LinguisticsLinguistics

Descriptive Linguistics and Descriptive Linguistics and CultureCulture

CommunicationCommunication

Most animals have some form of Most animals have some form of communicationcommunication

Definition: Ability of one organism to Definition: Ability of one organism to trigger anothertrigger another

Counterexample: Bouncer tosses out Counterexample: Bouncer tosses out unruly patronunruly patron

Counterexample: Sun’s rays wakens Counterexample: Sun’s rays wakens sleepersleeper

Entails stimulus and responseEntails stimulus and response

Overview of LinguisticsOverview of Linguistics

Biological Roots of Language: Brain Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory Systemand Articulatory System

Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and PhonemesPhonemes

Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntaxand Syntax

Language and Animal CommunicationLanguage and Animal Communication Language and CultureLanguage and Culture

The International Phonetic The International Phonetic AlphabetAlphabet

How many vowels are there in English?How many vowels are there in English? Our written language is not entirely Our written language is not entirely

phoneticphonetic The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] The letter a could be pronounced as [æ]

in batin bat Or how about [e] as in bated breath?Or how about [e] as in bated breath? Or try [a] as in bah or “say ah”Or try [a] as in bah or “say ah” We have 12 vowelsWe have 12 vowels That means in linguistics we need 12 That means in linguistics we need 12

symbols to transcribe themsymbols to transcribe them

The IPA: How It WorksThe IPA: How It Works

First, there are First, there are phonesphones, any speech sound, any speech sound The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a

soundsound So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ]

for “bat”for “bat” Square brackets are used to enclose phonesSquare brackets are used to enclose phones If the sounds carry a language, they are If the sounds carry a language, they are

known as known as phonemes phonemes (more shortly)(more shortly) These are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/These are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/

A Sample Set of Phones and A Sample Set of Phones and PhonemesPhonemes

We will use a sample of six We will use a sample of six consonantsconsonants known as known as stops:stops:

[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g][p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g] First, we have to look at some First, we have to look at some

preliminaries:preliminaries: The speech mechanism (brain, The speech mechanism (brain,

lungs, larynx, and oral cavity)lungs, larynx, and oral cavity) Then how speech is articulatedThen how speech is articulated

Biological Roots of Biological Roots of Language: The Brain and Language: The Brain and

Nervous SystemNervous System Broca’s AreaBroca’s Area Wernicke’s AreaWernicke’s Area Arcuate FasciculusArcuate Fasciculus Angular GyrusAngular Gyrus Hypoglossal NerveHypoglossal Nerve

Vocal TractVocal Tract

LungsLungs Diaphragm Diaphragm Larynx and Vocal Larynx and Vocal

CordsCords Hyoid BoneHyoid Bone Oral CavityOral Cavity Nasal CavityNasal Cavity

Articulatory PhoneticsArticulatory Phonetics

When we utter any sound, we When we utter any sound, we articulatearticulate

We position our tongue or other We position our tongue or other speech part in certain waysspeech part in certain ways

When we speak, we useWhen we speak, we use Points of articulationPoints of articulation: Speech parts : Speech parts

in upper half of mouthin upper half of mouth Articulators:Articulators: Speech parts in lower Speech parts in lower

half of mouthhalf of mouth

Oral CavityOral Cavity

Points of ArticulationPoints of Articulation All are immovable All are immovable

except upper lipexcept upper lip Upper lipUpper lip Upper teethUpper teeth Alveolar ridge (gum Alveolar ridge (gum

ridge behind teeth)ridge behind teeth) Hard palate (roof of Hard palate (roof of

mouth)mouth) Velum (soft palate)Velum (soft palate) Uvula (pendant lobe at Uvula (pendant lobe at

border of velum)border of velum)

ArticulatorsArticulators

All articulators are All articulators are movablemovable

They include:They include: Lower lipLower lip Lower teethLower teeth TongueTongue Apex (tip)Apex (tip) FrontFront Center Center Back (dorsumBack (dorsum))

Other Speech PartsOther Speech Parts LarynxLarynx, or voice box which , or voice box which

containscontains Two Two Vocal Cords Vocal Cords (upper left)(upper left) When vocal cords are drawn When vocal cords are drawn

tight (lower right), they tight (lower right), they produce a voiceproduce a voice

When relaxed (lower left), no When relaxed (lower left), no voice is produced.voice is produced.

