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1Whanau Leadership, Learning & Planning: a brief literature review

Maroro ana te Taura Tangata Kaiti Whanau Development Action Research ProjectMay 2006

Whanau Leadership, Learning & Planning: a brief literature review


Whanau Leadership, Learning & Planning: a brief literature review

CONTENTS

Summary of Findings............................................................................4

1. Common characteristics and competencies of Maori leaders from Te Tairawhiti.............................................................5

2. Characteristics of families that promote future opportunities.........................................................................7

a.. The definition of whanaub.. Whanau relationshipsc.. The role of the whanaud.. Whanau structuree.. Levels of Incomef.. .Career Planningg.. Community Involvementh.. Inter-generational transfer of culture, knowledge

and skills

Appendix: Reference List......................................................................13


“To me leader is a fairly narrow word, it’s helpful to think in terms of rangatiratanga and, for this, I call on the expression from Manuhuia Bennett – Te Pihopa Kaumatua.

‘My old people tell me that there were three things to me said about rangatira and rangatiratanga: te kai a te rangatira he korero, the food of the chiefs is talk; number two, te tohu o te rangatira, he manaaki, the sign of the rangatira is being able to look after others, generosity; and three, te mahi a te rangatira he whakatira i te iwi, the work of the rangatira is binding the iwi’.

I think that there are not enough of our people who are clear about those things.”

- Prof. Whatarangi Winiata1

1 Diamond, 2003, p.7.


Summary of Findings The attempt to source literature specific to this project has been difficult. Much of the literature we found does not specifically answer the key questions of this project. It does however, identify that there are gaps in research, particularly pertaining to Maori families and the ways that they plan for individual, whanau or community development including strategies. Mason Durie’s work on whanau development provides good frameworks for the practice of whanau development, but there seems to be little research around if and how Maori families are practicing whanau development.Durie’s work also provides information about and definitions of the concept of ‘whanau’. This will be useful when considering the sample of the research project. Furthermore, literature from Gray et al, the Families Commission and various reports from the Ministry of Social Development provide ideas around the thinking of families with regards to several key areas of life including employment, education and achievement.Characteristics of good leadership and good leaders are plentiful, particularly there is a wealth of information in the context of Ngati Porou and Te Tairawhiti. This will be useful in formulating questions to be used with the families we interview, and, will make for interesting comparison against the perspectives shared in the interviews with pakeke.


1. Common characteristics and competencies of Maori leaders from Te Tairawhiti

There is much literature that profiles well-known leaders from the Tairawhiti region. Many of these profiles are provided on the Ministry of Culture and Heritage website, others are documented in literary form (Akuhata-Brown, Awatere, Diamond). From this literature two types of leaders emerge: those born into leadership positions and those that earn their leadership role through events and actions. Leaders with well-known ancestors in their whakapapa seem to endure common characteristics. The first of these is that they are regarded as very tapu due to their high birth. Their day to day living took place within a different set of social norms and expectations. Their leadership at times was defined by who they were more than what they achieved. For Porourangi, from whom the tribe Ngati Porou derives its name, his ability to demonstrate his leadership capability was defined by tikanga and kawa which prescribed the way society operated and was structured. Furthermore, the rich Polynesian genetic lineage he passed on can be considered as one of the most significant contributions Porourangi gave to the people of Ngati Porou..The chiefly lines of the Tākitimu and Horouta canoes converged in the leader Ruapani: he was descended from Kiwa, Pāoa and Hine Hakirirangi. The guardianship of the whole district of Tūranganui-a-Kiwa fell upon his shoulders. Ruapani had three wives, and the descendants of their numerous children brought together all the tribes of Tūranganui-a-Kiwa. Ruapani, like many leaders of his time, used intermarriage as a tool of diplomacy to bring iwi and hapu together – thus demonstrating a commitment to building and/or strengthening alliances and commonality where previously animosity, distrust and division may have otherwise existed. Similarly, due to the lineage from whence Te Kani-a-Takirau Ariki descended, he too was limited in terms of the action he could take to demonstrate his wisdom, courage, mana and rangatiratanga. A descendant of the great female chief, Hinematioro, and a male paramount chief, Te Kani-a-Takirau was protected at all costs by his people. He was waited on hand and foot. Despite his involvement in many battles he was not renowned as a great warrior, his people seldom allowed him to risk his life. He did however receive acknowledgement for his stance against the Treaty of Waitangi and his refusal to serve as the Maori King, an illustration of his commitment to his people.Piripi Taumata-a-Kura, born in the late eighteenth century, was a person of high rank. The first significant mention of him in the


