Linda Meyer phd thesis 2012 04-13 v 5
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DISCUSSIONS IN EDUCATION: A POSTMODERN APPROACH L. Meyer Thesis Philosophiae Doctor in the Management of Technology and Innovation The Da Vinci Institute for Technology Management 2012
description
Thesis Dr. Linda Meyer DISCUSSIONS IN EDUCATION: A POSTMODERN APPROACH
Transcript of Linda Meyer phd thesis 2012 04-13 v 5
DISCUSSIONS IN EDUCATION:
A POSTMODERN APPROACH
L. Meyer
Thesis
Philosophiae Doctor in the Management of Technology and Innovation
The Da Vinci Institute for Technology Management
2012
DISCUSSIONS IN EDUCATION:
A POSTMODERN APPROACH
L. Meyer
Student number: 5286
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
Philosophiae Doctor in the Management of Technology and Innovation
at
The Da Vinci Institute for Technology Management
Academic supervisor: B. Anderson, PhD
Field supervisor: W. Goosen, DBA
2012
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Declaration
I declare that the research project, Discussions in Education: A Postmodern Approach, is my own
work and that each source of information used has been acknowledged by means of a complete
reference. This thesis has not been submitted before for any other research project, degree, or
examination at any university.
…………………………………….
(Signature of student)
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
(Date)
Johannesburg, South Africa
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Acknowledgements
My sincere gratitude to the following individuals without whom this research journey would not
have been possible:
� To my Academic Supervisor, Professor Ben Anderson, for his leadership, insight and
encouragement on my journey of self-discovery and self-directedness;
� To my Field Supervisor, Dr. Wynand Goosen, who played an instrumental role in stretching
the boundaries of normative thinking to the realm of meta-cognition;
� To my partner, Deonita Eulalia Damons, for the encouragement and support of my
academic goals;
� To my colleagues,Professor M. Mehl,Dr W. Guest-Mouton, Dr K. Deller, Dr. M. Serfontein,
Mrs. K. Thusi, Mr. S. Louw, Mr. T. Tshabalala, Mrs. V. Forest, Mrs. A. Roode, andMrs.H. Van
Twiskfor sharing their progressive views and encouragement to complete this research
study;
� To the staff and faculty of The Da Vinci Institute; particularly Onicca Maculube, Simon
Gathuaand Dr Marthie de Kock who went beyond the call of duty in their support and as
true ambassadors of the Institute; and
� To all research participantswho made this research journey possible.
__________________________
Initials and surname of student
Randburg
City/town of student’s residence
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Abstract
This research endeavour explored local and global provider accreditation and external moderation
frameworks, within the context of the available challenges and best practice models applicable to
occupationally directed education and training provision. The emerging South African diaspora,
with specific reference to the legislative and policy frameworks for occupationally directed
education and training, necessitated a robust discourse on pivotal challenges faced by providers in
the accreditation and external moderation domains. The research outcome proposed alternative
frameworks for accreditation and external moderation activities in South Africa.
Educational reforms are challenging in the face of historically established traditions that defined
academic quality standards. Innovative learning and assessment themes, which pose a defined
value proposition in reshaping traditional pre-defined academic standards, are at the heart of the
researcher’s recommendations.
Great philosophers, including Plato, Socrates and Osho, have contributed to the debate of
educational philosophy. More recent, and contemporary, educational experts have authored vital
inputs into the educational milieu. Globally, accreditation and moderation frameworks have been
implemented to varying degrees of control and self-regulation. Regulatory policies have often
formed both an enabling and restrictive environment where limited innovation was evident. In a
world where it is impossible to contribute to a knowledge economy without information, many
learners in South Africa remain deprived of access to basic information technology and good
learning practices.
South Africa is currently facing fundamental economic and transformative growth challenges,
compounded by an educational system that prepares large numbers of citizens for lifelong
structural underemployment or unemployment. Economic growth must be informed by intelligent
accountability and social and educational transformation. In this context, South Africa requires
sustained high impact human capital development systems and a nation of conscious individuals
who could facilitate the journey of transformation to a knowledge economy. Human capital
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development is at the axis of social cohesion, affluence, and sustainable employment creation, as
the emphasis and focus on broader aspects of value creation and skills base reforms prepare
South Africa for participation and positioning as a leading global competitor.
The research methodology in this thesis is qualitative in its design. Grounded theory was applied
as a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data, which has been
methodically collected and evaluated through continuous triangulation. Data was collected
through focus group engagements, the completion of a research questionnaire, semi-structured
interviews, and a desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation and 250 external moderation provider
reports.
This research study advances particular propositions concerning the structural and methodological
pedagogy of occupationally directed education and training providers’ accreditation and external
moderation practices. The analysis of the data suggests that the current occupational
accreditation and external moderation frameworks require significant interventions to redress
bureaucratic and punitive processes that significantly inhibit innovative education and training
delivery, which could support social and educational transformation.
South Africa should prepare a cohesive integrated economic and transformation strategy that
confirms specific social outcomes, acknowledging the inter-relationships of economic, human and
social capital. The proposed educational growth path should include the improved performance of
occupationally directed education and training provision, which in turn should result in economic
growth. Educational throughput will have a limited impact on skills advancement, and the focus
must transcend to informed learning outcomes that are grounded in innovative practices, critical
and cognitive thinking and capitalise on new technology in a heterogeneous global context.
The central theme of a credible and predictable education system is informed by internal and
external quality assurance structures. Educational reform must advance economic growth
(Sahlberg, 2004). Excellent research, tangible achievements and an adaptive and supportive
environment that translates into remarkable systems improvements, must inform the
occupationally directed education and training arrangements as a central value proposition.
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Table of contents
1. Chapter 1 – Contextualisation ...................................................................................................... 16
1.1 Rationale ...................................................................................................................................... 16
1.1.1 Human capital development in the broader South African environment ..................................... 16
1.1.2 Regulatory framework for quality management of education, training and development in
South Africa .................................................................................................................................. 18
1.1.3 Quality assurance of accreditation and external moderation ....................................................... 20
1.2 Description of the research problem ............................................................................................ 22
1.3 Research purpose ......................................................................................................................... 25
1.4 Research objectives ...................................................................................................................... 26
1.5 Research questions....................................................................................................................... 28
1.6 Research methods used ............................................................................................................... 28
1.6.1 Theoretical framework ................................................................................................................. 28
1.6.2 Research methodology ................................................................................................................. 30
1.6.3 Population and sampling method ................................................................................................. 30
1.7 Quality of data .............................................................................................................................. 32
1.8 Delineations and limitations ......................................................................................................... 32
1.9 Outline of the thesis ..................................................................................................................... 33
1.9.1 Chapter two – Literature review ................................................................................................... 33
1.9.2 Chapter three – The global educational context ........................................................................... 33
1.9.3 Chapter four – Research methodology ......................................................................................... 33
1.9.4 Chapter five – Research report ..................................................................................................... 35
1.9.5 Chapter six – Analysis and interpretation ..................................................................................... 35
1.9.6 Chapter seven – Recommendations for practice and further research ........................................ 35
1.10 Conclusion of chapter one ............................................................................................................ 35
2. Chapter 2 – Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 38
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 38
2.2 The modernist / postmodernist debate ........................................................................................ 39
2.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 40
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2.2.2 Modernist philosophy .................................................................................................................. 41
2.2.3 Postmodernist philosophy ............................................................................................................ 44
2.2.4 Conclusion: link to this study ........................................................................................................ 51
2.3 The revolution and philosophy of education ................................................................................ 53
2.3.1 Socrates (470 BC – 399 BC) ........................................................................................................... 54
2.3.2 Plato (424 BC - 347 BC) ................................................................................................................. 57
2.3.3 Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) ........................................................................................................... 58
2.3.4 Avicenna (980 - 1037) ................................................................................................................... 62
2.3.5 Descartes (1595 - 1650) ................................................................................................................ 63
2.3.6 Locke (1632 - 1704) ...................................................................................................................... 64
2.3.7 Rousseau (1712 - 1778) ................................................................................................................ 65
2.3.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 66
2.4 Self-directedness in learning ........................................................................................................ 68
2.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 68
2.4.2 Edward De Bono (1933 - ) ............................................................................................................. 69
2.4.3 Reuven Feuerstein (1921 - ) .......................................................................................................... 70
2.4.4 Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) ............................................................................................................. 71
2.4.5 Merlyn Mehl (1956 - ) ................................................................................................................... 72
2.4.6 Maria Montessori (1870 – 1952) .................................................................................................. 74
2.4.7 Rudolf Steiner (1861 – 1925) ........................................................................................................ 75
2.4.8 Osho (1931 – 1990) ...................................................................................................................... 76
2.4.9 Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934) ........................................................................................................... 79
2.4.10 Carl Jung (1875 – 1961) ................................................................................................................ 80
2.4.11 Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519) .................................................................................................. 84
2.4.12 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 85
2.5 Principal approaches to learning models ...................................................................................... 85
2.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 85
2.5.2 Behaviourism ................................................................................................................................ 86
2.5.3 Cognitivism ................................................................................................................................... 87
2.5.4 Connectivism ................................................................................................................................ 87
2.5.5 Constructivism .............................................................................................................................. 88
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2.5.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 90