Other species and infant: Other species and infant: larynx is high on throatlarynx is high on throat

Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones produced by lowering of velumproduced by lowering of velum

Position of ArticulationPosition of Articulation

For For consonantsconsonants, position of articulator , position of articulator relative to point of articulationrelative to point of articulation

For vowels, resonant sounds created byFor vowels, resonant sounds created by position of tongue (high, mid, or low)position of tongue (high, mid, or low) lip shape (rounded or unroundedlip shape (rounded or unrounded Consonants include:Consonants include: Stops (momentary stop of air stream)Stops (momentary stop of air stream) Fricatives or Spirants (constricted passage of Fricatives or Spirants (constricted passage of

air)air) Others, such as laterals, nasals, et al.Others, such as laterals, nasals, et al.

Positions of Articulation: Positions of Articulation: Stops Stops

A A stop stop is formed whenis formed when an articulator touchesan articulator touches a point of articulation a point of articulation halting the air stream momentarilyhalting the air stream momentarily A stop is namedA stop is named By naming the By naming the articulatorarticulator first first Then naming the Then naming the point of articulationpoint of articulation Examples: labio-labial, apico-alveolar, Examples: labio-labial, apico-alveolar,

and dorso-velar stopsand dorso-velar stops

Bilabial StopsBilabial Stops Upper lip is pressed Upper lip is pressed

against lower lipagainst lower lip Labio- describes the Labio- describes the

lower lip (articulator)lower lip (articulator) Labial describes the Labial describes the

upper lip (point of upper lip (point of articulation_articulation_

Called Called bilabial stop bilabial stop for shortfor short

Example: [p] as in Example: [p] as in [pın] or pin[pın] or pin

Apico-Alveolar StopsApico-Alveolar Stops Tip (apex) of tongue Tip (apex) of tongue

presses against gum presses against gum ridge (alveolar ridge) ridge (alveolar ridge) behind upper teethbehind upper teeth

Apico describes apex Apico describes apex of tongue (articulator)of tongue (articulator)

Alveolar describes Alveolar describes alveolar ridge (point alveolar ridge (point of articulation)of articulation)

Example: [t] as in tın] Example: [t] as in tın] or tinor tin

Dorso-Velar StopsDorso-Velar Stops Back (dorsum) of Back (dorsum) of

tongue presses tongue presses against soft palate against soft palate (velum)(velum)

Dorso describes Dorso describes dorsal part of tongue dorsal part of tongue (articulator)(articulator)

Velar describes velum Velar describes velum (point of articulation)(point of articulation)

Example: [k] as in Example: [k] as in [kın] or kin[kın] or kin

Contrasting SoundsContrasting Sounds

Across the board, Across the board, [p] contrasts with [t][p] contrasts with [t] [t] contrasts with [k][t] contrasts with [k] [p] contrasts with [k][p] contrasts with [k] But there are But there are twotwo bilabial stops: [p] and [b]bilabial stops: [p] and [b] apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d]apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d] dorso-velar stops [k] and [g]dorso-velar stops [k] and [g] Why? What’s going on?Why? What’s going on?

Voiced and Voiceless Voiced and Voiceless StopsStops

One set of stops is voiceless or One set of stops is voiceless or unvoicedunvoiced

Namely [p], [t], and [k]Namely [p], [t], and [k] The other set of stops is voicedThe other set of stops is voiced [b] the bilabial voiced stop[b] the bilabial voiced stop [d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop[d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop [t] the voiced dorso-velar stop[t] the voiced dorso-velar stop A small experimentA small experiment

How Vocal Cords WorkHow Vocal Cords Work

When vocal cords are When vocal cords are relaxed (upper diagram), relaxed (upper diagram), they produce no voicethey produce no voice

When drawn tight with a When drawn tight with a small aperture or hole small aperture or hole (lower diagram), they (lower diagram), they produce a voiceproduce a voice

That is what causes the That is what causes the throat to vibratethroat to vibrate

Summing upSumming up

Voicing involves tightening of vocal Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords to produce a soundcords to produce a sound

When unvoiced phones are uttered, the When unvoiced phones are uttered, the vocal cords are relaxedvocal cords are relaxed

Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced soundssounds

voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p]voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p] voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t]voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t] voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]

Structural Duality I: Structural Duality I: PhonemesPhonemes

The sounds we described are also The sounds we described are also phonemesphonemes

Definition: The smallest significant Definition: The smallest significant unit of speechunit of speech

Significance: the speaker Significance: the speaker can hear can hear the difference.the difference.

