Linguistics

CL4 Language and CL4 Language and Culture for BusinessCulture for Business

Prof. Peter CullenProf. Peter CullenModule V B1Module V B1LinguisticsLinguistics

www.cl4englishlistening.wordpress.comwww.cl4englishlistening.wordpress.com

What is “Language” and what is What is “Language” and what is “Linguistics”?“Linguistics”?

Language:Language:

is a is a system of communicationsystem of communication

has an has an emitteremitter who produces signals who produces signals

has a has a receiverreceiver who receives signals who receives signals

All “languages” have a All “languages” have a function function (BASIC, language of (BASIC, language of bees, etc.)bees, etc.)

BUT not all languages have the same BUT not all languages have the same structurestructure

Human languageHuman language has its own specific structure, and is has its own specific structure, and is very different from animal languagesvery different from animal languages


Linguistics:Linguistics:is the scientific study of is the scientific study of human human languagelanguage

it involves the formulation of hypotheses it involves the formulation of hypotheses that make sense out of multiple factorsthat make sense out of multiple factors

these hypotheses must be clear and these hypotheses must be clear and verifyable = explicit and validverifyable = explicit and valid

attempts to identify attempts to identify general lawsgeneral laws of of language language

BUT – it is BUT – it is descriptivedescriptive and not and not proscriptiveproscriptive


Grammar is Grammar is practicalpractical: it defines the laws of : it defines the laws of communication.communication.

Linguistics aims at Linguistics aims at understandingunderstanding the language we the language we produce according to systematic laws which are as produce according to systematic laws which are as general as possible.general as possible.


The characteristics of human language:The characteristics of human language:

Human language is Human language is discretediscrete: elements are clearly : elements are clearly distinguished from each other by well defined limitsdistinguished from each other by well defined limits

““Pat” ≠ “Pad”Pat” ≠ “Pad”

Other forms of language are Other forms of language are continuouscontinuous: : communicators can increasingly “specialise” the communicators can increasingly “specialise” the signalsignal

i.e. Explorer bees can indicate distance, richness of i.e. Explorer bees can indicate distance, richness of food, and direction by introducing increasingly food, and direction by introducing increasingly subtle changes in the rhythm, orientation and subtle changes in the rhythm, orientation and duration of its danceduration of its dance


Animal languages do not have Animal languages do not have phonemesphonemes – articulated – articulated differentiated sounds that, individually, have no differentiated sounds that, individually, have no meaning, but when composed form specific signals – meaning, but when composed form specific signals – words.words.

Human languages can form a very high number of Human languages can form a very high number of signssigns

- structures which have both - structures which have both signifyerssignifyers or or markersmarkers and and meaningmeaning

Phonemes have no inherent significance, but DO Phonemes have no inherent significance, but DO distinguish significance.distinguish significance.

This is called This is called dual articulationdual articulation


Animal languages have a Animal languages have a finitefinite number of signs number of signs

The words of human languages do not make up a The words of human languages do not make up a finitefinite set – new words are created all the time. set – new words are created all the time.

This creativity allows the composition of complex This creativity allows the composition of complex sentences, including clauses.sentences, including clauses.

This is called This is called recursionrecursion..


i.e. i.e.

1)1) “Maria hit me.” “Maria hit me.”

Using a verb, such as Using a verb, such as to sayto say, we can tranform this , we can tranform this sentence into a sentence into a complex sentencecomplex sentence::

with a with a main clausemain clause and a and a dependent clausedependent clause

2) “The boys said that Maria hit me.”2) “The boys said that Maria hit me.”

We can also tranform this sentence into a We can also tranform this sentence into a dependent dependent clauseclause by using a verb such as by using a verb such as to believe.to believe.

3) “The neighbours believe that the boys said that 3) “The neighbours believe that the boys said that Maria hit me.” Maria hit me.” (she’s so violent!)(she’s so violent!)


If we make sentence 3) depend on a verb such as If we make sentence 3) depend on a verb such as to to claimclaim, the sentence becomes even more complex:, the sentence becomes even more complex:

4) The Browns claim that the neighbours believe that 4) The Browns claim that the neighbours believe that the boys say that Maria hit me. (the boys say that Maria hit me. (this is reported speech gone this is reported speech gone mad!)mad!)