2.6 Teaching styles versus learning styles ........................................................................................... 91
2.6.1 Teaching styles ............................................................................................................................. 91
2.6.2 Learning styles .............................................................................................................................. 92
2.6.3 Kolb’s learning styles inventory .................................................................................................... 95
2.6.4 Honey and Mumford's learning styles .......................................................................................... 97
2.6.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 99
2.7 Conclusion of chapter two ............................................................................................................ 99
3. Chapter 3 – The Global Educational Context .............................................................................. 103
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 103
3.2 South African youth unemployment .......................................................................................... 105
3.3 South African labour and education legislative context .............................................................. 106
3.4 The South African qualifications sub-frameworks ...................................................................... 107
3.4.1 Primary and secondary education .............................................................................................. 108
3.4.2 Further Education and Training (FET) ......................................................................................... 109
3.4.3 Higher Education and Training (HET) .......................................................................................... 112
3.4.4 National Skills Development Strategy III (NSDS III) ..................................................................... 112
3.5 Accreditation models ................................................................................................................. 114
3.5.1 International accreditation models and guidelines ..................................................................... 114
3.5.2 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) .......................................... 115
3.5.3 The International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) ..... 116
3.5.4 The Association of African Universities (AAU) ............................................................................ 117
3.5.5 The Asia-Pacific Quality Network (APQN) ................................................................................... 119
3.5.6 Global Initiative on Quality Assurance Capacity (GIQAC) ............................................................ 120
3.5.7 European Higher Education Qualifications Framework .............................................................. 121
3.5.8 Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) ........................................................... 126
3.5.9 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 127
3.6 Country accreditation models .................................................................................................... 129
3.6.1 The South African accreditation framework ............................................................................... 129
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3.6.2 The German accreditation framework ....................................................................................... 157
3.6.3 The United States of America accreditation framework ............................................................. 165
3.6.4 The Canadian accreditation framework ...................................................................................... 169
3.6.5 The United Kingdom accreditation framework ........................................................................... 173
3.6.6 The Singaporean accreditation framework ................................................................................. 177
3.7 Country moderation models ...................................................................................................... 183
3.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 183
3.7.2 The German moderation framework .......................................................................................... 183
3.7.3 The United Kingdom moderation framework ............................................................................. 185
3.7.4 The Singaporean moderation framework ................................................................................... 188
3.7.5 The Canadian moderation framework ........................................................................................ 190
3.7.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 193
3.8 The South African moderation model......................................................................................... 194
3.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 194
3.8.2 Umalusi quality assurance and assessment ................................................................................ 195
3.8.3 The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) .................................................................... 199
3.8.4 Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) and Education and Training Quality
Assurance bodies (ETQAs) .......................................................................................................... 203
3.9 Conclusion of chapter three ....................................................................................................... 217
4. Chapter 4 Research Methodology ............................................................................................ 219
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 219
4.2 Research objective ..................................................................................................................... 221
4.3 Research questions..................................................................................................................... 222
4.4 Qualitative research outline ....................................................................................................... 223
4.4.1 Objectivity .................................................................................................................................. 229
4.4.2 Reliability .................................................................................................................................... 230
4.4.3 Validity ....................................................................................................................................... 232
4.5 Grounded theory ........................................................................................................................ 233
4.6 Research population and sampling ............................................................................................. 234
4.7 Data collection methods ............................................................................................................. 236
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4.8 Data analysis ............................................................................................................................... 243
4.8.1 Research rationale ...................................................................................................................... 249
4.8.2 Purposive and narrow sampling ................................................................................................. 250
4.8.3 Rationale for selected data collection methods in this research ................................................. 250
4.9 Conclusion of chapter four ......................................................................................................... 251
5. Chapter 5 – Research Report ...................................................................................................... 253
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 253
5.2 The research design stages: ........................................................................................................ 253
5.2.1 Focus group ................................................................................................................................ 255
5.2.2 Desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation reports ....................................................................... 257
5.2.3 Desktop evaluation of 250 external moderation reports ............................................................ 258
5.2.4 The research questionnaire ........................................................................................................ 259
5.2.5 The semi-structured interviews .................................................................................................. 261
5.2.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 262
5.3 Conclusion of chapter five .......................................................................................................... 263
6. Chapter 6 – Analysis and Interpretation ..................................................................................... 266
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 266
6.2 The accreditation process ........................................................................................................... 268
6.2.1 Theme 1: Quality Management Systems ................................................................................... 268
6.2.2 Theme 2: Industry specifications and requirements .................................................................. 271
6.2.3 Theme 3: Provider capacity ....................................................................................................... 272
6.2.4 Theme 4: Market demand and barriers to entry ....................................................................... 274
6.3 The external moderation process ............................................................................................... 276
6.3.1 Theme 1: Quality Management Systems ................................................................................... 276
6.3.2 Theme 2: Peer review mechanisms ........................................................................................... 278
6.3.3 Theme 3: Industry validation ..................................................................................................... 280
6.3.4 Theme 4: Maturity status validation .......................................................................................... 281
6.4 An alternative accreditation framework ..................................................................................... 283
6.5 An alternative external moderation framework ......................................................................... 284
6.6 Conclusion of chapter six ............................................................................................................ 284
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7. Chapter 7 – Recommendations for Practice and Further Research ............................................ 286
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 286
7.2 Recommendations for practice .................................................................................................. 288
7.3 Proposed further research ......................................................................................................... 289
7.4 Limitations of the study .............................................................................................................. 289
7.5 Conclusion of chapter seven ....................................................................................................... 290
7.6 Thesis conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 292
7.6.1 Contextualisation ....................................................................................................................... 293
7.6.2 Literature review ........................................................................................................................ 293
7.6.3 Global educational context ......................................................................................................... 294
7.6.4 Research methodology ............................................................................................................... 295
7.6.5 Research report .......................................................................................................................... 295
7.6.6 Analysis and interpretation ........................................................................................................ 295
7.6.7 Recommendations for practice and further research ................................................................. 296
8. Works Cited ............................................................................................................................... 297
9. Appendices ................................................................................................................................ 335
10. Appendix A – Research questionnaire sample .......................................................................... 336
11. Appendix B – The focus group stage .......................................................................................... 340
12. Appendix C – Semi-structured interview reports ...................................................................... 344
13. Appendix D – The desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation and 250 external moderation report
14. Appendix E – Research questionnaire findings ......................................................................... 429
15. Appendix F – SAQA 8 core criteria for provider accreditation .................................................. 435
16. Appendix G – UK external verifiers (National occupational standards directory). ................... 441
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List of tables
Table 2.1 Modernist versus postmodernist thought ......................................................................... 43
Table 2.2 Socratic method versus academic tradition ....................................................................... 55
Table 2.3 Implications of education – Jung’s ten pillars of education ................................................ 84
Table 2.4 Characteristics of constructivism (Murphy, 1997) .............................................................. 90
Table 3.1 NSDS III – Vicissitudes ...................................................................................................... 113
Table 3.2 NSDS III – Priorities .......................................................................................................... 113
Table 3.3 NSDS III – Determinants supported by NSDS III ................................................................ 114
Table 3.4 South African Quality Councils and NQF levels ................................................................ 131
Table 4.1 Research phases undertaken ........................................................................................... 221