We can hear the difference between We can hear the difference between [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın][gın] and [kın]

Minimal PairsMinimal Pairs

[bın] and [pın]: what’s the [bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference?difference?

[tın] and [dın]: same question[tın] and [dın]: same question [gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs?[gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs? Short answer: the speech Short answer: the speech

environment environment is identicalis identical Only the stops differOnly the stops differ the [-ın] utterance is identicalthe [-ın] utterance is identical

Summary of Phonemic Summary of Phonemic Stops in EnglishStops in English

Notice that:Notice that: English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental,

interdental, or palatal interdental, or palatal We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and

interdental ones [interdental ones [θθ] and [ð]] and [ð] The Russians have a palatal shop [tThe Russians have a palatal shop [tjj].]. There are numerous others in the world’s languagesThere are numerous others in the world’s languages

AllophonesAllophones

Another example: key and skiAnother example: key and ski Another experiment: what’s the Another experiment: what’s the

difference?difference? The differencesThe differences [k’] in key [k’i] is [k’] in key [k’i] is aspiratedaspirated [[kk is i] is unaspiratedunaspirated [i־־sk] in ski [sk] in ski [־־ In English, [k’] and [kIn English, [k’] and [k־־] never form ] never form

minimal pairsminimal pairs Therefore, [k’] and [kTherefore, [k’] and [k־־] are ] are allophonesallophones

Allophones of PhonemesAllophones of Phonemes

Definition: Variations of the same Definition: Variations of the same phonemephoneme

Our example: [k’] and [kOur example: [k’] and [k־־] are ] are allophones of the phoneme /k/ allophones of the phoneme /k/

Notation:Notation: Slash marks (//) indicate phonemeSlash marks (//) indicate phoneme Square brackets ([]) indicates phone Square brackets ([]) indicates phone

(and allophone)(and allophone)

Allophones in One Allophones in One Language: Phonemes in Language: Phonemes in

AnotherAnother Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu

are derived):are derived): [k’il] and [k[k’il] and [k־־il] form minimal pairsil] form minimal pairs [k’il]: “parched grain”[k’il]: “parched grain” [k[k־־il]: “small nail”lil]: “small nail”l [-il] is identical as for speech environment[-il] is identical as for speech environment Therefore, /k’/ and /kTherefore, /k’/ and /k־־/ are phonemes in / are phonemes in

Old SanskritOld Sanskrit Every language has its own phonemesEvery language has its own phonemes

Phonemes as Structural Phonemes as Structural Duality IDuality I

Note diagram on boardNote diagram on board [b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts [b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts

with [g]with [g] [p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts [p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts

with [k]with [k] All the voiced stops contrast with All the voiced stops contrast with

unvoiced ones:unvoiced ones: [b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k][b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k] So we have a structureSo we have a structure

Structural Duality II: Structural Duality II: Morphemes and SyntaxMorphemes and Syntax

Once the phonemes are identified:Once the phonemes are identified: They must be arranged for meaningThey must be arranged for meaning Morphemes and SyntaxMorphemes and Syntax Morphemes: The smallest Morphemes: The smallest meaningful meaningful

unit of speechunit of speech Syntax: Rules and principles of phrase Syntax: Rules and principles of phrase

and sentence constructionand sentence construction Grammar: Entire formal structure of a Grammar: Entire formal structure of a

language’s morphemes and syntaxlanguage’s morphemes and syntax

MorphemesMorphemes Morphology:Morphology: Study of morphemes and their Study of morphemes and their

construction into wordsconstruction into words Types of morphemesTypes of morphemes Free morphemes: Free morphemes: Morphemes that can stand Morphemes that can stand

unattached in a language: catunattached in a language: cat Bound morphemes: Bound morphemes: Morphemes that cannot stand Morphemes that cannot stand

unattached in a language: catunattached in a language: catss Inflectional bound morphemesInflectional bound morphemes: those that change : those that change

number or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, catnumber or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, catss Derivational bound morphemes:Derivational bound morphemes: those that those that

change the meaningchange the meaning: e.g., part, part: e.g., part, partyy

AllomorphsAllomorphs

Allomorphs: Allomorphs: Variants of a Variants of a morphememorpheme

Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, horseshorses

Others: tooth/teeth; sheep/sheepOthers: tooth/teeth; sheep/sheep MorphophonemicsMorphophonemics: Study of : Study of

allomorphsallomorphs

Syntax: Parts of SpeechSyntax: Parts of Speech

Describes rules and principles of Describes rules and principles of phrase and sentence construction.phrase and sentence construction.

