Hume on Natural Belief and Original Principles - The Hume Society
Liver Transplantationhasld.org/images/gianhang/document/item_l91.pdfDavid Hume, M.D. “Father of...
Transcript of Liver Transplantationhasld.org/images/gianhang/document/item_l91.pdfDavid Hume, M.D. “Father of...
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Liver Transplantation
WALDO CONCEPCION, MD, FACS PROFESSOR OF SURGERY
CHIEF OF CLINICAL TRANSPLANTATION CHIEF OF PEDIATRIC KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION
STANFORD UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL LUCILLE PACKARD CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL
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15th Century wood panel
Limb transplantation by Saints Cosmos and
Damian
Transplanted leg of dead Moor onto a patient who
required transplantation
Leggenda Aura, Jacopo da Varagine 348
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Alexis Carrel
(1873-1944)
“The problem of organ transplantation in man has
been solved.” -1905
Surgeon, Biologist
1904 Travelled University of Chicago and Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research to develop the method
of end- to- end anastomosis of blood vessels
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1912)
In recognition of vascular suture and pioneering work
in transplantation of blood vessels and organs
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“From a clinical standpoint, the transplantation of organs may become
important…and may open new fields in therapy and biology.”
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David Hume, M.D. “Father of Renal Transplantation”
• First successful human kidney transplant in 1947.
• Peter Brigham Hospital in Boston, MA
• Implanted in the forearm of a 29 y.o. female.
• Functioned for 4 days.
• No immunosuppression.
• Patient survived the procedure and recovered renal function.
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Organ Transplantation
• Developed in the XX Century
• Fast development from experimental to
clinical
• Treatment of choice for End-Stage Organ
Failure
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Historic Overview
• First Kidney transplant: 1954 by Dr. Joseph Murray
• First Liver transplant: 1963 by Dr. Thomas Starzl
• First Heart transplant : 1967 by Dr. Christian Barnard
• First Pancreas transplant: 1966 by Drs. Lillehei, Kelly
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IMPORTANT ADVANCES IN TRANSPLANTATION-1990
• Organ Preservation
• Intra-operative monitoring and fluid management
• Immunosuppression
• Organ Donation
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INTRA-OPERATIVE MONITORING AND FLUID MANAGEMENT
• Most common reason for intra-operative failure: hemorrhage
• Management of coagulopathy
• Management of hypothermia
• Aggressive Cardiac Monitoring
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1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
First human
liver transplant
Collins solution
Viaspan solution
Azathioprine
Antilymphocyte
antisera
Steroids
OKT3
Cyclosporin
Tacrolimus
Mycophenolate
Mofetil
IL-2Ra
RAPA
First split liver transplant
First large animal
liver transplant First adult-to-
child transplant
First domino
liver transplant
First adult-to-adult
liver transplant
First liver
xenotransplant
First auxiliary
liver transplant
First reduced size liver transplant
First liver gene
therapy experiment
Veno-
venous
bypass
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Patient Survival After Primary Liver Transplantation
5 4 3 2 1 0 0
20
40
60
80
100
AZA
CYA
CYA-UW
Tacrolimus
Time After Transplantation (years)
Pa
tie
nt
Su
rviv
al (%
)
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Liver Transplantation in the U.S. Current Status
• 1-year patient survival: 85–90% in most centers
• 3-year survival 75-80%; 8-year survival 60-70%
• ~6,000 LT/year last 3 years in 110 centers
• >17,000 patients on LT waiting list
• ~1,800 deaths/year on waiting list last 3 years
• Mismatch between qualified candidates and available organs limits application of LT
www.unos.org
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Donor Crisis (U.S.)
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Deaths
LTs
Listed Pts
www.unos.org
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LT: Major Differences From Kidney Transplantation
• No artificial organ support
• Critical timing of transplantation
• High-risk living donor procedure
• Recurrent diseases
• Regenerative organ
• Donor matching (ABO) & immunosuppression
– “liver is immunologically privileged organ”
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Selection for Liver Transplantation
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Patient Selection Criteria for LT
• Accepted indications for LT
– Advanced chronic liver disease
– Acute liver failure
– Unresectable hepatic malignancy
– Inherited metabolic liver disease
• No alternative form of therapy
• No absolute contraindication to LT
• Willingness to comply with follow-up care
• Ability to provide for costs of LT
Keeffe EB. Selection of patients for liver transplantation.
