine environment of the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. It started in 1972 with the Oslo Convention against dumping. It was broadened to cover land-based sources and the offshore industry by the Paris Convention of 1974. These two conventions were uni fi ed, updated, and extended by the 1992 OSPAR Convention. The new annex on biodiversity and ecosystems was adopted in 1998 to cover nonpolluting human activities that can adversely affect the sea.

The Helsinki Commission, or HELCOM, works to protect the marine envi-ronment of the Baltic Sea from all sources of pollution through intergovern-mental cooperation between Denmark, Estonia, the European Community, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russian Federation, and Sweden. HELCOM is the governing body of the “Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area,” generally known as the Helsinki Convention.


5.7 Perspectives: Future Challenges

To comprehend fully the effects and pressures human activities are having on global ecosystems, it is essential fi rst to understand and appreciate the operation of marine ecological processes and systems in relation to water quality in the marine environ-ment. The prioritization of research in areas such as marine biodiversity and climate change has identi fi ed and clari fi ed many critical issues; however, it has also revealed areas that require further effort, including the maintenance of databases to predict long-term effects on the marine environment.

There is no doubt that changes are currently taking place in the global climate, as evidenced in the marine environment—the increase in seawater temperatures among the most ominous. Marine systems, such as polar ice and coral reefs, are highly vulnerable to even slight temperature changes. News of icebergs melting and coral bleaching are now a regular feature on news reports. The issue now is not a case of trying to reverse these changes to habitats to what is considered their “original” state but if they can be halted. Studies show that despite international government pledges in 2002 to set targets to curtail biodiversity loss this trend is not only continuing but has accelerated. Research must remain the highest priority over the coming years to elucidate how to mitigate the changes in community composition and function so as to maintain the goods and services the oceans provide into the future.

For centuries the oceans have appeared to be an everlasting store of resources for humans to harvest, a means of transport, and a place where we could dispose of waste. Although attitudes about exploitation of the seas are changing, there is still a need to understand and manage transport pathways and the effects of pollutants aris-ing from ocean exploitation. These pathways include runoff of contaminants from the land, direct input through energy (thermal pollution), liquid and solid waste from vessels, and oil spills. Marine exploitation carries with it a number of responsibilities

Box 5.26 Noncompliance with the WFD

The EU Commission has taking Greece to court, and not for the fi rst time, for failing to comply with a requirement of the EU directive on the protection of water bodies in the EU (WFD 2000/60/EC). The directive aims to ensure that by 2015 all water bodies in the EU are of “good ecological status.” To help meet this goal, the member states must prepare an analysis of their river basins, including the impact of human activity on rivers, lakes, groundwaters, and coastal waters, in addition to conducting an economic analysis of water usage.

In the case of Greece, these analyses were due by March 2005. Toward the end of 2006, Greece declared that the procedure for collecting and reporting all the information required by the WFD would be concluded by the end of 2007. Because of the importance of this obligation, the Commission considered it a serious delay and therefore decided to take the case to the Court of Justice.

186 R. Nash

for environmental management. The time taken to cap the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is an illustration of how research has often focused on the extraction of resources from the sea but has spent little time on the implications or necessary actions should something go wrong. Similarly, there has been a focus on single-stressor approaches although multistressor systems and modeling are also required (Heip et al. 2009 ) . While the economic cost of this disaster was colossal, the environmental impact was unfathomable.

The biodiversity impact on the oceans is multifactorial, including the effects of introduced invasive species and the consequent biodiversity and functionality changes. In addition, fi sheries practice (e.g., benthic trawling) has the capacity to cause a major localized and regional impact on shelf ocean systems. In terms of non fi sheries impact, study of the diverse effects (noise, habitat disturbance, resource removal) caused by commercial companies (gravel extraction, dredging, oil indus-try) must remain a central issue in protecting oceanic systems. Research to charac-terize ecosystem and region-speci fi c effects of multiple stressors is essential to underpin the effective implementation of the new Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Heip et al. 2009 ) .

