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Chapter 7
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGETS
THEORY AND VYGOTSKYSSOCIOCULTURAL VIEWPOINT
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PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Genetic epistemology experimental study of
the origin of knowledge
What is intelligence?A basic life function that helps an organism
adapt to the environment
Cognitive equilibrium balance betweenthought processes and the environment
Constructivist approach child constructs
knowledge
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PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Gaining Knowledge: Schemes and Processes
Schemes: mental patterns (thought/action)
Organization combine existingschemes into new/complex schemes
Adaptation adjustment to environment
Assimilation new information intoexisting schemes
Accommodation modify existing
schemes for new information
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Table 7.1 A small sample of cognitive growth from Piagets perspective
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Invariant developmental sequence
Sequencing fixed
Individual differences entering/emergingstages
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
Coordinate sensory inputs and motor skills
Transition from being reflexive to reflective
Development of Problem-Solving Abilities
Reflex activity (birth 1 month)
Primary circular reactions (1-4 months) first motor habits, repetitive
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Secondary circular reactions
(4-8 months)
Repetitive actions with objectsbeyond the body
Coordination of secondary reactions
(8-12 months)Coordinate 2 or more actions to
achieve an objective (intentional)
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Tertiary circular reactions -12-18 months
Active experimentation, trial & error
Symbolic problem solving -18-24 months
Inner (mental) experimentation
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Development of Imitation
Novel responses by 8-12 months of age
Deferred imitation 18-24 months
Research now shows 6-month-olds are
capable of deferred imitation
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Development of Object Permanence
Objects continue to exist when they are
no longer visible/detectableAppears by 8-12 months of age
A-not-B error: search in the last place
found, not where it was last seen Complete by 18-24 months
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Challenges to Piaget Account
Neo-nativism
Infants are born with substantial innateknowledge
Require less time/experience to be
demonstrated Young children seem to possess some
object permanence, memory
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Table 7.2 Summary of Piagets account of sensorimotor development
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Challenges to Piagets Approach
Theory theories
Combination of neo-nativist andPiagetian perspective
Infants are prepared at birth to make
sense of some information
Beyond this, Piagets constructivist
approach is generally accurate
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
Symbolic function / representational insight
One thing represents another Language
Pretend (symbolic) play
developmentally a positive activity New views on symbolism
Dual representation think about an
object in 2 ways at one time (3 years)
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Deficits in preoperational thinking
Animism
Attribute life/life like qualities toinanimate objects
Egocentrism
View world from own perspective,trouble recognizing others point of
view
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Figure 7.2 Piagets three-mountain problem. Young preoperational children are egocentric. Theycannot easily assume another persons perspective and often say that another child viewing themountain from a different vantage point sees exactly what they see from their own location.
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Deficits in preoperational thinking
Appearance/reality distinction
Cannot distinguish between thetwo
Dual encoding
Representing an object in morethan one way at a time
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Figure 7.3 Maynard the cat, without and with a dog mask. Three-year-olds who met Maynard
before his change in appearance nonetheless believed that he had become a dog.
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Deficits in preoperational thinking
Lack of conservation do not realize
properties of objects do not changejust because appearance does
Lack of decentration concentrate
on more than one aspect of a
problem at the same time
Lack of reversibility mentally
undo an action
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Figure 7.4 Some common tests of the childs ability to conserve.
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Figure 7.5 Reversibility is an important cognitive operation that develops during middle childhood.
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Did Piaget Underestimate the Preoperational
Child?
New evidence on egocentrism Piagets tasks were too complex
Another look at childrens reasoning
Animism not routine among 3-year-olds Can preoperational children conserve?
Can be trained at 4 years (identity
training)
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
The Development Theory of Mind (TOM)
Belief-desire reasoning
Understand behavior is based onWhat an individual knows or believes
What they want or desire
Develops after preschool age False-belief task desire, not belief
Based on lack of cognitive inhibition
Improves with interaction with siblings
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Cognitive operations
Internal mental activity to modifysymbols to reach a logical conclusion
Conservation capable of
DecenteringReversibility
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Table 7.3 A comparison of preoperational and concrete operational thought
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Relational logic capable of
Mental seriation
Transitivity Horizontal decalage different levels of
understanding that seem to require
same mental operations
Based on complexity
Limited to real or tangible aspects of
experience
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Figure 7.7 Childrens performance on a simple seriation task. If asked to arrange a series of sticksfrom shortest to longest, preoperational children often line up one end of the sticks and create anincomplete ordering (a) or order them so the top of each successive stick extends higher than thepreceding stick (b). Concrete operators, by contrast, can use the inverse cognitive operationsgreater than (>) and less than (
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
The Formal Operational Stage (11-12 +)
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Ability to generate hypotheses and usedeductive reasoning (general to specific)
Inductive reasoning
Going from specific observations togeneralizations
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Personal and Social Implications of Formal
Thought
Thinking about what is possible in life Stable identity
Understanding of others perspectives
Questioning others Thinking of how the world ought to be
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PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Does Everyone Reach Formal Operations?