In: Transplantation of the Liver, 3rd ed. 2001:5-34.
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Liver Disease of Adult Recipients UNOS Database: 1990-92 vs. 1995-96
Primary
Diagnosis
Entire Sample
N = 17,044
1990-92
N = 5,857
1995-96
N = 6,059
Hepatitis C 26.2% 20.0% 30.8%
ALD 18.5% 21.3% 16.1%
AIH/Cryptogenic 16.7% 16.1% 17.2%
PBC 9.4% 10.3% 7.9%
PSC 8.7% 9.2% 8.3%
ALF 5.6% 5.7% 5.3%
Hepatitis B 4.6% 5.7% 4.3%
Metabolic disease 3.4% 3.6% 3.4%
Cancer 3.2% 4.9% 2.2%
Other 3.6% 3.5% 4.5%
Roberts MS, et al. Liver Transpl. 2004;10:886-897.
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Reasons for Early Referral to Transplant Center
• Timely, stepwise evaluation of candidate
• Patient and family education about LT
• Intervention for confounding issues – Chemical dependence
– Obesity and other medical issues
• Financial counseling
• Program selection by patient – Center-specific results, facilities, relationships with
staff, etc.
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Contraindications to LT: Absolute
• Active alcohol or substance abuse
• Advanced cardiopulmonary disease
• Systemic sepsis, unresponsive to Rx
• Multiorgan failure; multiple pressors
• Extrahepatic malignancy
• Severe pulmonary hypertension
• Severe psychiatric disease likely to affect compliance
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Contraindications to LT: Relative
• General debility
• Advanced age
• Extensive prior abdominal surgery
• Extensive portal/mesenteric thrombosis
• Social isolation and limited support
• HIV seropositivity
• Cholangiocarcinoma
• Retransplantation for end-stage recurrent hepatitis C
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Survival after Liver Transplantation
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Survival after Adult LT UNOS Database 1997-2004
Survival (%)
Diagnosis 1 year 3 year 5 year
Noncholestatic cirrhosis 86 76 69
Cholestatic cirrhosis 90 85 80
Metabolic disease 90 85 81
Acute hepatic necrosis 82 73 70
Malignant neoplasm 86 70 58
Benign neoplasm 86 82 71
Other liver disease 80 72 64
http://www.optn/org/latestData/rptStrat.asp. Accessed January, 2007.
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Determinants of Post-LT Outcome Shifting Paradigm
• Previous: surgery; early graft dysfunction; immediate post-op care; allograft rejection
• Current: management of recurrent disease; long-term management of consequences of immunosuppression, e.g., renal dysfunction, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and dyslipidemia
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Listing and Allocation
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History of Allocation Policy • Before 1997, patients prioritized based on location
(home, hospital, ICU) and waiting time
• In 1997, categories of CLD defined by CTP score and location (status 2A, 2B, and 3), and patients ranked in priority based on time waiting
• As the waiting list grew, numbers of patients in each group increased, severity of disease became more heterogeneous, and waiting time rather than disease severity became the major determinant for allocation
I.O.M. Report. Organ Procurement and Transplantation: Assessing Current Policies and the
Potential Impact of the DHHS Final Rule. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1999. p.10.