Most EU borders are on the sea. As Europe is a coastal continent, coastal man-agement can be performed only if it is based on sound knowledge and international cooperation (Heip et al. 2009 ) . Passage from knowledge generation to knowledge-based management should not stop the quest for new knowledge, the two being reciprocally stimulating. The speed at which new knowledge can be translated into management practice needs to be improved (Heip et al. 2009 ) . The calls for future research development must be aimed at fi lling gaps in available knowledge—gaps that must be identi fi ed by the scienti fi c community, policy developers, and stake-holders (Heip et al. 2009 ) .

Although not all targets have been met, there has been progress in the right direc-tion. The CBD has numerous achievements to date: development of biodiversity strategies and action plans; establishing guidelines and frameworks for conservation and sustainable use; promotion of safe applications for biotechnology; advocacy regarding biodiversity loss in the political arena. It has been acknowledged that a long-term approach on the issue of biodiversity loss lies in education, and the CBD stated that it intends to tackle the issue through pedagogy.

5.8 Societal Changes: What Can Be Done?

There are a number of ways in which members of the public can contribute to the conservation of the marine environment.

Respect the marine environment as a home for wildlife. It is important to avoid • disturbing animals such as seals and birds, particularly while they are nesting, feeding, and roosting. When studying marine life on the shore or when diving, limit the number of specimens taken to the bare minimum needed for identi fi cation purposes. Do not use spear guns.


Protect the habitat. Replace any boulders and seaweed that has been displaced • during the visit as they protect animals from drying up and dying. Avoid digging up the shore, especially in eelgrass beds, except at established bathing beaches. Refrain from removing sand or gravel or building unauthorized structures as it can cause erosion. Do not disturb historic man-made structures including wrecks, fi sh traps, and stone walls and quays. Do nothing to dis fi gure the landscape. Keep the environment clean. Do not dump rubbish, drop litter, or fl ush inboard • toilets within the Reserve. Avoid spilling fuel or oil. Ensure that antifouling paint does not enter the sea. Pick up after any pets, and take any rubbish home. Report any drums that have washed up on the beach. Eat fi sh from sustainable fi sheries. Ensure that fi sh chosen for consumption are • from well-managed, sustainable stocks or farms. Avoid fi sh from unsustainable, over fi shed, vulnerable, and/or badly managed fi sheries or those that have high levels of bycatch ( fi sh caught unintentionally while trying to catch other fi sh and thrown back dead). A number of seafood guides are available on the web to assistance with these decisions. Do not introduce invasive species. Unwanted plants from marine aquaria can be • dried thoroughly, burned, or composted (if applied far from surface water). Live plants can be disposed of in the household trash. If a fi sh or aquatic animal is no longer wanted, dispose of it humanely. One of the most humane and practical ways to put down any cold-blooded species is to freeze them.

Glossary

Abiotic Devoid of life; nonliving, nonbiological factor. Algae Simple non fl owering plant of a large group that includes the seaweeds and

many single-celled forms. Algae contain chlorophyll but lack true stems, roots, leaves, and vascular tissue.

Anoxic Aquatic system lacking dissolved oxygen (zero saturation). Aquaculture Cultivation of aquatic organisms. Azoic Without life. Benthic Pertaining to the seabed, river bed, or lake fl oor. Bioaccumulation Accumulation of substances in an organism, typically referring

to toxic pollutants. Biodiversity Number and variety of organisms found within a speci fi ed geograph-

ic region. Biofouling Impairment or degradation of something(e.g., a ship’s hull or mechani-

cal equipment) as a result of the growth or activity of living organisms. Biomass Total mass of organisms in a given area or volume. Biopollution Term that de fi nes adverse effects of invasive alien species on the

quality of aquatic and terrestrial environments. Buffer (pH) Substance that stabilizes the pH of a solution against the addition of

acidic or alkaline material. Coccolithophore Unicellular marine algae that have the body embedded in a ge-

latinous sheath covered with calcareous plates (coccoliths).