Early Piaget Yes, at least some signs
by 15-18 Other researchers No. Lack of
education
Later Piaget Yes, but only on problems
that are either interesting or important
Seem to be more adolescents at this
level than 30 years ago
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Figure 7.8 Expertise and formal operations. College students show the greatest command offormal-operational thought in the subject area most related to their major. ADAPTED FROM DELISI & STAUDT, 1980.
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AN EVALUATION OF PIAGETS THEORY
Piagets Contributions
Founded cognitive development
Stated children construct their knowledge First attempt to explain development
Reasonably accurate overview of how
children of different ages think Major influence in social and emotional
development, and education
Influenced future research
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AN EVALUATION OF PIAGETS THEORY
Challenges to Piaget
Piaget failed to distinguish competence
from performance Does cognitive development really occur in
stages?
Little evidence of broad stages
Does Piaget explain cognitive
development? more of an description
Little attention to social/cultural influences
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
The Role of Culture in Development
Ontogenetic development development
of an individual over his or her lifetime Microgenetic development change over
relatively brief periods of time
Phylogenetic development changes over
evolutionary time
Sociohistorical development changes in
ones culture
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Tools of Intellectual Adaptation
Born with elementary mental
functions (attention, memory)Culture transforms these into higher
mental functions
Culture specific tools allow the use
of the basic functions more
adaptively (language, pencils)
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Table 7.4 Chinese and English number words from 1 to 20. The more systematic Chinesenumbering system follows a base-ten logic (i.e., 11 translating as ten one [shi yee]) requiringless rote memorization, which may explain why Chinese-speaking children learn to count to 20earlier than English-speaking children.
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
The Social Origins of Early Cognitive
Competencies
Many discoveries active learners makeoccur in collaborative dialogue with a tutor
The Zone of Proximal Development
Difference between what a learner can
do independently and what can be done
with guidance
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Scaffolding tendency to tailor support
to a learner near the limit of capability
Guided participation/apprenticeshipMay be very formal and context
dependent
May occur in day-to-day activities
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Figure 7.9 Some functions of shared remembering in childrens memory development. Source:Gauvin, M (2001). The social context of cognitive development. New York: Guilford, p. 211.
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Working in the Zone of Proximal
Development in Different Cultures
Cultures where adults and children aresegregated, learning is in schools
Cultures where adults and children are
together most of the day, learning is
through real life observation
Verbal versus nonverbal emphasis of
instruction
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Playing in the Zone of Proximal Development
More likely to engage in symbolic play
when others are present Cooperative social play of preschoolers is
related to later understanding of others
feeling and beliefs
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Implications for Education
Active, not passive learning
Assess what is known to estimatecapabilities
Guided participations structured by
teachers who would gradually turn over
more of activity to students
Cooperative learning exercises help each
other; very effective!
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
The Role of Language in Cognitive
Development
Primary method of passing modes ofthinking to children
Becomes important tool of intellectual
adaptation
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Piagets Theory of Language/Thought
Egocentric speech
Self-directed utterancesReflected ongoing mental activity
Shifted to communicative speech
with ageLittle role in cognitive development
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Vygotskys Theory of Language/Thought
Egocentric is really an illustration of
transition from prelinguistic to verbalreasoning
Private speech communicative
speech for self
Serves as a cognitive self-
guidance system; does not
disappear, becomes inner speech
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Which viewpoint should be endorsed?
Vygotsky
Social speech gives rise to privatespeech
More common with difficult tasks
Self-instruction improvesperformance
Does tend to turn into inner
speech
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Vygotsky in Perspective: Summary
Cognitive development involves
Dialogues with skilled partners within thezone of proximal development
Incorporation of what tutors say into
what they say to themselves
Expect wide variations in development
across cultures
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VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
Vygotsky in Perspective: Evaluation
Not yet received intense scrutiny
Verbal guided participation may be lessadaptive in some instances than others
Collaborative problem solving can
undermine performance
More a perspective, not a theory with as
many testable hypotheses as Piaget
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Table 7.5 Comparing Vygotskys and Piagets theories of cognitive development