Table 4.2 A modified policy cycle incorporating macro constraint and micro agency ..................... 223
Table 4.3 Features of qualitative and quantitative research: (Neil, 2007) ....................................... 226
Table 4.4 Correlations between the various types of interviews ..................................................... 239
Table 4.5 The ten laws of interviewing ............................................................................................ 241
Table 4.6 The components of data analysis ..................................................................................... 244
Table 10.1 Research questionnaire ................................................................................................... 338
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List of figures
Figure 2.1: Periods related to epistemological approach ..................................................................... 41
Figure 2.2: Osho’s five dimensions of education .................................................................................. 78
Figure 2.3: Kolb’s learning styles .......................................................................................................... 96
Figure 2.4: Honey and Mumford’s learning cycle and learning styles .................................................. 98
Figure 4.1: Research process.............................................................................................................. 220
Figure 4.2: Elements of a research study ........................................................................................... 228
Figure 4.3: Aspects of data analysis ................................................................................................... 249
Figure 5.1: Summary of the research process .................................................................................... 255
Figure 6.1 Proposed occupationally directed education and training provider accreditation
framework
244
Figure 6.2: Proposed occupationally directed education and training provider external
moderation framework ................................................................................................... 284
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List of acronyms
AAU Association of African Universities
ABA American Bar Association
ABET Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology
ABET Adult Basic Education and Training
ABET-CAC Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Computing
Accreditation Commission
ACS American Chemical Society
ACSB Accounting Standards Board
AET Adult Education and Training
AICE Association of International Credentials Evaluators
ALS American Law Schools
AMA-CME American Medical Association, Council on Medical Education
AMC American Medical Colleges
AMS American Meteorological Society
ANC African National Congress
APL Accreditation of Prior Learning
APQN Asia-Pacific Quality Network
AQF Australian Qualifications Framework
AQP Assessment Quality Partner
ASME Association of Mechanical Engineers
ASTD American Society of Training and Development
ATR Annual Training Report
BAC British Accreditation Council
BANKSETA Banking Sector Education and Training Authority
BIBB Bundesinstitut fur Berufsbildung
BTEC Business and Technology Education Council
CAR Cumulative Assessment Record
CASS Continuous Assessment
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CAT Credit Accumulation and Transfer
CBT Competency Based Training
CCEA Council for Curriculum Examinations and Assessment
CCMA Commission for Conciliation, Mediationand Arbitration
CEP Community of Expert Practitioners
CETA Construction Education and Training Authority
CETAC Canadian Education and Training Accreditation Commission
CHE Council on Higher Education
CHEA Council for Higher Education Accreditation
CICIC Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials
COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions
CPD Continuous Professional Development
CPIP Continuing Performance Improvement Programme
CTE Career and Technical Education
CTFL SETA Clothing, Textile, Footwear and Leather Sector Education and
Training Authority
CTS Conformance to Specifications
CUMSA Curriculum Model for Education in South Africa
CVCP Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals
DATAD Database of African Theses and Dissertations
DCELLS Department for Children, Education, Lifelong Learning and Skills
DETC (USA) Distance Education and Training Council (USA)
DHET Department of Higher Education and Training
DOE Department of Education
DOL Department of Labour
DQP Development Quality Partner
EAAB Estate Agency Affairs Board
ECTS European Credit Transfer System
ECVET European Credit for Vocational Education and Training
EFMD European Foundation for Management Development
EFQM European Foundation for Quality Management
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EHEA European Higher Education Area
EQARF European Quality Assurance Reference Framework for Vocational
Education and Training
EQF European Qualifications Framework
EQUIS European Quality Improvement System
ESSEC Ecole Superieure des Sciences Economiques et Commericales
ETD Education,Training, and Development
ETDP Education, Training, and Development Practitioner
ETDQA Education, Training, and Development SETA Quality Assurance
body
ETQAs Education and Training Quality Assurance bodies
ETQC Education and Training Quality Council
FEDUSA Federation of Unions of South Africa
FET Further Education and Training
FETC Further Education and Training Certificate
FETI Further Education and Training Institute
FHEQ Framework for Higher Education Qualifications
GCE General Certificate of Education
GENFETQA General and Further Education and Training Quality Assurance
GET General Education and Training
GIQAC Global Initiative on Quality Assurance Capacity
HDI Historically Disadvantaged Individual
HE Higher Education
HEI Higher Education Institution
HEQC Higher Education Quality Council
HEQF Higher Education Qualifications Framework
HET Higher Education and Training
HNC Higher National Certificate
HRD Human Resource Development
HSRC Human Sciences Research Council
IEB Independent Examinations Board
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IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
ILO International Labour Organization
INQAAHE InternationalNetwork for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher
Education
INSEAD Institut Europeen d’Administration des Affaires
ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ITB Industry Training Board
ITE Institute for Technical Education
KMK Kultusministerkonferenz
LCME Liaison Committee on Medical Education
LMS Learner Management System
LQW Lernerorientierte Qualitatstestierung in der Weiterbildung
LSI Learning Styles Inventory
LSQ Learning Styles Questionnaire
MAPPP SETA Media, Advertising, Publishing, Printing, Packaging Sector
Education and Training Authority
MIS Management Information System
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
MQA Mining Qualifications Authority
MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework
NACES National Association of Credential Evaluation Services
NAMB National Artisan Moderation Body
NATED National Association for Tertiary Education
NCV National Certificate (Vocational)
NDAQ National Database of Accredited Qualifications
NEDLAC National Economic Development and Labour Council
NLRD National Learners’ Records Database
NOPF National Occupational Pathway Framework
NOS National Occupational Standards
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NQF National Qualifications Framework
NSA National Skills Authority
NSC National Senior Certificate
NSDS III National Skills Development Strategy Three
NSFAS National Student Financial Aid Scheme of South Africa
NSPE National Society of Professional Engineers
NSRS National Skills Recognition System
NUS National University of Singapore
NVQ National Vocational Qualification
N3 National Certificate level 3
OCR Oxford and Cambridge and RSA exam board
OE Occupational Education
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OFL Occupational Foundational Learning
OFO Organising Framework for Occupations
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
PoE Portfolio of Evidence
PSLE Primary School Leaving Examination
PVE Professional and Vocational Education
QA Quality Assurance Agency
QALA Quality Assurance of Learner Achievements
QCF Qualificationsand Credit Framework
QCTO Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
QMS Quality Management System
QP Quality Partner
QPU Quality Promotion Unit
ROI Return on Investment
RPL Recognition of Prior Learning
SABPP South African Board for People Practices
SACP South African Communist Party
SADC Southern African Development Community
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SAICA South African Institute of Chartered Accountants
SAIVCET South African Institute of Valuers - Continued Education and
Training
SAQA South African Qualifications Authority
SAQI South African Quality Institute
SC Senior Certificate
SDA Skills Development Act
SETA Sector Education and Training Authority
SETQAA Services SETA Quality Assurance body
SLA Service Level Agreement
SMME Small,Mediumor Micro Enterprise
SSETA Services Sector Education and Training Authority
TAFE Technical and Further Education
TEFSA Tertiary Education Fund of South Africa
TETA Transport Sector Education and Training Authority
TQEC Teaching Quality Enhancement Committee
TQM Total Quality Management
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
UK United Kingdom
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USA United States of America
VET Vocational Education and Training
W and R SETA Wholesale and RetailSector Education and Training Authority
WDA Workforce Development Agency
WE Workforce Education
WPE Workplace Education
WSP Workplace Skills Plan
WSQ Workforce Skills Qualifications
ZPD Zone of Proximal Development
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Definition of Key Terms
Articulate To provide for learners, on successful completion of accredited
prerequisites, movement between components of the delivery
system.
Assessment tools/instruments
The nature of the assessment tasks given to the learner to do.
Guidelines for the Assessment of NQF registered Unit Standards and
Qualifications (South African Qualifications Authority, 2000).
Credits
The credentialing of learning as associated with the requirements for a
qualification. (South African Qualifications Authority , 2000).
Higher Education
Refers to education that normally takes place in universities and other
higher education institutions, both public and private, which offer
qualifications on the Higher Education Qualifications Framework
(HEQF). (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012).
Further Education
Refers to education offered in Further Education and Training (FET)
colleges and similar programmes in other vocational colleges. The
Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) is considering
renaming the FET colleges Vocational Education and Training Colleges,
but since no final decision has beentaken in this regard, the existing
name is used. (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012).
Occupationally directed education,
training and development
Training that principally is conducted in the workplace. It is also
referred to as ‘on the job training’, ‘workplace training’, ’vocational
education and training or ‘career-oriented education’ (Wessels, 2005).
Occupational Education
Refers to educational programmes that arefocused on preparation for
specific occupations, as well as ongoing professional development and
training in the workplace (Department of Higher Education and
Training, 2012).
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Professional Education
Refers to educational programmes that lead to professional
registration.
Quality Assurance
The sum of activities that assure the quality of services against clear
pre-determined and described standards. Guidelines for the
Assessment of NQF registered Unit Standards and Qualifications
(SAQA; 2000: 11, 20, 21, 30 – 35).
Vocational Education Refers to a middle level of education, which provides knowledge and
skills to enter the economy through a general, broad orientation in
vocational areas, as well as general learning in essential areas such as
Language and Mathematics.(Department of Education and Training,
2012).
Strategy Formulation “The formulation of strategy can develop competitive advantage only
to the extent that the process can give meaning to workers in the
trenches.” (Hirst, 1995:02).
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1. Chapter 1–Contextualisation
“There is only one education, and it has only one goal - the freedom of the mind. Anything that
needs an adjective, be it civics education, or socialist education, or Christian education, or
whatever-you-like education, is not education, and it has some different goal.The very existence of
modified "educations" is testimony to the fact that their proponents cannot bring about what they
want in a mind that is free. An "education" that cannot do its work in a free mind, and so must
"teach" by homily and precept in the service of these feelings and attitudes and beliefs rather than
those, ispure and unmistakable tyranny.”
Mitchell
1.1 Rationale
The impetus for embarking on this research studywas to document the researcher’s combination
of subjective, academic, and applied intentions, supported by the researcher’s experiences in
education and skills development in the preceding twenty years. The researcher embarked on a
personal journey of discovery and emergencein the fields of theoretical and didactic prospecting,
to formulate applied research constructs in the occupationally directed education and training
environment, and the contextual exploration of education for sustainable economic development.
1.1.1 Human capital development in the broader South African environment
The current South African educational discourse is at an impasse. This epistemological disjuncture
requiresa critical examination of proposed amendments to the South African human capital
development strategy. The proposed amendments to the education and labour market policy
frameworks are constricting sustainable employment creation. The South African economy
requires resoluteindustry validation and the development of an integrated human capital strategy
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that maximises both public and private educational provisionto build capacity in addressing social
and economic transformation.
The universal knowledge economy demands the development of a global skills passport
validatingknowledge and abilities and advanced cognitive competencies(Hamel,
2004).Nationsrequire independent thinking citizensthat contribute to sustainable market growth.
Withinthe framed landscape,knowledge and consciousness are symbiotic.Traditional institutions
and conventional skillssets are redundant vehicles in the pursuit of innovative excellence and
global market competitiveness(Young, 2008). The accepted requirements of innovation and
technology, combined with the current situational challenges of burgeoning unemployed youth
figures, require reviews of approaches to resolving the impasse set by restrictive labour market
policy, aneducation framework not delivering workplace requirements and an economy
researching growth injectors.