literature reviewed occurs during the period of the first Nga Puhi raids on the East Coast in 1823. Taumata-a-Kura was one of the many East Coast victims taken captive by these invaders and sent to the Bay of Islands to serve as slaves. It was while he was in captivity that Taumata-a-Kura became exposed to Christian teaching and, following his release, he returned to the East Coast where his influence over Ngati Porou became evident. The result of which was, amongst other things, the teaching of literacy (in both Te Reo and English), the reduction of historical spiritual practises and the influence of tohungatanga, and the reduction and eventual elimination of the practise of cannibalism.Those leaders who gained respect from their actions were not often high born, or of noble lineage, however achieved an equal level of recognition from their people. Notably, the contributions of Sir Apirana Ngata as a political and cultural icon for Ngati Porou and Maori in general. It was the influence of Ngata’s whanau with regard to the importance of education that would later shape this man. Ngata was influenced not only by his parents, he was part of Rapata Wahawaha’s household as well who had a great impact on his development. Schooling at Te Aute College is also given credit in particular a teacher by the name of Thorndon who helped Ngata understand and accept the responsibilities he would take on to realise his potential. And later, university study played a large part in his achievements.Te Aute College also played a part in the development of Arapeta Awatere, now remembered for his exceptional intellectual ability and work with the 28th Maori Battalion and knowledge of Maori traditional arts. Awatere was the descendant of a renowned Ngati Porou warrior chief and went on to prove himself as Colonel in the army and a warrior who not only fought hard but returned the kawe mate after the war had ended. It is important to note that Sir Apirana Ngata played an important role in the formation of the Battalion and the assigning of positions. Assignments were based on his knowledge of each soldier’s whanau and their unique leadership characteristics displayed during historic battles. These precedents were used as indicators of likely performance while serving in the World War 2 theatres of war.Another Ngati Porou leader, Rapata Wahawaha, was not high born, in fact he played a subservient role in his early years (while enslaved in the rohe of Turanganui a Kiwa). Due to several events in his formative years, he then became a leader in economics, religion and health. With the death of two hereditary chiefs he was later assigned the role of chief of his people.Hinematioro was the great female chief of the Ngati Porou people. The result of a marriage between two people of great lineage, Hinematioro carried great mana and was perceived as tapu. This mana was recognized around the country, not only by Ngati Porou,


even as far as overseas. Not only did Hinematioro carry on the family leadership characteristics but a glance at her own children and grandchildren and their achievements suggests that the act of passing on knowledge and responsibility was indeed important in this whanau. Her actions also enhanced her mana as a leader of her people.Rona Hurley had two great female rolemodels who shaped and influenced her and would continue to provide motivation for Rona’s success. As the senior woman of her generation Rona endured much responsibility. A move away from the Tairawhiti district in her early years would influence her later life immensely. Her father’s interest and success in tobacco growing was passed down to Rona. Later, as she became more involved in business she became the only woman tobacco buyer in the country. Rona was recognized for being strong willed and business savvy but maintaining a sense of friendliness.Mihi Kotukutuku was the descendant of a leading Ngati Porou ancestor. Her name was derived by the event of her elder sisters death and the curse that followed was eventually released but not after she was sent away from her people and her papakainga. She did so and married someone outside of the Tairawhiti area. Her destiny as a senior chief of her people was not realized until much later in her life. As a local chief she played a central role in tikanga, customary rituals and tribal activities. She was an expert at growing kumara. She was also one of the few women of her generation to be able to speak on the marae, as a senior representative of her tribe.

Reremoana Paratene was born at Manutuke. As an infant she was adopted and brought up in Tokomaru Bay. There she learnt the ways of her people, caring for visitors, preparing and cooking food, weaving and being instructed in the customs and traditions of her elders. Her education at Hukarere Native Girls’ School in Napier and the motto of Hukarere, ‘Kia u ki te pai’ (Cleave to what is good), greatly impressed upon her. Reremoana’s mana derived from her compassion for people and her determined will to look after and educate her family. Throughout her life she was active in the community. Reremoana could move comfortably between Maori and Pakeha worlds, creating lasting friendships and associations. She gave freely of her time, helped those who were less fortunate, and was a gracious and generous host.Te Moananui-a-Kiwa Ngarimu also came from a well-known family. After finishing his education at Te Aute College he joined the 28th

Maori Battalion and this is how he would be later recognized as a leader. As a second lieutenant and platoon leader, Ngarimu led his forces into battle. He is remembered for his bravery and courage which led to his eventual death.