Parts of speech are similar to those Parts of speech are similar to those in high school grammarin high school grammar

Noun:Noun: Word referring to a person, Word referring to a person, place, or thingplace, or thing

Pronoun: Pronoun: Word that replaces a Word that replaces a noun or other pronounnoun or other pronoun

Verb:Verb: Action word Action word

Syntax: More Parts of Syntax: More Parts of SpeechSpeech

Adjective: Adjective: Word that modifies nounsWord that modifies nouns Adverb: Adverb: Word that modifies a verb, an Word that modifies a verb, an

adjective, and another adverbsadjective, and another adverbs Preposition:Preposition: Word that indicates a relation Word that indicates a relation

between an object in time, space, or logic to between an object in time, space, or logic to the rest of a sentencethe rest of a sentence

ConjunctionConjunction: Word connecting words or : Word connecting words or groups of wordsgroups of words

Interjection: Interjection: Word that expresses feelings, Word that expresses feelings, but usually not part of a sentence.but usually not part of a sentence.

Syntax and Word OrderSyntax and Word Order

Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by language:language:

Subject (S): Subject (S): The thing or person of what a sentence The thing or person of what a sentence is aboutis about

Predicate (V): Predicate (V): Phrase that says something about the Phrase that says something about the subject; always include the verbsubject; always include the verb

Verb (O): Verb (O): Action word that forms the main part of Action word that forms the main part of the predicatethe predicate

Object:Object: The person or thing affected by the verb The person or thing affected by the verb In English, the word order is typically S-V-OIn English, the word order is typically S-V-O In Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-OIn Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-O Other languages have other word ordersOther languages have other word orders

So Why Aren’t So Why Aren’t Morphemes and Syntax Morphemes and Syntax Separate Structures?Separate Structures? An exercise: catsAn exercise: cats

Two cats (upper photo)Two cats (upper photo) Cat’s meow (lower Cat’s meow (lower

picture: spoken, how do picture: spoken, how do you use the apostrophe?)you use the apostrophe?)

Rest of sentence defines Rest of sentence defines morphememorpheme

Another exampleAnother example ““Cookie, lend me your Cookie, lend me your

combs”combs” ““Cookie combs his hair.”Cookie combs his hair.”

Gesture Call Systems: Gesture Call Systems: KinesicsKinesics

Kinesics:Kinesics: System of System of analyzing postures, analyzing postures, facial expressions, facial expressions, “body language”“body language”

Gender differencesGender differences Smiles and frownsSmiles and frowns See that thumbs up?See that thumbs up? In other countries, it In other countries, it

would mean—well, you would mean—well, you know!know!

(Need a hint? Think (Need a hint? Think middle finger)middle finger)

Gesture Call Systems: Gesture Call Systems: Paralanguage Paralanguage

Paralanguage:Paralanguage: Extralinguistic noises Extralinguistic noises accompanying accompanying language language

Voice qualities:Voice qualities: tone, tone, slur (cartoon), other slur (cartoon), other background noisesbackground noises

VocalizationsVocalizations: : Identifiable noises Identifiable noises turned on and off at turned on and off at short intervals—”uh,” short intervals—”uh,” “um”“um”

More ParalanguageMore Paralanguage

Vocal Vocal characteristics:characteristics: Sound production Sound production such as laughingsuch as laughing

Vocal qualifiers:Vocal qualifiers: Tone or pitch-”Get Tone or pitch-”Get Out!”Out!”

