Chapter 6 Phonetics: The Sounds of Language.Phonetics: we can define the word phonetics as the study of speech sounds. To describe speech sounds, it is necessary to know what an individual sound is, and how each sound differs from others. We can segment sentences into words, and words into sounds.Identify of Speech Sounds: The knowledge of a language determinates when sounds are the same. We know which aspects of pronunciation are important and which are not. The linguistic knowledge makes it possible to ignore nonlinguistic differences in speech. Furthermore, we capable of making sounds that we know are not speech sounds in our language.Acoustic Phonetics: Focus on physical properties of sounds.Auditory Phonetics: it is concerned with how listeners perceive these sounds.

Articulatory Phonetics: it is the study of how the vocal tract produces the sounds of language.The phonetic Alphabet: letter a can have various sounds in father, wanted, May. We find that a combination of letters represents a single sound: Shoot

Either Coat Character

Deal Glacial Thomas

Rough Theater

Physics

Nation

plainLetters with no sound our silent letters: Mnemonic

Pterodactyl

Psychology

Bough

Autumn Write

Sword

Lamb Resign

Hole Debt Island

Ghost

Corps Gnaw

knot

The letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound:Cute---------coatFume-------foolUse----------Uzbekistan1-The phonetic alphabet symbolize the sounds of all languages.2-they use letters and invented symbols.

3-it was developed by the members of the international phonetic association in 1888.

4- People who know the IPA would know how to pronounce words.

Consonants: P-pill, b-bill, m-mill, f-feel, v-veal, t-till, d-dill, n-Nil, s-seal, g-gill, h-heal, l-leaf, r-reef, j-you, w-witch.Vowels: i beet, e bait, u boot, o boat.Articulatory Phonetics: Production of sounds involves movement of the air. The speech sounds are produced by pushing lung air through the vocal cords-thin bands of membrane-up the throat, and into the mouth or nose, and out of the body. Consonants: are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract that impedes the flow of the air from the lungs.

Vowels: types of sounds not to the letters that represent them.Places of articulation: when we classify consonants according to where the vocal tract the airflow restriction occurs.

Bilabial: when we pronounce (p, b, and m) we articulate by bringing both lips together. It is voiced. (p, b, and m) the airstream stopped at the mouth by the closure of the lips.Labiodentals: we also use our lips to pronounce [f and v]; we articulate these sounds by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth. At the same time, [f and v] are libiodental fricatives because the friction is creatived at the lips and teeth, where a narrow passage permits the air to escape. Interdentals: when we pronounce the [ and ]; we use the tip of tongue between the teeth. However, some people touch behind the teeth for example these sounds appears in words like: think with and these with . At the same time, [ and ] are interdental fricatives because the friction occurs between the tongue ands teeth. Alveolars [ t ,d, n, s ,z ,l ,r]: these sounds are produce with the tongue raised in various ways to the alveolar ridge So that the s and z are alveolar fricative because the friction is created at the alveolar ridge.1- [t, d , n, ] the tongue is raised and touches the ridge, At the same time, t , d, n are alveolar stop because the airstream is stopped by the tongue making a closure of the alveolar ridge.

2- [s and z] the sides of the front of the tongue are raised, but the tip is lowered so that the air escapes.

3- [l] The tongue tip is raised while the rest of the tongue is down, the air escape and it is a lateral sound.

4- [r] The tip of the tongue back behind the alveolar ridge (retroflex sound).Palatals [ , , , ]: those sounds appear in words measure, cheap, judge, yoyo. It occurs by raising the front part of the tongue palate.[ ,] are palatal affricatives with a stop closure.Velars [k, g, n]: it is produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum. The initial or final sounds in words: kick, gig, back, bag, bang. [k,g,n] are velar stop because the complete closure at the velum.Uvulars[r, q, G]: Sounds produced by raising the back of the tongue to the uvula.

Glottals [h and ]: it is in front of the flow of air through the open glottis, and past the tongue and lips as they prepare to pronounce a vowel sound with [h]. if the air is stopped at the glottis by tightly closed vocal cords, the sound upon release of the cords is a glottal stop. is a glottal stop. The air is stopped at the glottis.Manner of articulation: it is when the vocal cords vibrate or not.Voiced sounds: the sounds with have vibration for example zzzzz with words zeal.