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Model for End-stage Liver Disease
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Sample MELD Calculation
• Serum creatinine (1.9 mg/dL)
• Total bilirubin (4.2 mg/dL)
• INR (1.2)
MELD Score = (0.957 x loge1.9) + (0.378 x loge 4.2)
+ (1.120 x loge 1.2) + 0.643 = 2.039 x 10 = 20
www.mayo.edu search word MELD
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CTP vs. MELD Score
0
10
20
30
40
50
6 8 10 12 14 16
CTP Score
ME
LD
Sco
re
r=0.55; p<0.001
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Problems with MELD
• Unwieldy formula with log functions
• Sicker patients no longer kept in the hospital
• MELD score >25 not discriminatory
• Variability in assays for INR and creatinine
• What about other factors, e.g., older age, PSC, refractory ascites, refractory HE
• Does not address geographic variability or effect of blood type on access to donor organs
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Modified TNM Staging*
Stage Definition I T1: one nodule 1.9 cm
II T2: one nodule 2-5 cm; 2 or 3 nodules, all < 3 cm
III T3: one nodule > 5 cm; 2 or 3 nodules, at least one > 3 cm
IVA1 T4a: four or more nodules, any size
IVA2 T4b: T2, T3, or T4a plus gross intrahepatic PV or HV involvement by imaging tests
IVB Any N1, any M1
*American Liver Tumor Study Group, 1998
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HCC: Application of MELD
• UNOS implemented MELD score for allocation in 2/02
• T1 HCC assigned MELD score 24 (15% 3-mo mortality); T2 HCC assigned MELD score 29 (30% 3-mo mortality)
• Additional MELD points = 10% mortality added every 3 months until LT or progression beyond T2
• MELD score modified in 4/03 to score of 20 for T1 and score of 24 for T2
• MELD score modified in 11/03 to eliminate priority for T1
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Assigned MELD Points for HCC
• Initial listing: 22 (15% probability of death)
• 3 months later: 25 (+10% probability of death)
• Each 3 months: 28 29 31 33
• Takes time to acquire higher MELD score
• Refer early
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MELD/PELD: Special Cases Refer to Regional Review Board
• RRB review with assignment of MELD/PELD score that gives reasonable chance of organ offer within 3 months in that region
– HPS (hepatopulmonary syndrome)
– FAP (familial amyloidosis)
– Polycystic liver disease
– Others
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MELD: Deceased Donor Liver Allocation
ADVANTAGED
• High MELD score
• Renal failure, anticoagulation
• Hepatocellular carcinoma
• Special diseases: amyloidosis, oxalosis
• Special conditions: HPS
DISADVANTAGED • Debilitating illness with
low MELD: pruritus, ascites, encephalopathy
• Cholestatic liver diseases
• Controversial indications: CCA, neuroendocrine tumors
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Immunosuppressive Drugs:
Evolving Trends
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Immunosuppressive Drugs
Post DJ, et al. Liver Transpl. 2005;11:1307-1314
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Azathioprine
Steroids
Cyclosporine
Tacrolimus
MMF
Sirolimus
FTY720
FK778
Anti-lymphocyte
antisera OKT3
Basiliximab
Daclizumab
Anti-thymocyte
globulin
1st OLT 1963
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Immunosuppression 101
• Target the T cell to prevent ACR
• Balance between
– too little risk of rejection
– too much risk of toxicity
– monitor drug levels
• Many different combinations of drugs
• Risk of ACR is highest in 1st 4 months
– start with 2-3 drugs at higher levels
– with time fewer drugs at lower levels
• Levels managed by the LT center
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Immunosuppression Trends
• Excessive immunosuppression associated with opportunistic infections, increased risk of malignancy, and aggressive recurrence of HCV
• Prior regimens: triple therapy; induction regimens; and frequent use of OKT3
• Current regimens: steroid withdrawal; calcineurin sparing; and avoidance of OKT3
• Goal: strike balance between prevention of rejection and avoidance of late adverse events, particularly nephrotoxicity; more use of MMF and sirolimus
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Liver Transplantation for
Selected Diagnoses
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Modified King’s College Criteria for LT for ALF
• Acetaminophen – Arterial pH <7.3, or – Concurrent findings of INR >6.5, serum creatinine
>3.4, stage 3 or 4 HE
• Other etiology – INR >6.5, or – Any 3 of following:
• INR >3.5 • Age <10 or >40 years • Serum bilirubin >17.5 mg/dL • HE >7 days after jaundice • Etiology: drug reaction or indeterminate
O’Grady JG et al. Gastroenterology 1989;97:439-445.
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Hepatitis B
• LT considered a contraindications prior to current treatment options secondary to high rates of reinfection, graft loss and patient death
• Pretransplant control of replication (lamivudine, adefovir, tenofovir) now possible
• Postoperative HBIg plus nucleoside analogues are standard prophylaxis
• Recurrence of HBV currently rare, and most cases manageable
Yu AS, Keeffe EB. Clin Liver Dis 2003;7:551-72
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Recurrent Hepatitis C
• Recurrent HCV universal and immediate after LT
• Recurrence of HCV associated with reduced QOL and worse graft and patient survival
• Risk factors for histologic recurrence: donor (age, steatosis, ischemic time, LDLT); recipient (age); and viral (HCV RNA level and quasispecies)
• 20% to 40% of recipients progress to cirrhosis within 5 years (vs. <5% of non-LT patients)
• Rate of progression from compensated to decompensation cirrhosis to death accelerated
Charlton M. Liver Transpl. 2005;11(Suppl 1):S57-S62.