Segregates:Segregates: “Shh!” “Shh!” “Oh oh,” “hmmm!” “Oh oh,” “hmmm!” (cartoon) among (cartoon) among othersothers

Linguistic ChangeLinguistic Change

Language FamilyLanguage Family Group of languages descended from a Group of languages descended from a

single ancestral languagesingle ancestral language Example: Indo-European is descended Example: Indo-European is descended

from Proto-Indo-Europeanfrom Proto-Indo-European GlottochronologyGlottochronology Technique of reconstructing past languageTechnique of reconstructing past language Core vocabulary: Core vocabulary: Comparing words Comparing words

common to all languagescommon to all languages

EthnolinguisticsEthnolinguistics Definition: Study of relationship Definition: Study of relationship

between language and culturebetween language and culture Named after Named after Edward SapirEdward Sapir (top) and (top) and

Benjamin Lee WhorfBenjamin Lee Whorf (bottom), the (bottom), the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis states thatstates that

language,language, By providing habitual “grooves” of By providing habitual “grooves” of

expressionexpression Predisposes people to see world in Predisposes people to see world in

certain wayscertain ways Thus guiding thinking and behaviorThus guiding thinking and behavior

Ethnolinguistics: What Ethnolinguistics: What Comes First? Language Comes First? Language

or Culture?or Culture? Example of Sapir-Whorf Example of Sapir-Whorf

hypothesishypothesis Hopi:Hopi: Conception of time as Conception of time as

processes, not discrete unitsprocesses, not discrete units Nuer:Nuer: 400 words for cattle 400 words for cattle U.S. Militaristic vocabularyU.S. Militaristic vocabulary Chicken and Egg QuestionChicken and Egg Question Does language condition Does language condition

cultureculture Or does culture condition Or does culture condition

language? language?

Ethnolinguistics: Some Ethnolinguistics: Some Areas of ResearchAreas of Research

Kinship terms:Kinship terms: Father or Mother may be extended to Father or Mother may be extended to

uncles and aunts.uncles and aunts. GenderGender Meaning of “I’m sorry”Meaning of “I’m sorry” Social dialectsSocial dialects Example: so-called Ebonics (Afro-Example: so-called Ebonics (Afro-

American)American) Regional differences: Beijing vs. CantonRegional differences: Beijing vs. Canton

Code Switching: Martin Code Switching: Martin Luther KingLuther King

Definition: Switching Definition: Switching style of speech according style of speech according to occasion and audienceto occasion and audience

Formal discourse in Formal discourse in formal settings formal settings (Washington Monument, (Washington Monument, 1963, I Have a Dream 1963, I Have a Dream speech)speech)

Informal discourse in Informal discourse in others (Ebenezer Baptist others (Ebenezer Baptist Church, 1967, anti-Church, 1967, anti-Vietnam War speech)Vietnam War speech)

Language OriginsLanguage Origins

Comparison of communication attributes Comparison of communication attributes was first stepwas first step

Chimpanzee communication: calls and Chimpanzee communication: calls and gesturesgestures

Indirect evidenceIndirect evidence Reconstructed anatomy: hyoid boneReconstructed anatomy: hyoid bone Endocasts indicating size of cerebrumEndocasts indicating size of cerebrum Control language among othersControl language among others Size indirect indicationSize indirect indication

Features of Language Features of Language Shared with Other Shared with Other

SpeciesSpecies ArbitrarinessArbitrariness ProductivityProductivity InterchangeabilityInterchangeability DisplacementDisplacement SpecializationSpecialization Cultural TransmissionCultural Transmission

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness Definition: Absence of Definition: Absence of

intrinsic relation between intrinsic relation between communication element communication element (speech sound) and thing (speech sound) and thing or event to which it refers or event to which it refers (referent)(referent)

Iconic Relationship: Iconic Relationship: Existence of such a Existence of such a relationship between relationship between element (e.g. gesture) and element (e.g. gesture) and its referentits referent

Importance: Utterance is Importance: Utterance is not “married” to meaning, not “married” to meaning, such as this gibbon’s such as this gibbon’s warning callwarning call

Arbitrariness (Examples)Arbitrariness (Examples) Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not

meaningful in and of themselvesmeaningful in and of themselves Meaning emerges when sounds are Meaning emerges when sounds are

combined:combined: [kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline, [kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline,

the one who caught a mouse)the one who caught a mouse) [tæk] “tack” has another (small nail)[tæk] “tack” has another (small nail) [ækt] “act” has a third (dog and [ækt] “act” has a third (dog and

pony show)pony show) Even then, this string is language Even then, this string is language

specific (English), not intrinsicspecific (English), not intrinsic

Arbitrariness (Across Arbitrariness (Across Languages)Languages)

Evidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse LanguagesEvidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse Languages Cat has different pronunciations in different Cat has different pronunciations in different

languageslanguages Similarities are the product of historical contactSimilarities are the product of historical contact