Voiceless sounds: the sounds with not have vibration for example ssss in the word seal.

Nasal and Oral Sounds:

Sounds produce with the velum up, blocking the air from escaping through the nose are oral sounds and the air escapes through oral cavity. When the velum is not in its raised position air escapes through the nose and the mouth so that those are nasal sounds.Stops[p,b,m,t,d,n,k,g,,,,]: consonants in which the airstream is completely blocked in the oral cavity for a short period ( tens of milliseconds) All others sounds are continuants. Fricatives[f,v,,,s,z,,,x,y,h]: in the production of some continuants, the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction and the sounds are therefore called fricatives.Affricatives and : are produced by a stop closure followed by a gradual release of the closure that produces and effect characteristic of a fricative. They are not continuants because the initial stop closure.Liquids l and r : there is an obstruction of the airstream in the mouth , but no enough to cause a real friction. They are articulate differently, but they are grouped as a class because they are similar.Glides [j and w]: is produced by raising the back of the tongue toward the velum and rounding the lips.

Approximants [w, j and r]: These sounds are called articulators approximate a frictional closeness, but not actual friction occurs.

Trill and flaps: r in other language is different in other languages than English r is trill because it is produced by rapid vibration of an articulator. It is produced by vibrating the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge.The r is called flap when it is produced by a flick of the tongue against the alveolar ridge.

Clicks: Exotic sounds are made by moving air in the mouth between various articulators.

Lip Rounding: vowels differ as to the lips are rounded or spread. They are produced with pursed or rounded lips.

Diphthongs: it is a sequence of two words sounds. The vowels that we have studied are simple vowels, called monophtongs.Nasalization of Vowels: vowels, like consonants, can be produced with a raised velum that prevents the air from escaping through the nose, or with a lowered velum that permits air to pass through the nasal passage. When the nasal passage is blocked, oral vowels result; when the nasal passage is open nasal or nasalized vowels result. Nasal vowel occurs before nasal consonants in the same syllable, and oral vowels occur in other places. To show nasalization of a vowel in a phonetic transcription, an extra mark called diacritic the symbol in this case the tilde is placed over the vowel.Tense and Lax Vowels: they generate a tension of the tongue muscles. They are often a little longer duration. The vowels can be distinguished from the shorter and less tense vowels by the features tense and lax.Major Phonetic ClassesNoncotinuants and Continuants: stop sounds are uncontinuants. There are total obstructions of the airstream in the oral cavity. They include the nasal stops (although air flows continuously out the nose) and the affricates. All other consonants and all vowels are continuants, in which the stream of air flows continuously out the mouth.Obstruents and Sonorants: The non-nasal stops, fricatives, affricatives are called obstruent. The airstream may be fully obstruent, the air flows continuously out the mouth; though it is obstructed enough to cause the frictional sound that characterizes these consonants. There is complete blockage of the air during the production of these sounds.

The sounds that are not obstruents are sonorants, sonorants resonante. They are produced with relatively free airflow through the mouth or nose. Nasal stops are sonorants because, although the air is blocked in the mouth. It is continuous to resonant in the nasal cavity. The liquids r and l, the glides w and j are sonorants because the air resonates as it flows relatively undisturbed the vocal tract.

Consonantal: Linguistic says that obstruent, liquids, and nasals all belong to the subclass of consonants called consonantal.Subclasses of consonantal soundsLabial [ p, b , m , f , v]: sounds articulated with lips. They include (p , b, m) and the libiodental (f and v).Coronals [t ,d, n, s ,z, l , r ,,,,,,]: sounds articulated by raising the tongue blade. It includes the Alveolars t, d, n, s, z. the palatals and , the affricates and , and the liquids l and r.Anteriors[ p, b , m , f , v ,t ,d, n, s ,z, l , r ,,,,,,]:all the anterior sounds are consonants produced in the front part of the mouth , that is , form of the alveolar area forward. They include labials, Interdentals, and Alveolars.Sibilians s, z, ,,,]: consonants characterized by an acoustic rather than an articulatory property of its members. The friction creatived by Sibilians produces a hissing sound, which is mixture with high-frequency sounds.