188 R. Nash

Continental Shelf Shallow, gradually sloping seabed around a continental margin, formed by submergence of part of the continent.

Coral Bleaching Loss of intracellular endosymbionts (zooxanthellae) through ex-pulsion or loss of algal pigmentation.

Cyanobacteria Blue-green bacteria. DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a persistant organochlorine insecticide. Desiccation Removal of water; the process of drying. Echinoderms Of the phylum Echinodermata. Exclusively marine, radially sym-

metrical, unsegmented, solitary coelomates. Includes sea lilies, star fi sh, bristle stars, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.

Ecology Science of the relations between organisms and their environments. Ecosystem Community of organisms and their physical environment interacting

as an ecological unit. Estuary Any semi-enclosed coastal water, open to the sea, having a high freshwa-

ter drainage with marked cyclical fl uctuations in salinity. Eutrophication Overenrichment of a water body with nutrients, resulting in

excessive growth of organisms and depletion of oxygen concentration. Exotic Organism living outside its native distributional range; arrived there as a

result of human activity, either deliberate or accidental. Food Chain Sequence of organisms on successive levels within a community,

through which energy is transferred through feeding. Food Web Network of interconnected food chains of a community. Framework Program Funding programs created by the European Union to sup-

port and encourage research in the European research area. Habitat Local environment occupied by an organism. Halogens Group of fi ve elements: fl uorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine. Heavy Metal Metallic element of high speci fi c gravity (e.g., lead). Hydrocarbon Organic compound containing only carbon and hydrogen; often

occurs in petroleum, natural gas, and coal. Hypoxic Reduced dissolved oxygen content of a body of water; detrimental to

aerobic organisms (1–30% saturation). Intertidal Zone Shore zone between the highest and lowest tides. Invasive Species Nonnative species. Keystone Species Species whose impact on its community or ecosystem is dispro-

portionately large relative to its abundance. Latitude Distance north or south of the equator; measured on a meridian.. Mammal Of the class Mammalia; warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by

mammary glands and epidermal hair. Metamorphosis Marked structural transformation during the development of an

organism, often representing a change from larval stage to adult. Molluscs Of the phylum Mollusca; unsegmented animals with a ventral gliding

surface or foot and dorsal mantle bearing calcareous scales or a solid calcareous shell in more-advanced forms.

MPA (Marine Protected Areas) Regions in which human activity has been placed under some restrictions in the interest of conserving the natural environment.


Nitrate Minerals salts of nitric acid; nutritive mineral elements for plants. Nutrient Food or any nourishing substance assimilated by an organism; required

for growth, repair, and normal metabolism. Organotin Chemical compounds with a tin base and hydrocarbon substituents. Pelagic Pertaining to the water column of the sea or lake. Pesticide Chemical agent that kills insects and other animal pests. pH Negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H + ) concentration; a measure of acid-

ity on a scale from 0 (acid) through 7 (neutral) to 14 (alkaline). Pharmaceutical Pertaining to pharmacy or to drugs. Phenology Study of temporal aspects of recurrent natural phenomena and their

relation to weather and climate. Phosphate Salt of phosphoric acid; biological molecule composed of phosphorus

and oxygen that plays a major role in biological processes of many organisms. Photosynthesis Biochemical process that utilizes radiant energy from sunlight to

synthesize carbohydrates from CO 2 and water in the presence of chlorophyll.

Phylum (Phyla) Rank within the zoological hierarchy of classi fi cation; principal category directly below Kingdom.

Plankton Small (often microscopic) plants and animals fl oating, drifting, or weak-ly swimming in bodies of freshwater or saltwater; unable to maintain their posi-tion or distribution independent of the movement of water or air masses.

Point-source Pollution Single identi fi able source of air, water, thermal, noise, or light pollution.