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Recurrent Hepatitis C
• HCV therapy in ESLD promising, but difficult
• Heavy immunosuppressive regimens associated with greater viral replication and graft damage
• Pre-emptive therapy only modestly effective
• Standard therapy (IFN + RBV) limited by immunocompromise, renal impairment and risk of rejection, but has SVR of ~20%
• PegIFN + RBV has SVR of 30% to 45%
• More potent drugs with fewer toxicities needed
Terrault NA. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;3(Suppl 2):S125-S131.
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HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: EPIDEMIOLOGY
Most frequent primary liver tumor (80-90%). Western Africa constitute. Affects more than 600,000 people worldwide
annually. In United States, 16,000 patients are expected to die
from hepatocellular carcinoma in 2007. Case-fatality ratio is 0.8. Median survival rate of 6 months if untreated. 3 times more frequent in male than female. In patients with cirrhosis, the annual incidence of
hepatocellular carcinoma is 3-10%.
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HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: RISK FACTORS
Persistent and long-lasting inflammation (hepatitis C, alcohol, alpha-1 antitrysin deficiency).
Direct genetic effect by DNA integration (hepatitis B , genetic hemochromatosis).
Hepatitis C is an RNA virus and does not integrate into host DNA.
Toxic factors (alcohol, aflatoxin, obesity, azo dyes, arimatic amines, chlorinated hydrocarbones, Thorotrast, smoking, porphyria, anabolic steroids, etc)
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HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: PREVENTION
Hepatitis B vaccination.
Prevention of hepatitis C transmission by blood transfusion, piercing, needles).
Hepatitis C treatment (non-cirrhotic stages).
Prevent alcohol-induced liver injury by cessation programs.
Avoid grain storage in humid conditions (fava beans).
Public education on obesity.
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Liver Transplantation for HCC
• Selection - Stage 2 limit
• Survival rates at four years: 85% overall (of whom 92% recurrence-free) (Mazzaferro 1996)
• Overall 5 year survival: 70-75% with recurrence rates <15% (Llovet 1999, Yao 2001)
• Liver transplantation offers the best outcome for those who make it to transplant
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Recurrent Disease after
Liver Transplantation
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Recurrence of Disease after LT
• Increasing problem as patients live longer after LT
• Some recurrent disease inconsequential, while other recurrence a cause of death or re-LT
• Potential requirement for re-LT an added burden to already limited resources for LT
• Results of re-LT inferior to initial LT (survival 62% vs. 87% at 1 year, and 54% vs. 77% at 3 year)1
1UNOS Update: UNOS Scientific Registry. 1996; p. 11-32.
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Diseases That Do Not Recur after LT
• Extrahepatic biliary atresia • Fulminant hepatitis A • Fulminant hepatitis of unknown cause • Metabolic liver diseases (defect in
hepatocyte) – LT for hepatic complications, e.g.
• Wilson’s disease • Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency
– LT for extrahepatic complications, e.g. • Primary hyperoxaluria type I • Primary hypercholesterolemia
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Diseases That May Recur after LT
• Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis C
• Primary biliary cirrhosis
• Primary sclerosing cholangitis
• Autoimmune hepatitis
• Malignant tumors
• Hemochromatosis
• Alcoholic liver disease
• Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis
• Budd-Chiari syndrome
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Future of Liver Transplantation Expansion of Recent Developments
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Deceased Donor Classifications
• Standard criteria donors (SCD) – Donor who is neither ECD or DCD
• Expanded criteria donors (ECD) – Donor characteristics with higher relative risk
of graft failure*
• Donation after cardiac death (DCD) – Donation from a patient whose heart has
irreversibly stopped beating
*Definition in evolution (?RR of graft failure >1.7 x expected); potential factors
include advanced donor age, steatosis, DCD, split liver, positive hepatitis
serologies, some donor causes of death, pressor use, significant down time
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Expansion of Donor Pool
• Living donors: donor risk, higher rate of complications
• Older donor: higher PNF, higher recurrence rate of HCV
• Split liver: higher complication rate, labor intensive, disadvantage to primary recipient
• Marginal livers: increased risk of PNF • High-risk livers: some long-term risk • Domino transplant: amyloid donor
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Living Donor Liver Transplantation
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Liver Segments
2
3 4
1
5
7
6
8
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Surgical Alternatives
• Cadaveric liver transplantation
° Reduced size (adult child)
° Split liver (left lobe child; right lobe adult)
• Living donor liver transplantation (LDLT)
° Left lateral segment (2 & 3): adult child, small adult
° Right lobe (5 through 8): adult adult
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Split Liver Transplantation
Right lobe Left lobe
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LDLT in the United States
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005
Adult
Peds
www.unos.org
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Advantages of LDLT
• Decreased waiting time
• Extensive donor testing
• Reduced cold ischemic time
• Elective procedure
• Increased number of cadaver organs for others waiting for LT
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Disadvantages of LDLT • Donor risk
– Mortality: 0.2% to 0.5%
– Morbidity: median 15% to 30%, primarily biliary complications and infections
– ? Economic, physical, psychological sequelae
• Recipient risk
– New procedure (track record?)