As you can imagine, this process could go on forever.As you can imagine, this process could go on forever.

Another way to make infinite sentences is to add the Another way to make infinite sentences is to add the word word andand

5) 5) George runsGeorge runsGeorge runs George runs andand shouts shoutsGeorge runs George runs andand shouts shouts andand sweats sweats (this is getting (this is getting

wierd)wierd)


Linguistics has two contrasting aspects:Linguistics has two contrasting aspects:

competencecompetence and and performanceperformance

Our capacity to produce infinite sentences MUST be Our capacity to produce infinite sentences MUST be self-limited in practice.self-limited in practice.

DiscretionDiscretion and and recursionrecursion separate human language separate human language from animal languages.from animal languages.

Human language is dependent on Human language is dependent on structurestructure

Agreement Agreement (Maria hit(Maria hitss))

Grammatical and non-grammatical Grammatical and non-grammatical (Maria the hit ball)(Maria the hit ball)


Language – meaning the ability of all humans to Language – meaning the ability of all humans to develop a system of comunication with those develop a system of comunication with those characteristics described above (descretion and characteristics described above (descretion and recursion)recursion)

Language – meaning the specific form that this system Language – meaning the specific form that this system takes in each of the various humna communities.takes in each of the various humna communities.

What elements are common to all languages (linguistic What elements are common to all languages (linguistic universals)?universals)?

Which elements differ from language to language?Which elements differ from language to language?

Languages differ in a limited way. They may be divided Languages differ in a limited way. They may be divided into into linguistic typeslinguistic types


Languages are both Languages are both writtenwritten and and spoken.spoken.

Linguistics tends to favour Linguistics tends to favour spokenspoken language. language.

1) Many languages have not been/are not 1) Many languages have not been/are not written.written.

(i.e. Somali was not written until 1972, American indian (i.e. Somali was not written until 1972, American indian languages etc.)languages etc.)

2) Children learn first to speak, then to write. As well, 2) Children learn first to speak, then to write. As well, speaking involves natural learning, not teaching.speaking involves natural learning, not teaching.

3) Languages change over time. Spoken language changes 3) Languages change over time. Spoken language changes first.first.

(Cullen adds “at least until the telecommunications revolution (Cullen adds “at least until the telecommunications revolution that has specifically changed language in text form)that has specifically changed language in text form)


Often, alphabets (a,b,c, etc.) lag behind spoken usage in Often, alphabets (a,b,c, etc.) lag behind spoken usage in development.development.

As well, alphabets are contradictory and incongruent with As well, alphabets are contradictory and incongruent with respect to “spoken” languages. (for example the “f” sound respect to “spoken” languages. (for example the “f” sound in English may be written “f”, “ph”, or “gh” as in “enough”.in English may be written “f”, “ph”, or “gh” as in “enough”.

Alphabets move from the abstract to the concrete as they are Alphabets move from the abstract to the concrete as they are spokenspoken

/a//a/ /e//e/

aa11 aa22 aa33 aa44 ee11 ee22 ee33 ee44


Ferdinand de Saussure: Ferdinand de Saussure:

(Course of General Linguistics – 1916)(Course of General Linguistics – 1916)

Still the conceptual basis for modern linguistics.Still the conceptual basis for modern linguistics.

Synchronous and Diachrnonous languageSynchronous and Diachrnonous languageAssociative and syntagmatic relationshipsAssociative and syntagmatic relationshipsLangue et paroleLangue et parole

Parole: Parole: the linguistic execution produced by an the linguistic execution produced by an individual. It is an individual act. Concrete.individual. It is an individual act. Concrete.

Langue:Langue: the total structure and content of thethe total structure and content of thelanguage. It predates and outlives thelanguage. It predates and outlives theindividual. It is collective, social, and individual. It is collective, social, and abstract.abstract.


Roman Jackobson (1960)Roman Jackobson (1960)

Code and Message.Code and Message.