Productivity (Definition)Productivity (Definition) Definition:Definition: Capacity for elements of Capacity for elements of

communication systemcommunication system To be combined to form To be combined to form

new meaningsnew meanings Which speaker and Which speaker and

listener may never have listener may never have learned beforelearned before

Yet understands Yet understands perfectlyperfectly

Exercise:Exercise: pronounce pronounce wugwug then two of themthen two of them

Productivity (Examples)Productivity (Examples) From From Jabberwocky Jabberwocky by by

Lewis Carroll (see Lewis Carroll (see illustration}illustration}

‘‘Twas brillig and the Twas brillig and the sllthy tovessllthy toves

Did gyre and gimble Did gyre and gimble in the wabein the wabe

Identify:Identify: The nounsThe nouns The verbsThe verbs The adjectivesThe adjectives

Productivity (Conclusion)Productivity (Conclusion)

Language drillsLanguage drills English: I am, you are. . .English: I am, you are. . . Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . .Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . . Other species: Bee danceOther species: Bee dance Variations indicate location, direction, and Variations indicate location, direction, and

amount of nectar sourceamount of nectar source Speed: proximity or distance of sourceSpeed: proximity or distance of source Angle of body: directionAngle of body: direction Amount of pollen: amount at sourceAmount of pollen: amount at source

InterchangeabilityInterchangeability Definition: Use of same communication Definition: Use of same communication

system to send and receive messagessystem to send and receive messages Illustrative Counterexample: Three-Illustrative Counterexample: Three-

spined stickleback fish courtship (see spined stickleback fish courtship (see diagram)diagram)

Female elicits male response by Female elicits male response by presenting distended bellypresenting distended belly

Male performs zigzag dance around Male performs zigzag dance around femalefemale

She follow him to nestShe follow him to nest Male point to nest on arrivalMale point to nest on arrival Female enters nest, male rubs Female enters nest, male rubs

abdomen, abdomen, She discharges eggs, and male fertilizes She discharges eggs, and male fertilizes

them with spermthem with sperm

Displacement Displacement (Definition)(Definition)

Ability to refer to things and events Ability to refer to things and events not present, nonvisible, intangible, or not present, nonvisible, intangible, or nonexistentnonexistent

Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in San FranciscoSan Francisco

Not visible: Termites in sealed moundNot visible: Termites in sealed mound Intangible: math equations, square Intangible: math equations, square

rootsroots Nonexistent: dragons, unicornsNonexistent: dragons, unicorns

Displacement Displacement (Importance)(Importance)

Ability to represent unseen Ability to represent unseen parts of worldparts of world

Part of toolmaking abilityPart of toolmaking ability: to : to conceive a design (above)conceive a design (above)

Bee DanceBee Dance Scouting bee gives information on Scouting bee gives information on

non-present blossomsnon-present blossoms Direction of dance rel. to sun: Direction of dance rel. to sun:

indicates direction of sourceindicates direction of source Length of tail waggle: distance of Length of tail waggle: distance of

sourcesource Other bees act on this informationOther bees act on this information

Cultural TransmissionCultural Transmission

Learning of an element of Learning of an element of communication (speech sound, communication (speech sound, gestures)gestures)

Bees and stickleback acquire Bees and stickleback acquire behavior geneticallybehavior genetically

Dogs learn by conditioning, do not Dogs learn by conditioning, do not pass learning onpass learning on

Chimpanzees do learn by imitation Chimpanzees do learn by imitation and pass it on: e.g., termite fishing. and pass it on: e.g., termite fishing.

SpecializationSpecialization

Definition: Ability to transmit Definition: Ability to transmit message with minimal physical effortmessage with minimal physical effort

Language is most specialized Language is most specialized communication systemcommunication system

Examples of unspecialized Examples of unspecialized communicationcommunication

Chimpanzee displaysChimpanzee displays Bee danceBee dance Stickleback courtshipStickleback courtship

ConclusionConclusion

Language is basis of cultureLanguage is basis of culture Knowledge of linguistics is prerequisiteKnowledge of linguistics is prerequisite Descriptive LinguisticsDescriptive Linguistics Language and SocietyLanguage and Society Culture can condition languageCulture can condition language Chicken-egg question remainsChicken-egg question remains One more technique: content analysis One more technique: content analysis

of languageof language