As with traditional academic institutions, the occupationally directed education and training
framework has brought hope of employment and prosperity to millions of unemployed
youth(Clayton,and McGill, 1999). Within this context, learnershipshave emerged as a means to
obtain a basic stipend notwithstanding the paired qualification. Learnershipshave largely emerged
as an extended social grant system, whilst limited industry and peer validation mechanisms exist
to corroboratethe value of occupationally directed education and training qualifications and skills
programmes. Youth unemployment remains a seminal issue, as the South African General
Education and Training (GET), Further Education and Training (FET) and Higher Education and
Training (HET) sectors produce unemployed graduates en masse.
The researcher was confronted with her participation in the occupationally directed education and
training domain.The systemic foundation emulates a pendulum representing a flawed and
compromisedsystem and,conversely,a system of excellence in the skills development and
employment creation arena. The researcher became intrigued by the idea of exploring the quality
framework that underpins this occupationally directed education and training sector, in the
context of postmodern skills validation and the South African economic and transformative
strategic growth imperatives. In particular, this research aims to evolve the
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discourseconcerningaccreditation and external moderation frameworks within the occupationally
directed education and training diaspora.
In preparation, the researcherexplored the Kantian constructivistcontext that predicates a
framework for the postmodern debate in education, curricula, epistemology, literature and
learning in general. Kantian constructivism informed the considerations of this research, as reason
alone does not facilitate knowledge acquisition. Experience appears to be indispensable for
knowledge and cognitive aptitude(Kant, 1781).
Kantian philosophy articulated thatmen are subjects who should not exploit each other as means
to an end.Kant’s didactic methodology was centred in students beingaccomplished to become
comprehending, reasonable and scholarly persons, as young people entrusted to him were
expected to acquire a supplementary, maturityacumenin relation to their own future(Kant, 1765 :
66).
This philosophy relates to the current South African educational context in that organisations
providing learning facilitation are expected to provide supplementary, maturity acumen as
evidenced in processes that firstly require approval prior to engaging in learning provision
activities, and therefore being quality assured through rigorous external review.
South Africa must be held accountable for investing in an education framework, and the
formulation of a labour market policy, that has resulted in millions of unemployed and
underemployed citizens.The South African regulatory framework for occupationally directed
education and training providers is complex, over-regulated, and onerous. Private provision, in
particular, therefore, due to the imbalanced advantage allowed public educational institutions,
necessitates a discourse for the pivotal challenges faced within the accreditation and external
moderation spheres.
1.1.2 Regulatory framework for quality management of education, training and
development in South Africa
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Public institutions are predominantly financed from the national budget(National Treasury, 2011),
whilst private providers receive no subsidies to advance the South African educational objectives
outside of Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) funding. The researcher is of the opinion
that the majority of South African universities are at this time failing to demonstrate constructive
transformation and a meaningful contribution to the national skills agenda. Unemployment, and
particularly youth unemployment, is a social challenge that must be addressed in the face of a
compromised South African public education system. Government should not measure the
performance of public providers versus private providers arbitrarily. Of utmost importance are the
ROI and success ratios in creating sustainable employment after completing skills development
interventions. Government should focus on developing an integrated human capital strategy that
addresses skillsset deficits, and on enabling a complimentary environment to create sustainable
employment and economic growth.
“Ultimately, the final responsibility for the provision of quality higher education programmes and
production of marketable and employable graduates remains that of the Minister of Higher
Education and Training” (Mkhize, 2011). The Minister, therefore, provides the frameworks that
should empower enable and encourage higher, and lifelong, learning.
The current South African education statutory framework includes three distinct quality councils,
namely Umalusi, the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO), and the Council on
Higher (CHE) (National Qualifications Framework Act, 2008). The South African NQF therefore
consists of three sub-frameworks, namely the General and Further Education Qualifications
Framework, the Occupational Qualifications Framework and the Higher Education Qualifications
Framework. This environmentwas reviewed by the DHET and a green paper was published in
January 2012, in South Africa, for public comment (Department of Higher Education and Training,
2012) on proposals in this regard.
“Our qualifications and quality assurance framework is complex, with overlapping directives and
ongoing contestation between different quality assurance bodies in various areas of operation.The
primary bodies with a direct role in quality assurance are the three Quality Councils – the Council
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on Higher Education, Umalusi and the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations. Options are
proposed for clarifying their respective areas of jurisdiction” (Nzimande, 12th January 2012).
The transitional phase for absorbing SETA ETQAs into the QCTO requires a clear analysis of reasons
explainingoccupationally directed education and training providers having been efficaciousor
conversely constrained in accreditation or external moderation activities. The current DHET green
paper (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012)raises some questions with the
researcher in relation to the finalisation of vicissitudes of the respectivequality councils.The
research will explorethe current challenges faced by occupationally directed private education and
training providers in dealing with ETQAs vis-à-visaccreditation and external moderation activities.
The research will culminate in proposed frameworks for streamlined accreditation and external
moderation endeavours with respect to occupationally directed education and training providers.
1.1.3 Quality assurance of accreditation and external moderation
The research study will investigate common trends experienced by occupationally directed
education and training providers in their engagementswith ETQAs.
The researcher will further explorethe reasons that occupationally directed education and training
providers have been unable to obtain accreditation,and why providers have not been able to exit
learners, after external moderation activities have been conducted byETQAs.The findings of the
research study will be beneficial to occupationally directed education and training providers,
ETQAs, the QCTO and the DHET, asintelligibleaccreditation and external moderation frameworks
will be proposed to meet statutory compliance and industry requirements. In this regard, the
research acknowledges Jansen and Christie in stating:“Certain education and training practitioners
have an attitude that the NQF and the outcomes-based methodology to education and training
has been a failure” (Jansen, 1999).
Private providers are required to maintain an industry related primary focus accreditation under
the jurisdiction of a particular ETQA.SETAs conduct sector skills planning in consultation with
stakeholders, and additional funded researchis undertaken to confirm the required skills and
educational requirementswithin specific sectors of the economy. Providers obtain permission from
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a non-primary focus ETQA to deliver training with the authority from their primary focus ETQA.
Said permission isobtained through aMemorandum of Understanding (MoU)process(South African
Qualifications Authority, 2001). Such delivered training is subject to programme approval. This
research study will include an evaluation of common areas of benefit as well as impediments
providers face during the respective ETQA accreditation and programme approval phases.
Additionally, the common trends and challenges experienced by occupationally directed education
and training providers in relation to their residual compliance requirements will be explored as
part of this research study. This research will expose valuable information to postulate greater
insight into the required structural interventions by respective ETQAs in an attemptto re-evaluate
inclusivesupport and oversight to constituent providers.Providers are required to navigate through
a myriad of inconsistent and prejudicial interpretations from ETQAs relating to statute and
regulations. Furthermore, additional ETQA self-interpreted and imposed rules, undefined delivery
timelines, and lack of accountability remain significant challengesto the occupationally directed
education and training arena.
Uncertainty and perceived uneven levels of performance by ETQAs in e.g.accreditation and
programme approval processes and the Quality Assurance of Learner Achievements (QALA),
remain major impairments to learner certification within reasonable timeframes. The QALA
process involves learner achievement uploads to ETQAsand external moderation by ETQA
appointed external moderators and, where applicable,quality partners. This process compounds
the challenges affecting learners exiting at band and unit standard level.
The QALA process involves a preliminary phase that requires that learner achievements
bevalidated from, in some instances, a manually inputExcel spread sheetthat contains thousands
of line items. Provider upload non-compliance is generally related to the capturing of incorrect
data (e.g. wrong gender code entries). Without the external moderation, though, the
achievements cannot be validated and therefore cannot be uploaded to the Learner Management
System (LMS), resulting in an impasse in providing certification to successful learners.
ETQAs upload their learner achievements, after external moderation confirmation, to the South
African Qualifications Authority (SAQA). SETAs are awarded a performance status based on the
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validity of uploaded data to the National Learners’ Records Database (NLRD). SETAs strive to attain
“green” status in confirmation of validated quality assurance practice. SETAs that are in the
“amber” and “red” status bands are at risk of losing their upload status. In order to some levels of
consistency, all ETQAs, including SETAs, are in the process of migrating to the EDUDEX LMS. The
EDUDEX LMS is being implemented to ensure greater predictable accuracy because of an
improved verification system(Shapiro, 2010).
A credible LMS will have a positive impact nationally for occupationally directed providers,
learners, business, government, and labour.A reliable LMS repository would provide a “citizen’s
skills passport” that would reliably inform the country’snational human resourcesdevelopment
planning strategy. The currentoccupationally directed education and training framework must be
revised to optimally contribute to social and economic transformation. Something must be done
to curb the avalanche of South African unemployed, and particularly youth unemployment.
Institutional review is not an emergent global challenge and neither should it be in South Africa. As
Schon pointed out in 1973, “we must, in other words, become adept at learning. We must become
able not only to transform our institutions, in response to changing situations and requirements;
we must invent and develop institutions which are ‘learning systems’, that is to say, systems
capable of bringing about their own continuing transformation”(Schön, 1973:28).
1.2 Description of the research problem
From the previous discussion it can be concluded that South Africa is facing a number oftrials in
relation to employment creation and higher and further educational opportunities. The
transitional phase of the operationalising of the QCTO requires a clear analysis of the challenges
and advancements made byoccupationally directed education and training providers in relation to
accreditation and external moderation processes. Inconsistent arbitrary compliance requirements
and the compounding limited skills base in certain ETQAs, remaincumbersome and
incomprehensible in relation to the broader social accountability agenda. Public Service and
Administration Minister, Roy Padayachie, has acknowledged general accountability that should
exist in the public service."People think that there are no consequences if you don't do your job
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properly. We are about to change that, particularly for those who are guilty of wrongdoing in the
public service”(Kgosana, 12 February, 2012). It is hoped that pronouncements such as this will lead
to improved support and focus in the public service agencies supporting skills development.