Pollution Contamination of a natural ecosystem, especially with reference to the activity of humans.

Polychaetes (Polychaeta) Class of annelid worms, generally marine. Each body segment has a pair of fl eshy protrusions called parapodia that bear many bristles, called chaetae.

Predation Consumption of one animal by another. Sediment Particulate matter that has been transported by wind, water, or ice and sub-

sequently deposited or that has been precipitated from water (i.e., sedimentation). Sewage Liquid or solid waste matter channeled through sewers. Taxonomy Theory and practice of describing, naming, and classifying organisms. Terrestrial Pertaining to, or living habitually on, the land or ground surface. Toxin Biogenic poison, usually proteinaceous. Trawling Fishing with a speci fi c net (e.g., a beam trawl, targeting bottom feeders). Tributyltinoxide Chemical compound chie fl y used as a biocide. Trophic Level Each step of a food chain or food pyramid. Vertebrate Animals that have a vertebral column. Invertebrate Animals that lack a vertebral column. Water Cycle Global biogeochemical cycle of water involving exchange between

the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and living organisms. Watershed Elevated boundary area that separates tributaries draining into a river

system. Wetland Area of low-lying land submerged or inundated periodically by freshwa-

ter or saltwater.

190 R. Nash

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195

Index

A Acidifi cation

environmental problem , 43–45 marine biodiversity

biogenic calcifi cation , 169 biological pump , 170 calcite skeletons , 170 carbon assimilation capacity , 170 EPOCA , 181

mountain waters , 41–43 Aquaculture

bioaccumulation , 176 DETOX , 177 ECJ , 180 European aquaculture production , 161 European MARAQUA project , 178 HABs, 177MARAQUA , 178 NP , 178 Salmon farm , 162 SPIES , 177 TBT , 162 WATER , 176, 177

Aquatic ecosystems climate change , 37–39 low water content, in salts , 35–36 nutrients ,36–37 temperature ,35 water transparency and high

radiation ,37

B Bathing Waters Directive , 110 Bioaccumulation

aquaculture , 176 fl uoxetine , 94

food web OC concentration , 50, 52 trophic position assessment , 53

C Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) , 173 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) , 174

D Dan Region Wastewater Reclamation

Project , 122 Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories

for Europe (DAISIE) , 164 Detoxifi cation of Shellfi sh (DETOX) , 177

E Ecosystem

defi nition , 148 functioning , 148 MarBEF , 148

Embedded water , 114 Enhanced biological phosphorus removal

(EBPR) , 113 European aquaculture production , 161 European Court of Justice (ECJ) , 172 European Environment Outlook (EEA) , 115 European Project on Ocean Acidifi cation

(EPOCA) , 181 Eutrophication , 144

chemical compounds , 160 defi nition ,160–161 effects of , 160 pollution , 160 water transparency , 160

P. Pechan and G.E. de Vries (eds.), Living with Water: Targeting Quality in a Dynamic World, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3752-9, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

196

F Fluoxetine

bioaccumulation , 94 effect assessment , 93 exposure assessment , 93–94 risk assessment , 94

Food web bioaccumulation OC concentration , 50, 52 trophic position assessment , 53

Freshwater mountain freshwaters , 54 pollutants ( see Pollutants)

G Global distillation theory

OCs , 49 PBDE concentrations , 48, 50 semi-volatile chemicals , 46, 49

H Halichondria panacea , 182 Harmful algal blooms (HABs) , 166, 177 Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) , 183 Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) , 47 g -Hexachlorocyclohexane ( g -HCH) , 47

I Industry

pharmaceutical, 96wastewater cadmium , 107 chemical industry, 106DDT,

107halogenated organics , 107 heavy metals , 107

Integrated Pollution Prevention Control directive (IPPC) , 110, 117

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC), 15International Convention on the Control of Harmful Antifouling Systems on Ships (AFS Convention), 179International Organization for Standardization (ISO) , 83