Based on a brief analysis of twelve outstanding leaders from Te Tairawhiti, characteristics that may be identified as common amongst leaders from this region include:

1. A robust knowledge of and respect for the upholding and protection of tikanga, kawa, wahi tapu and mätauranga of their whänau, hapu and iwi;

2. A commitment to supporting their own people before any other responsibilities and ‘higher’ callings;

3. The placing of high value on:a. formal educational opportunities and taking advantage of

available resources for learning and development;b. the input of mentors, teachers and other leaders who can

help shape and refine leadership traits and character;4. Particular expertise in one or more domain or area of life;5. Resourcefulness and an entrepreneurial attitude; 6. The support of parents and other whänau members for the

person to achieve their potential;7. Dedication, discipline and commitment to a cause and the

wellbeing of the communities served;8. An ability to live, lead and communicate effectively in multiple

contexts and cultures;9. A commitment to building the capacity of other members of the

community, particularly the next generation to realise their full potential and take on leadership in different areas of community life;

10. A willingness to: a. be different;b. be generous;c. exceed expectations;d. make hard decisions even when they may be unpopular

and to make decisions based on proven principles rather than the immediate circumstances;

e. put the greater good ahead of their own needs, safety, comfort and personal advancement.


2. Characteristics of families that plan for and promote future opportunities.

The definition of whanauIn his report Durie (2003b), recognises the work of Joan Metge in describing two broad concepts of whanau. “A whanau can be said to be made up of people who share descent from a common ancestor - whakapapa whanau – or alternately Maori who do not have blood ties but share a common sense of purpose - kaupapa whanau” (p.3, 2003b). Durie goes on to say that “generally the members of a whanau, no matter how conceptualised, are Maori, though not always, and generally their association together is mutually beneficial, though that is not always true either” (p.3, 2003b). According to Durie (2003b) there a key characteristics of whanau, namely that there exists a mutual, reciprocal and shared responsibility, within a Maori cultural context. Prior to this however, Durie points to the use of the word ‘whanau’ as a synonym for ‘family’, particularly in statistical terms and encourages the reader to explore the context in which ‘whanau’ has been used and determine its usefulness.

Whanau RelationshipsStrong families are ones that Mackay (2003) identifies as having “strong emotional bonds, effective patterns of communication, the use of coping strategies and family belief systems, especially those based on spiritual or religious values”. These concepts, coupled with what is described as an authoritative parenting style (based on a high levels of both warmth and control of children), lends itself to positive child outcomes. According to Mackey in environments such as these, leadership development among members is more likely.Research from the Adolescent Health Research Group (2003) showed that positive relationships with parents, described as when a child feels close to a parent and knows that they are cared for compounded with the ability to spend enough time with the parents, leads to a better ability of the child to cope with challenges and changes in their lives. Furthermore, children with these strong parental/caregiver/child relationships have been found to achieve better in school and to have healthier and more constructive relationships with others.

New Zealand parents polled in a 2006 Colmar-Brunton report, said that they were generally happy about their home and work life. A large percentage of agreed that having a good level of job satisfaction


transferred to a better home life. Parents also agreed that it was important for children to learn a good work ethic and this could be achieved when children observed parents going to work. Over half of the parents polled believed that work schedules conflicted with home life, which was considered as a negative in the family environment.

The role of the whanauThere is much literature that points to the role of the whanau. Research by Gray et al. (2002) found that, overall, participants felt that families played the most important role in determining good outcomes for young people. In reporting back on the ideas circulated around how parents are promoting good outcomes for their children, active participation in education was identified as one strategy, including participation in Boards of Trustees meetings and fundraising events. Parents also said it was important for them to involve themselves in their children’s learning and help with homework. The role of parents was identified as providing love, encouragement and support to children. Furthermore, the provision of material support such as financial support and a sound home environment was identified. In their analysis of Maori families involved in their research, Gray et al. (2002) describe the perceptions of Maori parents with regard to their role within the family. The importance of providing a loving and supportive base for their children is stressed. Furthermore, “most people seemed to regard building self esteem and confidence and instilling a desire to succeed as critical for ensuring good outcomes and felt this was primarily the role of the whanau (p.42, 2002).The following model is presented by Durie (2003b) for considering the roles and functions of whanau from a positive perspective in terms of whanau development outcomes:

Capacity Goals Examples of Outcome Targets

Examples of Outcome Indicators

Manaakitia – the capacity to care

Independence; Quality of life;To ‘live as Mäori.’

80% whänau members over 70 years are mobile and independent.