Available research is limited concerning the value propositionof cognitive modifiability in
occupationally directed educationand training qualification constructs, resulting in over-reliance
on rote learning. Learners often displaylimited understanding in relation to the underlying
reasonfor performing a task. Research confirms that the ability to understand and rationalise at
specific cognitive levels is critical for both personal and organisational advancement(Feuerstein,
1990).
Finland and Singapore offer worthy positive examples of education systems that have been
transformed into global knowledge creation leaders. Central to Finland and Singapore’s success
has been the unquestionable commitment tothe implementation of quality systems,learner
centeredness, focus on educator excellence, emphasis on cognitive and creative thinking skills,
innovation and optimisation of technological advancements(Open Mind Foundation, 2011). There
is no reason that South Africa cannot and should not aspire to similar standards.
Access to higher and further education and training, and more especially access to public
universities, are the central theme in perceived educational advancement and employment
creation in South Africa. Notwithstanding the official dropout rate from South African public
universities costing the taxpayer
R 4, 5 billion in grants and subsidies to higher education institutions, no fundamental interventions
are underway to validate incumbent university access in relation to a commensurate return on
investment from the national fiscus. The perception still prevails that a university qualification is
reliable measure of employability.
Tertiary institutions in South Africa, however, have a confirmed dropout rate in the region of 80%
(Macfarlane, 22–28 September 2006). Therefore, the advancement of government’s national
educational policy should not exclude private providers from the agenda, but rather embrace
them as complimentary delivery partners. Perceived second-rate public universities compound the
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challenge of employment creation, as businesses avoid employing graduates exiting from these
institutions. Poorly resourced and predominantly located in rural areas, with limited resource
output and academic achievement, significant support should be provided to these public
institutions.
The Deputy Minister of Higher Education and Training confirms“, 17 Years after the end of
apartheid, the” Homeland Universities”, established on racial and tribal and/or ethnic basis during
the apartheid era, are still with us in the form and shape they were meant to be. These universities
are still attended, predominantly, by black students from rural communities with poor grades”
(Mkhize, 2011). Private provider and public institution partnerships could generate an insurgence
of belief, and self-belief, in these potentially positive catalysts.
Quality and suitability lay at the heart of many skills development institutions. South Africahas
implemented a number of questionable decisions regarding the advancement of global
educational comparative excellence and quality assurance. These decisions include forced
throughput quotas, low pass rate thresholds to obtain a senior certificate,a poorly qualified and
under resourced pool of educators, in schools, and lecturers, in FET colleges. The prohibitive effect
on quality education is compounded within the context of limited availability and an overstretched
infrastructure across educational institutions. South Africaranks poorly amongst international
universities, with only the University of Cape Town placing in the global top 200
universities(Mchunu, 2012).
South Africa has adopted a debatable system of advancing the imperialisticUK regulation
prohibiting private HET institutions from utilising the word “university” in their name. These
actions appear to beperplexingin a quality framework where the HEQC implements rigorous
verification standards prior to approving private HET provider offerings. South Africa should seek
to expand on the maximum delivery base for skills validation from universities, be it private or
public, focusing on the quality of provision rather than disputed naming rights. Private FET
providers aresubject to significantly compounded oversight from no less than three statutory
institutions. This figure increases incrementally in relation to the FET provider’s sector/s of
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operation and ETQA applicable jurisdiction, with each ETQA being responsible for quality
assurance in a specific economic sector only.
The need for optimal educational capacity output cannot be overstated in the quest for economic
and social transformation,and intellectual and knowledge-based asset optimisation for sustainable
employment creation.
With due consideration to the aforementioned, this research will culminate in a proposed
framework for streamlined accreditation and external moderation interventions for occupationally
directed providers. In parallel , the researcher takes note of the statement made by the previous
Chief Executive Officer of SAQA,(Isaacs, 2001)in relation to developments within the South African
educational landscape:“The evolving NQF will tend toward particular theoretical directions as a
consequence of intellectual scrutiny, rather than being determined in advance by tight
definition”(Isaacs, 2001).
1.3 Research purpose
It is against the outline of the stated problem that the purpose of the research becomes clear,
namely:
i. The creation of a platform for the consideration of proposedaccreditation and external
moderation frameworks, which offer defined value propositions in the creation of an inclusive
provider base for occupational directed education and trainingprovision in South Africa.
ii. The identification of the challenges faced by private providers in the solicitation of
accreditation, and external moderation activitiesin South Africa. To this end, the researcher
will investigate the global educational context in relation to accreditation and external
moderation activities and consider other “logical models” of operation (Wholey, 1987)
and(Bickman, 1987).
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1.4 Research objectives
In an attempt to achieve the purpose study, it is necessary to implement a phase or step approach
of which, the following are deemed most vital:
i. To assess and evaluate the legislative and regulatory policy framework as it relates to
education and training within South Africa.
ii. To assess and evaluate the challenges faced by occupationally directed education and training
providers as they relate to accreditation and external moderation activitiesin the context of
ETQAs.
iii. To assess and evaluate the legislative and regulatory policy framework as it relates to
education and training in selected global frameworks.
iv. To develop proposed frameworks for streamlined occupationally directed education and
training accreditation and external moderation interfaces.
Stakeholders and providers within the occupationally directed education and training sectors,
including regulatory authorities such as SETAs and the QCTO, stand tobenefit from the research
study as an analysis of provider accreditation and external moderation experiences and
otherresearchthatwill be conducted amongstoccupationally directed education and training
providers and relevant parties. The outcome of such analysis will additionally be compared to
similaroccupationally directed education and training systems internationally.
The research results will contribute to the existing knowledge base within the field of
occupationally directed education and training, and identify possible interventions required in
addressing deficiencies in the provider accreditation and external moderation domains. Common
trends will correspondingly be identified that will undoubtedly assist ETQAs in auxiliary
interventions for HistoricallyDisadvantaged Individuals (HDI) emerging as occupationally directed
education and training providers.
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1.5 Research questions
The research questions address the research purpose and its objectives by scrutinising the
following:
i. What are the fundamental challenges faced by providers resulting in their inability to obtain
provisional and/or full accreditation or programme approval from ETQAs?
ii. What are the emergent trends that have resulted in learners being unable to exit at band and
unit standard level after external moderation activities have been conducted by ETQAs?
iii. What are the optimal design frameworks for occupationally directed education and
training,private provider,accreditation and external moderation activities?
To conduct research and find answers to the above questions, it was necessary to identify a
framework in which to discuss the course of action.
1.6 Research methods used
1.6.1 Theoretical framework
Aliterature review placedthe research topic in the relevant research context and demonstrated an
awareness of seminal research. The literature review included germane information gathered
about provider accreditation and external moderation frameworks. The information collected
from the review included books, journal articles, newspaper articles, historical records,
legislativeframeworks, and other seminal research contributions, was used to support the
grounded theory approach followed.
The researcher utilised the constructivist–grounded theory approach, which included, focus group,
semi-structured interviews, research questionnaire and the desktopcase study methodology as
part of the research process. There are three types of case studies identified by Stake: intrinsic,
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instrumental, and collective (Stake, 2000). The desktop case study collected, collated and
combined data related to 500 relevant events. The range of research dimensions applied in the
research allowed for rich breadth and depth to the identified research constructs and context.
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1.6.2 Research methodology
The research design was qualitative in nature. The research methodology was based on grounded
theory principles and the researcher specifically utilised the constructivist approach within
grounded theory. The survey of available literature was conducted, and was so designed, to
provide a knowledge base for strengthening the ways in which future users can access the
research results.
The research design included data collection methods including focus group discussions,
completion of a research questionnaire by selected participants, scheduling of semi-structured
interviews with industry experts and an analysis of data from 250 accreditation and250 external
moderation reports.
1.6.3 Population and sampling method
The researcher identified different populations as part of the research study. The first population
included two hundred and fifty site visit reports of visitsto providers for the purposes of
accreditationthat had been conducted in the preceding 24 months. It also included a separate two
hundred and fifty provider external moderation reports that hadcorrespondingly been completed
in the preceding 24 months.The second population consisted of a selected number of participants
representing industry experts. These participants formed part of a focus group, which was
consulted with throughout the research process.
In an attempt to obtain detailed information from education and training practitioners regarding
accreditation and external moderation activities, the researcher identified and selected, as part of
the third population, a cohort of industry practitioners. This population was requested to
complete an appropriate research questionnaire.
Following a grounded theory approach, the emergence of data from representatives of different
constituencies is important. In this regard, the researcher identified suitable, experienced
representatives from training providers, external moderators and industry experts who became
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part of the research, thereby representing the fourth population group. Semi-structured
interviews were conducted with this population.
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1.7 Quality of data
It was imperative that the quality of data integrity remaineduncompromised during the research
process. The premise of valid research resides in the fact that data is valid, authentic,and current.
Methods of data gathering were qualitative in nature and were therefore be centred in the
collection, primarily, of text as opposed to numerical data. The interpretative narrative that was
provided was based on research evolution and findings.