– Smaller liver mass
– Increased biliary complications
– Other (? higher HCV and HCC recurrence)
Middleton PF, et al. Liver Transpl. 2006;12:24-30.
Nadalin S, et al. HPB. 2006;8:10-21.
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LDLT: Potential Concerns
• Transplantation performed earlier than
needed
• Non-standard uses of transplantation, e.g.,
advanced stage HCC
• Worse outcomes with HCV ?
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Liver Transplantation: Summary Potential Future
• Development of effective artificial liver
support
• Immune tolerance protocols to allow
withdrawal of immunosuppression
• ? Xenotransplantation
• ? Hepatocyte transplantation
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Hepatology • Rejection
• Recurrent Disease
Management of the LT patient
Gastroenterology • Biliary Strictures • Abdominal pain
• Diarrhea • Colon Cancer
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Hepatology • Rejection
• Recurrent Disease
Gastroenterology • Biliary strictures • Abdominal pain
• Diarrhea • Colon cancer
Cardiology • CAD • HTN
Endocrinology • DM
• Hyperlipidemia • Obesity
• Osteoporosis
Nephrology • Renal failure
Oncology/ Hemat • PTLD • Cancer
Dermatology • Rash, Skin cancer
General Med. • Prevention
Infectious Dis. • CMV, EBV
Pulmonary • Pneumonia, TB
Rheumatology • Arthritis, Gout
Neurology • H/A, seizures
Management of the LT patient
Courtesy of Kelly Burik, U Calgary
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LIVER TRANSPLANTATION
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THE SURGERY...
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THE SURGERY-WHAT THE SURGEON MAY NEED?
• ASSESSMENT OF CARDIO-PULMONARY STATUS
• LOW FILLING PRESSURES
• COAGULATION MANAGEMENT
• HEMODINAMIC STABILITY
• MANAGEMENT OF COMPLICATIONS( FIBRINOLYSIS, PULMONARY EMBOLISM, MALIGNANT HYPERTERMIA, AIR EMBOLISM, ETC)
• TEMPERATURE
• CLOSE COMMUNICATION WITH THE SURGEON AT ALL TIMES!!!
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Liver Transplant
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Liver Graft
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Ready for Implantation
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Successful Transplant
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A New Beginning...
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89.23
90.6
93.28
93.18
92.28
87.81 88.29 88.17
87.69 88.22
89.53
89.59
89.98 90.18
90.58
84
86
88
90
92
94
Jul-12 Jan-13 Jul-13 Jan-14 Jun-14
Patient Survival
SHC Observed SHC Expected National Average
86.02
87.1
89.76
91.15 91.03
85 85.16
84.89 84.76
85.74
86.49
86.57
87.29 87.62
87.96
82
84
86
88
90
92
Jul-12 Jan-13 Jul-13 Jan-14 Jun-14
Graft Survival
SHC Observed SHC Expected National Average
SRTR Liver Transplant 1 Year Post Transplant
Survival July 2012 to June 2014
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• Extracorporeal support of liver function
• Continuous treatment of plasma ultrafiltrate for up to 5 days
• Ultrafiltration Circuit + ELAD Cartridges
4
ELAD Liver Support System
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Current concepts
• Immune regulation
– Drug therapy
– Tolerance induction
– Immune monitoring
• Organ availability
– Preservation
– Regeneration and bioengineering
87
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Bioprinted human bladder
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Decellularization of vascularized organs and subsequent recellularization
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Human iPS-derived tissue
Takahashi et al, Cell, 2007
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Healthcare Education and Collaboration
Keys to success!
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THANK YOU!