70 + year olds who hold a current drivers licence.

100% whänau members under 5 years are able to access early childhood education.

Number of whänau enrolled in Kohanga Reo.

Pupuri Taonga – the capacity for guardianship

Whänau Estate is well managed for future generations

Whänau have access rights to whänau waahi tapu

Provisions noted in local body District Plans

Whänau land holdings increase in value

Mäori Land Court records, valuations

Advocacy for whänau

80% whänau workforce employed in meaningful occupations.

Labour force statistics.


Whakamana – the capacity to empower

members in society.

Whänau participate fully on whänau marae.

Marae attendance records.

Whakatakato tikanga - the capacity to plan ahead.

Anticipate needs of future generations.

A well resourced whanau educational plan.

Trust fund established for future educational needs.

Provision for whänau bereavement.

Tangi fund established.

Whakapümau tikanga - capacity to promote culture.

Endorsement of te reo Mäori, me öna tikanga.

60% whänau members under 20 years are fluent speakers of te reo.

Assessment of whänau levels of fluency.

75% of whänau over the age of 45 years have completed a wänanga programme.

Wänanga records, courses completed.

Whaka-whanaungatanga - the capacity for consensus.

Agreement on key whänau decisions.

Whänau reach agreement on land utilisation.

Mäori Land Court minutes.

Whanau StructureAmato (2004) found that children living in the United States with divorced parents, compared with children with two continuously married parents, tend to score lower on a variety of measures of adjustment and wellbeing. Although several mechanisms are responsible for the link between divorce and children’s problems, the most important factor is the deterioration in the quality of parent–child relationships. Following divorce, many single custodial mothers experience stress that interferes with the quality of parenting. The amount of time that non-custodial fathers have to spend with children is often inadequate to develop anything other than superficial relationships. Weak emotional bonds with parents, in turn, predict a variety of negative long-term outcomes among children. New Zealand literature on the same topic draws a slightly different conclusion. Mackay (2003) describes the connection between high levels of family cohesion and a high level of resilience amongst family members. When looking at the effects of family structure on family cohesion, Mackay argues that it is possible for step-families to have high levels of family cohesion and furthermore, that family structure, and thus cohesion, can change over time. This could also be applied in families of divorced parents.

Levels of IncomeLongitudinal data from the Christchurch Health and Development study was used in this report by Maloney (2002) to determine the relationship between income and outcomes for young people. It was found that young people who lived in families that had higher incomes during their childhood were at less risk of facing early parenthood, criminal activity, and were more likely to gain school or post school


qualifications. However, it was also realised that when other factors were added the effects of income became insignificant.In a report developed by Mayer (2002) for the Ministry of Social Development, it was found that parental income affects child wellbeing. However, again, when other factors were considered, Mayer goes on to say that the net effects of income are somewhat insignificant. It was observed though, that income does seem to have greater effects on cognitive achievement and educational attainment. It was also suggested in Mayer’s report that an income boost for a low income family could be beneficial to the potential outcomes for the child/ren of that family. Similarly, Blau (1999) suggested that long term or more permanent income may have more pronounced effects on child outcomes than short term or current income. Yeung et al. (2002) proposed two interesting ideas, namely that when more resources are made available to a child via perhaps an increased parental/caregiver income, this will positively affect the child’s development and potential outcomes for the child. Secondly, the potential reduction in family stress by means of a higher income relates to improved outcomes for the child due to the enhanced emotional well being of the parents and better parenting practices.In this study, Yeung et al. (2002) also suggest that several factors impact on outcomes for children including the quality of the home environment and the neighbourhood, and positive and negative parenting practices.

Career PlanningLittle literature could be found that documents levels of career planning by parents in New Zealand. Gray et al (2002) comment on the desire of parents for their children to have good career choices but only goes so far as to describe this desire, rather than document the ways that parents are facilitating this with their children.The 2002 study on how good outcomes for young people can be achieved involves commentary from parents with regard to their children and young people commenting on themselves. When Maori parents were asked to identify good outcomes for their children at 18, many families felt that a good education would lead to greater employment opportunities. Some parents identified the areas of study they would encourage their children to pursue but did not say how they would do this. Furthermore, when asked about good outcomes for their children at 25, families went on to say that they felt that tertiary study would be complete and that a career would be established or on its way to being established.Maori parents living in rural or provincial areas were anxious about employment opportunities. So too were Pakeha or Pacific families. Their intention was to send their children to larger cities for work.