The quality of data was synthesised and emerged as the research process evolvedand content
formulation emerged. The knowledge gained during the research study wasengagedwith to
develop proposed alternative frameworks for accreditation and external moderation processes, of
occupationally directed education and training providers. The researcher expected to be exposed
to a number of new experiences during the research process, which extended the researcher’s
scope of understanding and contextual reality. "Human beings construct models of their
environment and new experiences [and information] are interpreted and understood in relation to
existing mental models or schemes" (Driver, 1995).
1.8 Delineations and l imitations
The scope of the qualitative research was delimited to two distinct components. The first
involvedthe accreditation ofoccupationally directed education and training providers and the
second component the external moderation of assessment, internal moderation and certification
processes conducted by occupationally directed education and training providers.
It was assumed that the following limitations may be experienced during this research study:
i. The exclusion of learner experiences from a research dimension;
ii. The study, though representative and reflective, might not include an evaluation of all ETQAs;
iii. Respondents might not all have the prerequisite expertise to provide meaningful input.
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1.9 Outline of the thesis
The chapter archetype, as set out below, formulates the thesis construct as it is important to
ensure an objective and detailed research outcome. Chapter one provides the context and
limitations within which the research will be conducted and sets the parameters for the research
problem and methodology that will be implemented.
1.9.1 Chapter two –Literaturereview
The second chapter provided insight from available literatureexplored relating to the modern and
postmodern educational debate. A comparative analysis and brief overview of seminal
philosophies in education was explored, to provide a framing context to the debate.
1.9.2 Chapter three – The global educational context
The third chapter assesses the South African educational construct by exploring unemployment,
with specific reference to youth unemployment, and an investigation into national policy and
legislative parameters. A broad overview was provided for the global and South African
educational landscapes and policy and legislative frameworks. A comparative analysis of ETQA
processes, the CHE, QCTO (as currently proposed) and Umalusi was provided to outline the
comparative accreditation processes and
requirements.Research focused on comparative accreditation and external moderation processes
in South Africa, Singapore, UK, Canada, USA, and Germany.
1.9.3 Chapter four – Researchmethodology
The fourth chapter provided a description and insight into the selected research approach and
methodology. The problem statements and research questions were articulated and exposed. The
researcher outlined the research approach and data collection strategies. The purposeof including
specific research methodologies and processes was also be charted.
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1.9.4 Chapterfive – Research report
The fifth chapter outlined the research report and provided context and analysisof the research
data and outputs, as obtained from the focus group discussions, the research questionnaire, the
semi-structured interviews and the desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation reports and 250
external moderation reports. The chapter served as the catalyst for emerging concepts and
categories, which informed the emerging themes in chapter 6, for the formulation of alternative
accreditation andexternal moderation frameworks for occupationally directed education and
training providers.
1.9.5 Chapter six – Analysis and interpretation
The sixth chapter providedtheemerging themes that informed the recommended frameworks for
occupationally directed education and training providers’accreditation and external moderation
within the ETQA landscape. Details were provided on the proposed quality assurance mechanisms
to ensure the credibility and reliability of the proposed frameworks.
1.9.6 Chapter seven – Recommendations for practice and further research
The seventh chapter provided a summary and overview of the research study. Key discoveries that
emerged during the research phase were outlined and the implications of the findings argued. A
critical assessment of the research was enunciated and a personal reflection on the research
process provided. Additionally, recommendations for future research were proposed.
1.10 Conclusion of chapter one
The research study articulated seminal issues related to occupationally directed education and
training provideraccreditation andexternal moderation frameworks. The outcome of this research
will focus on the meaningful contribution to the educational debate in the context of modern and
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postmodern advent. Conventional and unconventional perspectives as they emerged during the
research process informed the proposed alternative accreditation and external moderation
frameworks.
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As South Africa embraces a newfound political will to address the youth education and
employment wastelands, no responsible citizen can sit idly by in the face of an inevitable
educational revolution. “The new mandate was born out of a crisis, emanating from the perceived
failure of our system to produce employable graduates, manifested through the inability of our
graduates to meet the needs of labour markets. Of even more serious concern, is the failure of our
system to absorb the 2.8 million youth between the ages of 18 and 24 who are neither at school
nor at work” (Mkhize, 2011).
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2. Chapter 2 – Literature Review
“By three methods we may learn, wisdom first, by reflection, which is noblest; second, by
imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest.”
Confucius
2.1 Introduction
The second chapter place emphasis on availableliterature relating to modernism and
postmodernism in furthering educational discourse. In addition, literature relating to educational
philosophy, learning frameworks, models and styleswill be reviewed and a comparative analysis
drawn in relation to the formation of an empirical foundational context informing theresearch
perspective.
Following this debate, Chapter 3provides an outline of some of the available literature relating to
unemployment and in particular youth unemployment in South Africa. The chapter further
expandson literature relevant to the South African educational legislative frameworkand provides
a broad overview of the South African, Canadian, German, Singaporean, USA, and UK education
landscapes with particular relevance to accreditation and external moderation frameworks. The
significance of these contemporary debates in education cannot be overstated. In this particular
case, cognition and quality assurance models for provider accreditation and external moderation
remain a central theme in global educational dialogue.
South Africa is failing to produce the required skills sets and levels of competencies that are
required to address employment creation.(National Treasury, 2011) The South African private
occupationally directed education and training fraternity is patently exploringnew social and
economic equilibriums in the context of its potential contribution and defined value
proposition.Meanwhile the global knowledge society demands adaptive learning methodologies of
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exceptional quality standards in the provision of education(UNESCO , 2005).Theoreticians have
long proposed structures for educational standards and theseare defined by extensive
epistemological and pedagogical views.
The principal resolution of the research conducted in this thesis was to design and develop
proposed alternative frameworks for the accreditation and external moderation of occupationally
directed education and training providers. Available literature revealed that accreditation
validationpractices are important in the broader global educational credibility context, as are
external moderation processes.
Institutional credibility is not primarily dependent on the accreditation status awarded based on
legislative bureaucracy, but is rather embedded in the credibility of institutional history, record of
accomplishment and reputation. Harvard and Oxford Universities have drawn the brightest among
South Africans to their hallways. Graduates from these institutions have gone on to become
prolific politicians, academics, and industry leaders. Academic and corporate standing attracts the
best academic minds to institutions and creates a sustainable business demand for endorsed
graduates. Notwithstanding this, legislative requirements cannot be eschewed, and thus the
streamlining of these processes is both desirable and necessary.
Current escalations in unemployment statistics are systemic of a global economic and educational
malfunction. An increased pool of unemployed university graduates confirms that a university
qualification is no guarantee for employment. However, confirmed research highlights that South
African youths’ prospects of employment increase significantly with a school leaving certificate
and even further when attaining an FET or HET qualification(Branson, Murray and Zuze, 2009).
2.2 The modernistand postmodernistdebate
“The only absolute truth is that there are no absolute truths.”
Feyerabend
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2.2.1 Introduction
In considering whether the potential effectsof the evolution of educational from modernism to
postmodernism, educational philosophy must consider thereframing of educational epistemology.
This literature review explores the foundational importancefor the purposeof context evolution.
Postmodernism has advanced from modernism and is considered an epistemological evolution of
modernism. Modernist knowledge had its origins in the enlightenment period whilst
postmodernists are profoundly opposed to modernist thought (Milovanovic, 1992).
The modern versus postmodern discussion highlight issues that may have specific impact on
education(Lippard, 1990).Primarily, education is more critical than ever in the evolution of human
capitalconstruction. Nations are evolving into knowledge economies that compete strategically for
market share, making cognitive capacity critical. Countries are revising their strategic educational
alignment and embracing the value of thinking individuals and productive citizens. Singapore, has
evolved their education landscape to create“Thinking schools and a learning nation” (Hodge, 2010)
and this evolution of education has catapult the country into economically sound and desirable
market.
The observation of the collective consciousnesstowards anopen, yet focused, approach to
education and one that criticallyreflects on what has worked and what has been a dismal failure,
the link between an evolved education and country economies, lends itself to the argument that a
global evolution of education is emerging.“We cannot forget that while the iron curtain has been
brought down, the poverty curtain still separates two parts of the world community” (Perez de
Cuellar, 2003).
There are four general period-based categories related to epistemological modern approaches
(Nel, 2007).
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Figure 2.1:
The reflected delineation between modernism
constructs (Clarke, 2005). Modernism is summarised as establish
pertains to social psychology. A
knowledge that is centred in being post
analysis of human elements are
The researcher is of the opinion that
humanity evolves its collective
inflictedframed cognitive borders
The limits of our imagination
impasse transcends from greed to philanthropy and benevolence, alternative solutions must be
presented for age-old challenges that
The link between modernism and postmodernism is the critical theory approach. Whereas
modernism arose out of an avant
modernism, through interpretation,
postmodernism.
2.2.2 Modernistphilosophy
The romantic approach – pre
1800 - pre industrial
Periods related to epistemological approach
elineation between modernism and postmodernismexplains the evolution
Modernism is summarised as establishedin grounded
. According to Charmaz, modernists focus on discovering and findin
is centred in being post-realists, whilst a narrative is favoured and
s of human elements are always pivotal(Charmaz, 2000:509-536).
The researcher is of the opinion that postmodern thought will become increasingly important
collective and social consciousness. Fluidity and the transcendence
borders will mark the evolution and confirmation of
imagination will in future define our framed boundaries. As the global social
impasse transcends from greed to philanthropy and benevolence, alternative solutions must be
old challenges that historically appear impossible to transcend.