Code is a group of potentialities. It is abstract. (i.e. Code is a group of potentialities. It is abstract. (i.e. Morse code)Morse code)

A message is constructed from the units provided by A message is constructed from the units provided by the code. It is concrete.the code. It is concrete.

SaussureSaussure JakobsonJakobson

abstractabstract languelangue codecode

concreteconcrete paroleparole messagemessage


Noam Chomsky:Noam Chomsky:

Competence: everything that an individual “knows” about Competence: everything that an individual “knows” about their own language in order to speak and understand as their own language in order to speak and understand as they do.they do.

Performance: what an individual actually does in linguistic Performance: what an individual actually does in linguistic terms.terms.

SaussureSaussure JakobsonJakobson ChomskyChomsky

abstractabstract languelangue codecode competencecompetence

concreteconcrete paroleparole messagemessage performanceperformance

Langue guarantees communication because it is collectiveLangue guarantees communication because it is collective

Ability guarantees communication because is is widely Ability guarantees communication because is is widely shared by people who speak the language.shared by people who speak the language.


Ability does not mean “cleverness” (strong ability).Ability does not mean “cleverness” (strong ability).It means the group of linguistic knowledge that a It means the group of linguistic knowledge that a

speaker has.speaker has.

If we ask what an individual knows in order to speak If we ask what an individual knows in order to speak language L as they do, and what an individual knows language L as they do, and what an individual knows in order to understand a speaker of language L as in order to understand a speaker of language L as they do...they do...

... we must subdivide this question into the various ... we must subdivide this question into the various levels of linguistic structure:levels of linguistic structure:

PhonologyPhonologyMorphologyMorphologySyntaxSyntaxSemanticsSemantics


Phonological competence:Phonological competence:

A speaker knows how to divide words into syllables, A speaker knows how to divide words into syllables, identify the position of accent, knows how identify the position of accent, knows how sound sound structuresstructures work together to make codes in a work together to make codes in a language.language.

Morphological competence:Morphological competence:

A speaker has abilities concerning the words of thier A speaker has abilities concerning the words of thier language. Accent differentiation, Word Vocabulary, language. Accent differentiation, Word Vocabulary, composition of words (root words to composed composition of words (root words to composed words – adding prefixes and suffixes).words – adding prefixes and suffixes).

They know how to respect the rules of word They know how to respect the rules of word compositioncomposition


Syntactic competence:Syntactic competence:

A speaker knows that you can construct different types A speaker knows that you can construct different types of sentences.of sentences.

Speakers have no difficulty constructing and Speakers have no difficulty constructing and understanding large numbers of new sentences understanding large numbers of new sentences without having heard them before. They can intuit without having heard them before. They can intuit the grammatical structure.the grammatical structure.

Semantic competence:Semantic competence:

Speakers can recognise the meaning of words and Speakers can recognise the meaning of words and sentences, as well as the relationships between sentences, as well as the relationships between words (synonym, antonym, ambiguity of meaning).words (synonym, antonym, ambiguity of meaning).

They know what words mean, how their meanings They know what words mean, how their meanings relate. relate.


Grammar:Grammar:

A body of linguistic knowledge stored in the mind, A body of linguistic knowledge stored in the mind, constructed from a complex balance of biologically constructed from a complex balance of biologically innate factors (i.e. that rules are dependent on innate factors (i.e. that rules are dependent on structure) and experience acquired within the native structure) and experience acquired within the native linguistic community (i.e. the words of a language linguistic community (i.e. the words of a language are acquired through experience)are acquired through experience)

Primary linguistic data – experiential learning.Primary linguistic data – experiential learning.

A culture of communication? OH YES!!!!A culture of communication? OH YES!!!!


One language cannot produce all linguistic possibilites.One language cannot produce all linguistic possibilites.

A language is a codeA language is a code

Codes are comprised of: Codes are comprised of: basic unitsbasic units

rules for combining the rules for combining the unitsunits

i.e. “fingers and toes” in English do not translate i.e. “fingers and toes” in English do not translate equally into Italian.equally into Italian.

Each language makes “choices”.Each language makes “choices”.