M Marine biodiversity

acidifi cation biogenic calcifi cation , 169 biological pump , 170 calcite skeletons , 170 carbon assimilation capacity ,169 , 170 EPOCA , 181

aquaculture bioaccumulation , 176 DETOX , 177 ECJ , 180 European aquaculture production , 161 European MARAQUA project , 178 HABs , 177 MARAQUA , 178 NP , 178 Salmon farm , 162 SPIES , 177 TBT , 162 WATER , 176, 178

arctic waters , 168, 169 Baltic Sea , 167 biodiversity loss , 181–185

keystone species , 170 MarBEF , 171 reef fi sheries , 171

biofouling , 179–180 challenges , 185–186 climate change

bloom-forming cyanobacteria , 166 HABs , 166 Marine Strategy Framework

Directive , 174, 175 plankton , 165 temperature , 164–165 WFD , 174, 175 WISER , 175–176

coastal regions , 149 coastal waters , 149–150 defi nition , 151 ecosystem


estuaries , 149 EU Birds and Habitats Directives , 180 EU environmental infringement , 172 European Framework Programme , 155 eutrophication

chemical compounds , 160 defi nition , 160 effects of , 160 pollution , 160 water transparency , 160

fi sh , 167–168 FP7 , 155 invasive species

DASIE , 164 Pacifi c oyster , 163 Suez Canal , 163

open ocean , 150–151

Index

197

resource overexploitation CBD , 173, 174 CFP , 173 coastal resources , 155 coral reef systems , 156 Deepwater Horizon oil spill , 156 fi sheries , 158–159 fossil fuels , 157 ICZM , 174 rocky shore habitats , 156 soft bottom systems , 156

River Rhone , 166 societal changes , 186–187 vertical zonation , 150 water quality , 181–185

exploitation technology , 153 high-level carnivores , 153 marine pollution , 154 phylum Echinodermata , 153 physical environment , 153 planktonic larvae , 153 primary production , 153 sea urchin , 152 theoretical foundations and the

experimental approach , 152 toxins , 153

Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning (MarBEF) , 148

Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) , 110, 174, 175

Microbial fuel cell (MFC) , 132, 133 Mountain waters

acidifi cation , 41–43 altitudinal gradient , 33–35 aquatic ecosystems

climate change , 37–38 low water content, in salts , 35–36 nutrients , 36–37 temperature , 35 water transparency and high

radiation , 37 biotransformation , 58–59 climate–pollution interactions , 59–60 dynamic models

atmospheric deposition , 45 chemical acidifi cation , 44 diatom-based pH transfer functions , 44 environmental science , 44

European research projects , 54 food web bioaccumulation

OC concentration , 50, 51 trophic position assessment , 53

global distillation theory OCs , 50

PBDE concentrations , 49, 50 semi-volatile chemicals, 46,

indicative value , 32–33 international protocols

critical load concept , 55, 56 long-range transboundary air

pollution , 55, 56 VOC emissions , 55 WFD , 57

POPs atmospheric particles, 46HCB , 47 semi-volatile and toxic , 47–48

toxic effects , 59 Mutualism , 23

N Nitrates Directive , 110 Northern periphery (NP) , 178 Nutrients, reuse of

electricity production biofuels , 134 bioplastics production , 134 fuel cell , 132 hydrogen production , 133 MFC , 132, 133 PEM , 131

methane production anaerobic digestion process , 129 BIOGASMAX project , 131 methane fermentation , 130 UNDP , 131

phosphorus built-in mechanism , 128 NoMix concept , 128 NOVAQUATIS , 127 RIM-NUT process , 126, 127

O Oceans, marine biodiversity

acidifi cation biogenic calcifi cation , 169 biological pump , 170 calcite skeletons , 170 carbon assimilation capacity , 170 EPOCA , 181