The link between modernism and postmodernism is the critical theory approach. Whereas
modernism arose out of an avant-garde dispute with romanticism, it was the
modernism, through interpretation, understanding, and self-reflection, which led t
hilosophy
The modern approach -
1900 -industrial
period
The critical theory
approach –1980 – 1990s
postmodern approach
Periods related to epistemological approach
explains the evolution of the
in grounded theory, only as it
modernists focus on discovering and finding
narrative is favoured and the comparative
ht will become increasingly important as
. Fluidity and the transcendence ofself-
and confirmation of alternative realities.
boundaries. As the global social
impasse transcends from greed to philanthropy and benevolence, alternative solutions must be
appear impossible to transcend.
The link between modernism and postmodernism is the critical theory approach. Whereas
garde dispute with romanticism, it was the reviewing of
reflection, which led to
The postmodern
approach – post 1990s
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Modernism served as the precursor to postmodern development (Cahoone, 2003). Time serves a
proverbial purpose, as evolutionary and exploratory developments allow for an emergence of
thought and evolutionary developments. The foundational basis of modern world edict is inter-
connected to the socio-economic developments of modernisation and the cultural movement of
modernism (Sarup, 1993).
Insufficient context exists to sanction the modification from modernism to postmodern
philosophy. According to Neperud postmodernism followed in the evaluation of modernism as a
derivative (Neperud, 1995). Modern perspectivesare celebrated from the primordial perspective
that arose in the philosophy of antediluvian Greece and has continued tenaciously through the
renaissance and reformation of medieval deliberation (Thompson, 1995).
Modernist views endured the evolution of postmodern opinions. Art and education are functional
realities where the factors of the context, for example time and content, may change whereas the
basic context would remain constant. Debates have been divergent in value alignments, for
example the level of application on purpose versus perspective (Neperud, 1995). “Postmodernism
presages a radical alteration of art, of its means of describing the world, its relationship to its
audience, and ultimately, its social function (Russel,1993:287). Modernism accentuates precarious
changes to cope with impediments in deciphering modern as well as supplementary art (Feldman,
1967).
Technology also has had a profound impact on the insurrection from modern to postmodern
evolution, in that it resulted in the mass accessibility of new and available technologies in the
latter part of the 1980s. This equipped a primary foundation for the process of socio-economic
restructuring (Castells, 1996). It is now inconceivable to imagine the removal of the internet and
laptops from the current knowledge economy and educational constructs in the postmodern
digital age. The eighteenth-century edified modernity and delineated into three separate domains:
“science, morality and art, or specific aspects of validity: truth, normative rightness, authenticity,
and beauty" (Habermas, 1990:60).
Modernist versus postmodernist thought
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Indicator Modernism Postmodernism
Society and social structure
Equilibrium, homogeneity, foundationalism and closure.
Chaos theory, spontaneity, diversity, anti-foundationalism, constitutive theory.
Social roles Symphony orchestra player / Violinist
Jazz Player / Poet
Subjectivity/agency Positivistic, homoeconomicus and autonomous being.
Polyvocal, subject of desire and subject of misidentification.
Discourse Dominant; master/university discourse; primacy to paradigm/system; major literature.
Ultiaccentral; fractal signifiers; regime of signs; discourse of the hysteric/analyst; linguistic coordinate systems; discursive formations.
Knowledge Global, discourse of the master and university, education as liberating, absolute postulates, deductive logic.
Constitutive processes; meta-narratives; power/knowledge; knowledge for sale; education as ideology and functional; narrative knowledge; dialogic pedagogy.
Space/time Three-dimensional, quantitative differential equations and continuities; reversibility of time.
Multidimensional, imaginary, quantum mechanics/relativity, qualitative andno reversible time.
Causality Linear, certainty and predictability. Non-linear, chance, quantum mechanics and catastrophe theory
Social change Darwinian, evolutionary, dialectical materialism, discourses of the hysteric.
Standpoint epistemology, play of the imaginary, proliferation of complexity and language of possibility, discourse of the hysteric/analyst.
Table 2.1 Modernist versus postmodernist thought
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2.2.3 Postmodernistphilosophy
From modernism evolved postmodernist enquiry documented in French contemplation during the
1960s and early 1970s(Milovanovic, 1997). Nietzsche's description of the master-slave disputation
is deliberate to postmodernists and considers a practical transformation that includes the
deconstruction and reconstruction of postmodernismas fringed fundamentals (Henry and
Milovanovic, 1991). The outer limit of postmodernism and its consequential assessment embraces
postmodern philosophy as it results in a cessation of moral and intelligent life and undeniably
leads to social disintegration. Many educational philosophers notice the destructive influence of
relativistic predilection of postmodern philosophy on educational theory and tradition (Cho, 2011).
Postmodernism aborts solidity and boundaries of a permanent nature that is concomitant with a
repugnance to authority. Postmodernism results in consequential implications to recoup
humanism in the understanding of humanity(Blake, 1998:12(2), 119-136)and deals with “feminist
opportunities to circumvent obstinacy and reductionism of single-cause analysis and to construct
knowledge from which to act on” (Lather, 1991). Postmodern philosophy is interpreted by its
essential denunciation of the epistemic pragmatisms and meta-narrative of modern philosophy. By
disagreeing with the fundamental Archimedean point for sustaining reality, independence and
wisdom, postmodern philosophy lobbies relativism in the provisional historical position of human
knowledge and cautiousness (Cho, 2011).
Postmodern philosophy also contemplates the re-established theories of human society and
dialogue. Although, states Cho, knowledge and judgementclimaxes the unsavoury reputation of
human society, and the significance of the establishments and combined resulting discourse (Cho,
2011). Postmodernism can therefore be perceived as a logical development that understands
numerous distinctive hypothetical designs(Burbules, 2003) and according to Gutek the conflicting
philosophy of modernisation canclarifypostmodernism(Gutek, 2004).
With the augmented importance of culture and social life, social media, and increasingly
education, has become more critical in present-day social construction and in the exaggeration of
a consumer society (Russell, 2011).
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In addition to the above, postmodern research may also include the following ideas as argued
by(Neuman, 2004:84):
� Rejection of all ideologies and organised belief systems, including all social theory;
� Strong reliance on intuition, imagination, personal experience and emotion;
� Sense of meaninglessness and pessimism, belief that the world will never improve;
� Extreme subjectivity in which there is no distinction between the mental and the external
world;
� Ardent relativism in which there are infinite interpretations, none superior to another;
� Espousal of diversity, chaos and complexity that is constantly changing,rejection of studying
the past or different places since only the here and now is relevant;
� Belief that causality cannot be studied because life is too complex and rapidly changing; and
� Assertion that research can never truly represent what occurs in the social world.
The postmodern perceptiveness is a way of thinking,(Edwards and Usher , 1997) a distinct
arrangement of philosophies like fundamentalism or pragmatism or anoutlook(Gutek, 2004).
2.2.3.1 Defining postmodernism
The term Postmodernism has a mottled history. A definitive definition was not obvious from
available literature.Principal authors promote and define postmodernism inversely. The numerous
denotation nuances are focused in postmodernism in “The Politics of Postmodernism” (Hutcheon,
1989). Hutcheondiscerns that Habermas, Lyotard and Jameson, have all elevated the essential
issue of the socio-economic and philosophical arrangement of Postmodernism in post-modernity
(Neperud, 1995).Postmodernismsymbolisesthe Cultural Revolution, as understood as part of a
‘postcolonial’ and ‘post-industrial’ society (Hughes, 1995).Meta-narratives present a collective and
embracing interpretation of fact, assessment, and authenticity.
Resultantly,postmodernismdeveloped as a focal point of relinquishment of the expected in
relation to western traditions (Burbules, 2003).
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Philosophical postmodernism includes the work of, amongst others, Immanuel Kant, Jean-Francois
Lyotard, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and Richard Rorty, and later Nietzsche, Wittgenstein,
Winch, Heidegger, Gadamer and Kuhn. Postmodernism is an evolutionary and emerging theme
that has influenced historic and modern theory e.g. Marxism, feminism and critical pedagogy
(Beck, 1994:10). Postmodernism also depicts a “social condition”, where the fractured world in
which “we” now live is captured,(Harvey, 1989)whilst postmodern activists frequently
accentuateapprehension for the besieged or oppressed (Liston, 1988).
The hostile meta-narrative incongruityconfined by postmodern literature is primarily the reproach
of social, moral, political, or psychological philosophy, and speculative or epistemological views
(Beyer, 1992). Education in postmodernismhas acommandingaccountabilityin relation to the
social, economic and political opportunitiesfor business and labour (Rikowski, 1996). In this regard,
feminist pedagogy focuses on social transformation and the advancement of strategies for
empowerment and construction (Sandell, 1991).
Postmodernismis furtherdefined as an “attitude” as opposed to an “outlook” that is shaped in
agreement with human needs, interests, prejudices, and cultural ethnicities (Beck, 1995). There is
nothing more essentialin postmodernismthan the truth and everything else is of secondary value
(Nietzsche, 1980). In support of this view, Beck stated that society should be concerned with “a
way of life, which includes cognitive, affective, and methodological components” (Beck, 1994:10).