Not only choices of vocabulary and sound,Not only choices of vocabulary and sound,

But also choices of morphology and syntaxBut also choices of morphology and syntax


Syntagmatic relationships: sounds represented by Syntagmatic relationships: sounds represented by units of code (letters) lose their individual properties units of code (letters) lose their individual properties and act as a “spoken chain”. i.e. “at”, “ate”and act as a “spoken chain”. i.e. “at”, “ate”

Paradigmatic or associative expression: Paradigmatic or associative expression:

the syntagmatic relationship carries through more the syntagmatic relationship carries through more than one wordthan one word

i.e. gender agreement in Italian “il mio amico”i.e. gender agreement in Italian “il mio amico”

This paradigm excludes all other possible forms.This paradigm excludes all other possible forms.


Synchronic Synchronic and and DiachronicDiachronic structures: structures:

Language changes over time: they are Language changes over time: they are diachronous diachronous in in nature (change over time). A linguistic analysis nature (change over time). A linguistic analysis may look at the substitution of one element for may look at the substitution of one element for another as time passes.another as time passes.

But we can study language as it is at the moment But we can study language as it is at the moment without considering the “time factor”without considering the “time factor”

This is called synchronic analysis – looking at elements This is called synchronic analysis – looking at elements that occur at the same time.that occur at the same time.

Synchrony does not mean “present” – it means Synchrony does not mean “present” – it means without studying the time factor – i.e. Today’s without studying the time factor – i.e. Today’s Latin grammar Latin grammar (note: A-B axis = synchronous C-D = (note: A-B axis = synchronous C-D = diachronous)diachronous)


Linguistic signs:Linguistic signs:

Words are signs, that is, they combine marker and Words are signs, that is, they combine marker and meaning.meaning.

Signs have various properties:Signs have various properties:

Distinction: each sign indicates something different.Distinction: each sign indicates something different.

Linearity: signs carry over time or space – they are Linearity: signs carry over time or space – they are arranged in successive order.arranged in successive order.

Arbitrary: no natural law imposes the choice of Arbitrary: no natural law imposes the choice of meaning for any given sign. This means they evolve.meaning for any given sign. This means they evolve.

The study of linguistic signs is called The study of linguistic signs is called semiotics.semiotics.


According to Jakobsen, the components necessary for According to Jakobsen, the components necessary for linguistic communication are:linguistic communication are:

1)1) The speakerThe speaker

2)2) The subject of speech or conversationThe subject of speech or conversation

3)3) The messageThe message

4)4) The channel for transmitting communicationThe channel for transmitting communication

5)5) The codeThe code

6)6) The listenerThe listener

Each component has a corresponding linguistic Each component has a corresponding linguistic functionfunction


Each component of linguistic communication has a Each component of linguistic communication has a corresponding linguistic function.corresponding linguistic function.

1)1) Emotive – an expressive function of the speakerEmotive – an expressive function of the speaker2)2) Referential – informational functionReferential – informational function3)3) Poetic – forces listener to appreciate the Poetic – forces listener to appreciate the

construction of the message itelfconstruction of the message itelf4)4) Phatic – a function that verifies the channelPhatic – a function that verifies the channel5)5) Metalinguistic – when the code is used to speak Metalinguistic – when the code is used to speak

about the code itself (i.e. a grammar book)about the code itself (i.e. a grammar book)6)6) Conative – commands and imperativesConative – commands and imperatives

Jakobson theorised that each text held a prevailing Jakobson theorised that each text held a prevailing function (of these 6). i.e., a driving manual is function (of these 6). i.e., a driving manual is primarily referential, although may contain primarily referential, although may contain conative functions.conative functions.


Dialects:Dialects:

Many languages can be Many languages can be stratifiedstratified – that is, broken into sub- – that is, broken into sub-categories that include regional and local variations.categories that include regional and local variations.

1)1) Written EnglishWritten English2)2) Formal spoken EnglishFormal spoken English3)3) Informal spoken EnglishInformal spoken English4)4) Regional forms of spoken EnglishRegional forms of spoken English5)5) Regionally specific dialectsRegionally specific dialects6)6) Provincial capital dialectsProvincial capital dialects7)7) Local dialectsLocal dialects

This stratification moves from the abstract and national to This stratification moves from the abstract and national to the concrete and localthe concrete and local


A stratification for English may be:A stratification for English may be:

1)1) Written work according to Oxbridge or Chicago Written work according to Oxbridge or Chicago rules based on the OED or Webster’s Dictionary.rules based on the OED or Webster’s Dictionary.