Prosodic features; Length, pitch, and the complex features stress are prosodies, or suprasegmental features. They are features over and about segmental values of voicing or place of articulation; the prosodic term comes from poetry. It refers to metrical structure of the verse.Tone: when we pronounce the syllable high or low.

Intonation: when we rising and descent the pronunciation in a sentence.

Chapter 7 Phonology: The Sounds Patterns of LanguagePhonology: The study of the way speech sounds from patterns. What sounds are in your languages and which are foreign.

The Pronunciation of Morphemes

1. The Pronunciation of Plurals: Which adds s or es, is misleading. But we can say that plurals are a variant of any morpheme is known to occur (the term for a variant is allomorph). These rules are to assume that the basic or underlying form of the plural morpheme is z, with the meaning plural. This is the default pronunciation. The ruler tell us when default does not apply:1-Insert [] before the plural morpheme[z] when a regular noun ends in a sibilant, giving [z]2-Change the plural morpheme [z] to a voiceless [s] when preceded by a voiceless sound

Phonologicals rules determinate the phonetic form of plural morpheme and other morphemes of the language are morphophonemic rules. The next rules are morphophonemic:

1-Insert a [] before the past tense morpheme when a regular verb ends in a non-nasal alveolar stop giving [d]

2-Change the past-tense morpheme to a voiceless[t] when a voiceless sound precedes it

3-[t] or [d] a shwa plus [d] is added, reminding us of the insertion of the shwa to form the plural of nouns that end in a silibiant, [d] is the basic form of past-tense morpheme , and the rulers for past-tense formation of regular verbs is much like the rulers for the plural formation of regular nouns. The rule that changes the pronunciation of nasal consonants is called the homorganic nasal rule. Phonemes: The basic form of a sound.

Allophone: The association of each phoneme with one or more sounds.Vowel Nasalization in English as an illustration of Allophones: General phonological rule that determines the context in which vowels are nasalized. Examples: bean [bin], roam [rom], bead [bid], and robe [rob]. A vowel becomes nasalized before a nasal segment (within the same syllable).The nonwords show us that nasalized vowels do not occur finally or non-nasal consonants, or do oral vowels occur before nasal consonants. Allophones t: it is pronounce with three allophones [ th] occur before a stressed vowel , [t], it is unaspirated and occurs before [s] and [] it occur before a stressed vowel and unstressed vowel.

Minimal Pairs in ASL: There are minimal pairs in sign language as in other languages.

Complementary Distribution: The phones are said to complement each other or to be in complementary distribution. The allophones of a phoneme are in complementary distribution and never occurring in identical environments. It is a fundamental concept of phonology. It is determined by preceding letter (cursive). When the sounds are in complementary distribution, they do not contrast with each other. The replacement of one sound for the other will not change the meaning of the word, although it may not sound like typical English.Distinctive Features of Phonemes: when a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another; or one word from another, it is a distinctive feature or phonetic feature.

Features Values: if the word is plus (+) or minus (-) nasal or if they plus (+) or minus (-) voiced or voiceless.

Nondistinctive Features: The nasality is a distinctive feature of English, but it is Nondistinctive feature for English vowels. On the other hands, the nasality feature value of vowels in bean, mean, comb and sing is predictable because they occur before nasal consonants. When a feature value is predictable by rule for certain sounds, the features is a Nondistinctive or redundant or predictable feature in English vowels, but nonredundant (distinctive or phonemic) feature for English consonants. Phonemic Patterns May Vary Across Languages: The phonetic facts alone do not reveal what is distinctive or phonemic:1-The phonetic representation of utterances shows what speaker know about the pronunciation of the sounds. 2- The phonemic representation of utterances shows what speakers know about the patterning of sounds.Natural Classes of Speech Sounds: Rulers that determined which vowels are nasalized, voiceless, stops aspirated for example many languages have a rule that nasalizes vowels before nasal consonants: Nasalize a vowel when it precedes a nasal consonant in the same syllable. The natural classes of sound are a group of sounds describe by a small number of distinctive features such as: minus (-) voiced (-) continuant but (+) labial. All language has rulers such as:1-Nasalize vowels before p,i or z.