Many parents and young people did not know what employment options were available to them or what education was needed for specific career choices. However, few conveyed having a career plan or strategy for employment.This is supported by Durie (2003b) who says that although the capacity to plan ahead is an important function amongst Maori families, it is likely to be the one that is least practiced with few whanau having developmental plans in place. His suggestion is that whanau do not have the capacity to anticipate the needs of future generations, certainly in line with findings from the Gray et al. study that identified a lack of knowledge of parents and young people with regard to career planning.

In that same document, Durie identifies that “indigenous peoples, including Maori, have identified dual goals for development: they wish to participate fully in the wider society, and they also wish to participate fully in their own particular societies.” (Durie, 2003b, p.301). Furthermore, Durie contests that “unless there is some general recognition of the dual objectives [of whanau] to participate in society and to participate in the indigenous world (te ao Maori), career planning for indigenous peoples will be compromised” (Durie, 2003b, p.299).

Durie proposes a three dimensional framework for Maori-relevant career planning:

“One dimension is linked to world-views and recognises the cultural identity of the [whanau] and characteristics of the workplace. It forms the cultural substrate upon which the planning process unfolds. A second dimension is linked to opportunities that Maori might have to actively embrace a Maori identity within conventional workplaces but also within the rapidly explanding number of Maori-centred workplaces. This opportunity dimension needs to be well understood so that informed choices can be made and their implications fully appreciated. The third dimension concerns outcomes and is premised on the dual goals of participation in society and participation within te ao Maori. The objective is to move towards a point where those two goals overlap, so that even if not congruent, they are at least compatible” (Durie, 2003b, p.300).

Community InvolvementFor a whanau to gain, retain and develop life competencies, a sense of cohesion may be important. In Canada, social cohesion, as cited in Spoonley et al. (2005) is described as the development of a community with shared values, shared challenges and equal opportunity. The community referred to here by all means could be used to describe


the whanau/family, and therefore this information is valid when considering the concept of cohesion in whanau development. It is also recognised that social cohesion is connected to social capital which is dependent about the social relationships that individuals create (Berger-Schmitt, 2000). This information suggests that relationships that are maintained between individuals play an important role in cohesion and therefore further growth. Parekh (2005) notes that community cohesion derives from a shared commitment to core values of equality and fairness, dialogue and consultation, tolerance, compromise, and respect for diversity. Social relationships have been observed as being an important influence on the wellbeing and behaviour of young people in a study done on 73 school-aged individuals in Tasmania. Education, social networks, other social institutions (such as clubs etc) that are accessible and welcoming to young people are valued by the youth involved in the study and are found to play an important role in the development of mental and physical wellbeing (Easthope & White, 2006). To have these resources available to young people aid in the facilitation of development and therefore would be a valuable part of the whanau/family lifestyle considerations. According to Rogoff (2003), one important strength of communities is the integration of children in the day-to-day work and interactions of adults. His conclusion however is that middle-class families in New Zealand are not practising this enough and points to the segregation of children from parents in many community and family events. A result he says, of the structure of middle-class adult days and contemporary society.

Human development, as a concept, is closely linked to the idea of increasing civic participation and social responsibility. When asked about the goal of development, one Navajo replied:

“Being a leader is the highest form of development, likes its goal. The whole thing is responsibility – taking care of things. First you just learn to take care of yourself. Then some things, then some animals, then your family. Then you help all your people and the whole world.” (Rogoff, 2003, p.151)

Inter-generational transfer of culture, knowledge and skills

The 2005 study by the Families Commission showed that transmission of culture and essential knowledge and skills through generations appears to be important for Maori, Pacific and migrant families in relation to identity. Furthermore, while it is likely that all cultures value transmission of their culture, those with a minority ethnic identity status, may find doing so challenging in light of competing models and messages from the dominant culture.


Literacy as a site for intergenerational communication cultural knowledge and values can be used as an example for how different communities transfer skills, knowledge and values between generations. In a report from Snow (1996) the value of role-modelling by adults and participation by children in learning opportunities that are both fun and meaningful within the family context is considered of most value.

This notion is supported by Te Whaiti et al. (1997) when talking about the Maori context. This document describes the unique relationship between elders and their mokopuna, specifically referring to the practice whereby children accompanied adults and learnt through practical experience. The traditional tuakana/teina method of learning and the formal structure of the whare wananga are identified as other methods through which intergenerational transmission could take place.

Of interest also is Plomin’s (1988) perspective that there are different ways in which individuals develop. All are affected by their culture, community, neighbourhood and family, but each experience is unique. Variability is inevitable, even amongst members of the same family, given that no two people experience the world in exactly the same way.


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