2)2) RP or Webster’s based AmericanRP or Webster’s based American

3)3) Geographically neutral, but nationally based Geographically neutral, but nationally based informal speech (slurring, slang, contextual informal speech (slurring, slang, contextual references)references)

4)4) Yorkshire dialect or Maritime CanadianYorkshire dialect or Maritime Canadian

5)5) Geordie (Newcastle upon Tyne)Geordie (Newcastle upon Tyne)

6)6) Lunenburg county (NS, Canada)Lunenburg county (NS, Canada)


The mix is cultural – often not occuring in writing.The mix is cultural – often not occuring in writing.

The standarisation of writing is cultural, and follows The standarisation of writing is cultural, and follows settlement patterns. (migration, immigration and settlement patterns. (migration, immigration and mixing).mixing).

i.e. RP developed from migrants to London from i.e. RP developed from migrants to London from Bedfordshire, Northhamptonshire, and Bedfordshire, Northhamptonshire, and Huntingtonshire in the 14° and 15° centuries.Huntingtonshire in the 14° and 15° centuries.

Even RP is considered a dialect, and has changed Even RP is considered a dialect, and has changed over the past 50 years (HRH now pronounces over the past 50 years (HRH now pronounces “Land”, “Laend”, not “Leand”. The BBC is now “Land”, “Laend”, not “Leand”. The BBC is now quite mixed. quite mixed.


Linguistic prejudice: Linguistic prejudice:

The stratification of a language, or the comparison of The stratification of a language, or the comparison of two languages, does not carry any moral weight two languages, does not carry any moral weight based on concepts of civilisation, standard/dialect, based on concepts of civilisation, standard/dialect, aesthetics, or difficulty.aesthetics, or difficulty.

All languages and dialects have specific phonology, All languages and dialects have specific phonology, morphology and syntax.morphology and syntax.

RP is a dialect too – with it’s own cultural heritage.RP is a dialect too – with it’s own cultural heritage.

Global English has successfully challenged previous Global English has successfully challenged previous standard models. standard models.


David Crystal:David Crystal:The development of Global English focuses primarily on The development of Global English focuses primarily on

spoken models.spoken models.

The assumption today is that there is little macro-The assumption today is that there is little macro-regional differentiation in standard English, but this regional differentiation in standard English, but this may change.may change.

Many traditionally non-English speaking populations Many traditionally non-English speaking populations now use components of English in everyday life, as now use components of English in everyday life, as well as for specific functions (work, entertainment, well as for specific functions (work, entertainment, etc.), and they adapt the language to fit their needs.etc.), and they adapt the language to fit their needs.

This phenomenon does not confine itself to source This phenomenon does not confine itself to source regions, but may spread from one area to another as regions, but may spread from one area to another as people move. i.e. Chinese trading in Nigeria, using people move. i.e. Chinese trading in Nigeria, using English.English.


Language may be used for inclusion or exclusion.Language may be used for inclusion or exclusion.

It is a culturally informed method and expression of It is a culturally informed method and expression of communication.communication.

Accent or dialect may be used as an identifyer – with Accent or dialect may be used as an identifyer – with positive and negative results.positive and negative results.

Our means of communication is not an end in itself, it Our means of communication is not an end in itself, it is part of our cultural expression.is part of our cultural expression.

Globalisation has changed the way we order our Globalisation has changed the way we order our stratastrata


Jonathan Friedman:Jonathan Friedman:

Participation in the “globalised” world is a meeting Participation in the “globalised” world is a meeting ground of cultural ground of cultural stratastrata - both vertically and - both vertically and laterally.laterally.

Global functionGlobal function

NationNation

NationNation

NationNationRegionRegion

RegionRegion

RegionRegion

RegionRegion

RegionRegion

RegionRegion

Super regionSuper region

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