Amalfi coast , 146 aquaculture

bioaccumulation , 176 DETOX , 177 ECJ , 180 European aquaculture

production , 161

Index

198

Oceans, marine biodiversity (cont.) European MARAQUA project,

178HABs , 177 MARAQUA , 178 NP , 178 Salmon farm , 162 SPIES , 177 TBT , 162 WATER , 176, 178

arctic waters , 168, 169 Baltic Sea , 167 biodiversity loss , 181–185

keystone species , 170 MarBEF , 171 reef fi sheries , 171

biofouling , 179–180 challenges , 185–186 climate change

bloom-forming cyanobacteria , 166 HABs , 166 Marine Strategy Framework Directive ,

174, 175 plankton , 165 temperature , 164–165 WFD , 174, 175 WISER , 175, 176

coastal regions , 149 coastal waters , 149–150 depository for compounds , 147 ecosystem


estuaries , 149 EU Birds and Habitats Directives , 180 EU environmental infringement , 172 European Framework Programme , 155 eutrophication

chemical compounds , 160 defi nition , 160 effects of , 160 pollution , 160 water transparency , 160

fi sh , 167–168 FP7, 155invasive species

DASIE , 164 Pacifi c oyster , 163 Suez Canal , 163

open ocean , 150–151 resource overexploitation

CBD , 174 CFP , 173 coastal resources , 155 coral reef systems , 156

Deepwater Horizon oil spill , 156 fi sheries , 158–159 fossil fuels , 157 ICZM , 174 rocky shore habitats , 156 soft bottom systems , 156

River Rhone , 166 societal changes , 186–187 transitional water , 146 vertical zonation , 150 water quality , 181–185

exploitation technology , 153 high-level carnivores , 153 marine pollution , 154 phylum Echinodermata , 153 physical environment , 153 planktonic larvae , 153 primary production , 153 sea urchin , 152 theoretical foundations and the

experimental approach, 152toxins , 153

Organochlorine compounds (OCs) , 51 OSPAR Commission , 183

P Pan-European Species-directories

Infrastructure (PESI) , 181 PBDEs. See Polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) PEC. See Predicted environmental

concentration (PEC) Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) , 28

atmospheric particles , 46 HCB , 47 semi-volatile and toxic , 47–48

Pharmaceuticals antibiotic-resistant bacteria , 79 b -adrenergic receptors , 79 biological effects , 79 diclofenac , 89 ERAPharm project , 92 ethical implications , 80 ethinyl estradiol , 76, 77 fl uoxetine

bioaccumulation , 94 effect assessment , 93 exposure assessment , 93–94 risk assessment , 94

oriental white-backed vulture , 90 polar and nonpolar substances , 76 raloxifene , 79 terrestrial environment , 88 wastewater treatment plants , 87–89

Index

199

Pollutants anthropogenic pollution , 73 categories , 18–20 control

industrial wastewater treatment , 113 septic tanks , 111 wastewater treatment plants , 111–113

effect assessment Daphnia magna acute toxicity test , 83, 84 standard fi sh testing , 85

environmental risk assessment , 81, 82 chemicals , 74 components , 74 prospective and retrospective , 75

exposure assessment , 81–83 food web , 71 green design , 95, 96 human activities , 18 human health , 95 human impacts , 71–73 modern society , 21 PEC and PNEC , 86 pharmaceuticals

antibiotic-resistant bacteria , 79 b -adrenergic receptors , 79 biological effects , 79 diclofenac , 89 ERAPharm project , 92 ethical implications , 80 ethinyl estradiol , 76, 77 fl uoxetine , 93–94 oriental white-backed vulture , 89–91 polar and nonpolar substances , 76 raloxifene , 79 terrestrial environment , 88 wastewater treatment plants , 87–89

prevention Bathing Waters Directive , 110 Integrated Pollution Prevention and

Control Directive , 110 Marine Strategy Framework

Directive , 110 Nitrates Directive , 110 Urban Wastewater Treatment

Directive , 110 Water Framework Directive , 110

risk management , 21 water-borne diseases , 18 water pollution sources , 18, 20

Polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) , 47 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) , 134 POPs. See Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) Predicted environmental concentration