2-Nasalize vowels before m, n, .

The Rulers of Phonology: Phonological rulers are relative with the phonemic representation (the part of the speakers knowledge of the language). The phonetic representation includes the nonpredictable, distinctive features of the phonemes in a word. Assimilation Rules: The vowel nasalization rule is an assimilation rule, or a rule that makes neighboring segments more similar by duplicating a phonetic property. Assimilation rules stem from articulatory process that increases the ease of articulation.

The phonological rulers that we have discussing; we stated the vowel nasalization rulers as:1-Nasalize vowels when they occur before nasal consonants (within the same syllable). This ruler specifies the class of sounds affected by the rule: vowels.

2-it states what the phonetic change will occur by applying the rule: Change phonetic oral vowels to phonetic nasal vowels. And it specifies the context of phonological environment and before nasal consonants within the same syllable.

3-A vowel becomes nasalized before a nasal segment, possible followed by one or two consonants, within a syllable.

Dissimilation Rulers: Rulers in which a segment become less similar to other segments. In the same words, sometimes we articulate dissimilar sounds.Feature Changing Rules: Some feature- changing rulers are assimilation, dissimilation. The rule in English that aspirates voiceless stops at the beginning of a syllable simply adds Nondistinctive feature.Segment insertation and Deletion Rules: Rules that add or delete entire segment. The process of inserting a consonant or vowel is called epenthesis. The ruler for forming plurals, possessive and third person singular for example: Insert a [] before the past tense morpheme when a regular verb ends in a non-nasal alveolar stop giving [d], and, Insert [] before the plural morpheme[z] when a regular noun ends in a sibilant, giving [z]Movement (Metathesis) Rules: Rules that reorder sequences of phonemes. These rules are applied in phonemic representation of words and phrases. The English flap rule illustrates an important phonological process called neutralization; the voicing contrast between t and d is neutralized in the specified environment. That is t never contrast with d in the environment between a stressed and unstressed vowel.

The Function of Phonological Rules: It is to provide the phonetic formation necessary for the pronunciation of utterances. The application of rules in this way is called a derivation. It shows how plurals are derivated.

Slips of the tongue: Evidence for Phonological Rules: Slips of the tongue, or speech errors, in which we deviate in some way from the intended utterance, show phonological rules in action.Prosodic Phonology: Words composed of 1 or 2 syllables. A syllable is a phonological unit composed of 1 or more phonemes. Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel (nasal-liquid syllable) the nucleus precedes by 1 or more phonemes called the syllable coda.Word stress: stress is a property of the syllable rather than a segment; it is a prosodic or suprasegmental feature. To produce a stressed syllable, one may change the pitch (usually by raising it), make the syllable louder, or make it longer.

Sentences and Phases stress: when words are combined into phrases and sentences, one syllable receives greater stress than others. There is only one primary stress in a word spoken in isolation, the only one vowel in the phrase or sentences receive the primary stress or accent.Intonation: it reflects syntactic or semantic differences. We refer to these relatives pitches as contrasting tones in sentences or phrases.

Sequential Constraints of Phonemes (Phonotactic Constrains): The limitations on sequences of segments. They have as basis the syllable, rather than the word. That is. Only the clusters that can begin a syllable can begin a word, and only a cluster that can end a syllable can end a word.Lexical Graps: A possible word contains phonemes in sequences that obey the Phonotactic constraints of the language, so that, we can say a word is the union of a possible word with a meaning. Possible words without meaning are called nonsense words and are also referred to as accidental graps in the lexicon, or lexical graps.Why do phonological rules exist?: The phonologists believe that phonological rules exist to ensure that the surface or phonetic forms of the words do not violate Phonotactic constraints. Some general constraints in English:

A- Obstruent sequences may not differ with respect to their voice feature at the end of the word.

B- Sequences of obstruent that differ at most with respect to voicing are not permitted within English words.

The phonological rules exist because languages have general principles those constraints possible sequences of sounds. The rules specify minimal modifications of underlying forms that bring them in line with the surface constraints.Optimality theory: The higher the constraint is ranked, the more influence it exerts on the language.9