(PEC) , 82

Predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) , 84

Properly treated wastewater , 117 Proton exchange membrane (PEM) , 131

R Raloxifene , 79 Resource overexploitation

CBD , 174 CFP , 173 coastal resources , 155 coral reef systems , 156 Deepwater Horizon oil spill , 156 fi sheries , 158–159 fossil fuels , 157 ICZM , 174 rocky shore habitats , 156 soft bottom systems , 156

S Scarcity, water

climate change , 17–18 pollution

categories , 19–20 modern society , 21 risk management , 21 water-borne diseases , 18 water pollution sources , 18, 20

unequal distribution human rights approach , 14 politics and confl icts , 13

water overuse agricultural technologies , 16 groundwater levels , 15 population growth , 16, 17 water shortages , 15

Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP7) , 155

Singapore Water Reclamation Study , 120 Solid-phase In Situ Ecosystem Sampler

(SPIES) , 177

T Tributyltin (TBT) , 162, 179

U United Nations (UN) , 13 United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP) , 131

Index

200

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) , 116 Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive

(UWWTD) , 110, 117

V Virtual water. See Embedded water Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) , 55

W Warning of Algal Toxin Events to Support

Aquaculture in the Northern Periphery Programme Coastal Zone Region (WATER) , 178

Wastewaters applications for wastewater reuse

agriculture , 122–123 drinking water , 120–121 indirect reuse , 119, 121–122 industrial wastewater , 123–124 urban applications , 118–120

effects agriculture , 105 biodegradable matter , 104 industry , 106 inorganic nutrients , 104 materials , 104 municipal sewage , 106–109 pathogens , 104

European funded research projects , 118 human health , 103 reuse of nutrients , 124

bioplastics production , 134 electricity production , 131–133 European NEPTUNE research

project , 134 hydrogen production , 133 methane production , 129–131 phosphorus , 126–128

water pollution control industrial wastewater treatment , 113 septic tanks , 111 wastewater treatment plants , 111–113

water pollution prevention Bathing Waters Directive , 110 Integrated Pollution Prevention and

Control Directive , 110 Marine Strategy Framework

Directive , 110 Nitrates Directive , 110 Urban Wastewater Treatment

Directive , 110 Water Framework Directive , 110

water recycling defi nition , 117 EEA , 115 embedded water , 115 UNFPA , 116 UWWTD , 117 water stress , 116 WFD , 117

Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) aerobic bacteria , 113 biological, physical and chemical

processes , 112 denitrifi cation , 113 EPBR , 113 NoMix concept , 128 primary effl uent , 113 raw sewage , 112 secondary effl uent , 113

Water availability of , 7–8 importance of , 2–4 mountains ( See Mountain waters) quality and quantity

driving forces , 10 fossil fuels, use of , 24 growing population , 11 human consumption and environment ,

22–24 living standards , 11 mutualism , 23 risk assessment , 27 risk management , 28 scientifi c research , 24 socioeconomic and cultural

issues , 25 solutions , 24–26

scarcity climate change , 17–18 pollution , 18–21 unequal distribution , 12–14 water overuse , 15–17

use of , 8–9 water sources , 4–6

Water bodies in Europe: integrative systems to assess ecological status and recovery (WISER) , 175, 176

Water Framework Directive (WFD) , 57, 110, 117, 174–176, , 185

Water quality and quantity driving forces , 9–10 fossil fuels, use of , 24 growing population , 11 human consumption and environment ,

22–24

Index

201

living standards , 11 mutualism , 23 risk assessment , 27 risk management , 28 scientifi c research , 24

socioeconomic and cultural issues , 25 solutions , 24–26

Water Reclamation Technologies for Safe Artifi cial Groundwater Recharge , 122

WFD. See Water Framework Directive (WFD)

Index

Living with Water: Targeting Quality in a Dynamic World

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