Postmodernist holds that an embryonic“working understanding” of the reality and life exists
within humanity. The fortitudes and structureoscillate and arrive at a “personal narrative that
evolves to our particular position in the world (Beck, 1994:10). Conversely,we need to appreciate,
in parallel, the view from postmodernists who charge the theory that it is unfeasible to seek
unified representation for all humanity(Beyer, 1992). In relation to the aforementioned,
postmodern writers hold that reason cannot conveymutualclaimsof an alleged legitimacy. As an
alternative, reason, accuratelyinterpreted, can only provide fractional, locally determinate,
insulatedprerogatives(Beyer, 1992).
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We must refuse to accept the mergingtendency of globalising assumption, exchangingin its
placeexploration into “subjugated knowledge’s” that syndicate “erudite knowledge and local
memories”(Foucault, 1983).
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Collectiveinattentivenessoversimplifies the furtherance that smotherstransformation and should
be rejected as tyrannical(Giroux, Shumway,Smith and Sosnoski, 1984). Creative forms of thought
are their own overview; their history is the only kind of exegesis that they document and their
destiny the only kind of critique(Binswanger, 1993). Not to be, then, is impossible: to be,
incomprehensible. If one has mastered this awareness of absolute presence, one has learnt that it
was this, and no other, which in the earlier ages detained the nobler minds, the elect among men,
with a sort of sacred horror(Harper, 1928).
Humanity is as catastrophe was for Heidegger, the result of a “fall” of western philosophybecause
of absorptioninscientificindustrialisationthat resulted in single-minded technical progress and
theestrangement of man to a domain of anexceedinglyimitated “way of being” (Heidegger, 1982:
311 - 341).
2.2.3.2 Postmodernism and education
The evolution of comparative education requires a comprehensive evaluation of the complex
affiliation concerning education and development,and the grounding in social science approach,
for example econometrics, psychometrics, causal modelling, and ethnography. Mixedresearch
methods are consequently advisable (Creswell, 2009).
It is found that the South African educational domain is complex, overwhelmed and conversely a
bastion of hope for millions of young people. Our youthare leaving the public education system
largely ill prepared and unemployable. The pressure filters down to our educational infrastructure,
delivery methodology and curriculum design.
The majority of South African schools do not have basic infrastructural requirements such as
libraries and technology facilities to prepare students to function as thinking, research orientated
members of society.Political commentator,Moeletsi Mbeki has been tremendously vocal in his
opinions on the subject and he contends that “unless South Africa axes the policy in favour of a
broader skills development drive, South Africa's underclass, crammed into vast settlements of
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rickety shacks with no water or electricity, will balloon and eventually turn on the elite”(Harrison,
June 19, 2009).
In the opinion of the researcher, the defined postmodern topographies of societies have modified
education, as the emergence of access to education on a global scale is a challenging concept. The
access to substandard education does little to ensure the development of a globally competitive
labour force. Education and training must be viewed as change agents and catalysts for future
growth and development within the South African economy.
Postmodern analyses have appeared with increasing incidence as the principal inquiry for the
function of knowledge claims and forms of rationality (Landon and Liston, 1992). For example, the
association of postmodernism with feminism exists specifically within art education (Neperud,
1995). In addition, Descartes and later philosophers have attempted to prove the subsistence of a
world of objects external to the mind(Dreyfus, 1991:248).
The construction of educational resources from the perspective of postmodernism presents a
theoretical basis for repository construction. Universities have adopted an economic model for
restructuring educational processes within the current global economy. Online learning has
become a functional and intensive milieu for comprehension of the changing nature of higher
education. Universities have had to acclimatise as funding models become less reliant on state
funds (Bayrak and Boyaci, January 2002). Postmodernism dictates the exploitation and
capitalisation of third stream revenue initiatives and self-reliance. Universities are experiencing
significant budgetary constraints and public subsidy cutbacks as is evident in the UK (Labi and
McMurtrie, 2010).
Postmodernism also compels individuals to “collaborate in the practice of knowledge creation”
(Beck, 1994:10). Knowledge and power are therefore entwined as knowledge epitomises the
standards of persons who are important enough to create and propagate it (Foucault, 1976 and
1998).
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In this regard,postmodernism requires students and educators learning together (Beck, 1994:10).
Postmodernism,further holds that “there is no centre,” and in particular there is no central
tradition of scholarship (such as Eurocentric, middle-class or predominantly male). Considering the
aforementioned, Native Americans, Afro-Americans, Muslims, feminists, and the labour class are
merely representativesocieties(Beck, 1994:10).
Postmodernism has provided insight into education including national modes of thought and
analysis in educational life and the ways that authority repudiates legitimacy to marginalised
groups(White, 1992). According to Gonzalez and Casanova,postmodernist approaches to decent
education are essential in the arrangement for competitive participation in global economies
(Casanova, 1997).Civilisation has an obligation to transform and to ensure that it is “breaking the
crust of convention” (Rorty, 1985:217). In this regard postmodern is not devoid of opponents as
the opponents argues that the examinations are contradictory, containing “standpoints without
footings” and are “talking” about nothing (Liston, Landon, Beyer,and Daniel, 1992:383-87).
In this research, the role of educators is being questioned within the postmodernist debate.
Modern students are significantly more self-directed and less reliant on classroom style learning
and teaching methodologies. Postsecondary students find more value from computerised
databanks than from educators (Lyotard, 1984 and 1979). In current education programmes, there
is greater focus on innovation, science and technology as core components of educational
offerings, thus aligning themselves with a postmodern understanding as learning entails
transformation(Harris and Jones, 2010). A new type of learner is therefore emerging, described by
Oblinger as the “Millennials” (Oblinger and Oblinger, 2005), as the “net genres” (Barnes, Marateo,
and Ferris, 2007) and, most famously, by Prensky as the “digital natives”(Prensky, 2001).
Postmodernism in education therefore requires a commissionedintercessionrepresenting the
requirements and prospects of a student to be addressed in a bespoke manner, rather than a
singular application in historic knowledge applications. “Its own most being is such that it has an
understanding of that being, and already maintains itself in each case in a certain interepretedness
of its being(Heidegger, 1962:36).
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2.2.4 Conclusion: link to this study
The evolution from modernism to postmodernism can best be described as the pendulum from
modern violinist to the post-modern jazz player. Modernism seeks to compartmentalise as
opposed to postmodernism that encourages the free flow of knowledge in an unconstrained
environment. In the global educational discourse, with particular reference to South Africa, it is
critical to internalise that the framing of modernism presented a foundation to develop educators
as imposing transmitters of impartial information, grounded in the rational. Conversely,
postmodernism affords a platform for facilitators to lead in knowledge creation by allowing for
diversity, open-mindedness,devoid of restrictions, ingenuityand intuition.
Modernism holds the view that the learner can never be allowed to discover learning in the
absence of an educator. Postmodernism provides a framework for evolutionary methodologies
such as online learning with multi-media support facilities to strengthen delivery platforms.
Perceptions by learners are becoming increasingly more important, as education is traded as a
commodity, and measured by the Return on Investment (ROI) of learners and employees to their
employers.
The researcher is of the opinion that postmodernism holds the key to unlocking a number of
existing educational challenges faced in South Africa. As modernism argues for conformity and
neutrality, postmodernism is grounded in chaos theory and appreciates dialectical relationships of
centrifugal and centripetal forces. Postmodernism avoidsconstraints at all costs, and allows for
multiple vehicles of knowledge production.
The restrictions of current social discourse as it relates to educational transformation should
thereforetranscend imposed boundaries and be grounded in postmodern philosophy. Society
should avoid educational elitism and impoverished social cognition. Social security, crime and high
unemployment rates all affect the value and perceived value of the quality of education from a
specific country or region. Limited access to educational opportunities and global pressures must
encourage students to construct individual identities and achieve personal and societal goals.
Education must therefore lead to emancipation and a journey of self-discovery.
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As South Africa continues to invest larger percentages of the national budget in education, it is of
critical importance that the foundational requirements for education be re-assessed. In the
absence of a coherent integrated strategy founded in the principles of postmodernism and
cognitive liberal schools of thought, it is inconceivable that change in the tide of youth
unemployment will be addressed.
Postmodernism is essential for the advancement of educational epistemology and planning in the
evolution of South Africa’s dismal failure to produce market-ready skilled, thinking individuals and
thereby circumvent archetype paranoia cantered in political and social rhetoric.
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Linking postmodernist thinking to this study, it is clear that providers of vocationally directed
education and training form a wide spectrum of businesses, individuals, and methodologies. The
constricting, rigid, top-down approach of modernism is not suitable to the present situation,
whereas the more laissez-faire approach of postmodernism, with its customised individuality
would allow for processes such as accreditation and external moderation to match, and be
malleable to, the unique needs of the variety of learning organisations, and individuals, more
effectively than a one-size-fits-all system would.
2.3 The revolution and philosophy of education
Plato's dispute with the Sophists in epistemology is one of the best-known cerebral, political and
educational altercations. Notwithstanding emancipation pains by Aristotle and others, Platonic-
inspired science, knowledge, and truth have beenpasseddown through the millennia. Plato, we
know, had the conjectural triumph when the poets were expelled from the republic because of the
varied viewpoints(McGann, 2002).
Since the time of orthodox Greece, the deliberation affecting legitimacy has been taking place and
has concluded paradoxically in the decline of philosophy and the escalation of science (Costea,
2000). The modern epoch of education, in turn, is conceited by considerable social and ideological
deviation that clobber at our conceptualisations for the meaning of our view of the modern world
(Neperud, 1995). Modern academics, in turn, have twisted the literary advancement of
assessment for motivation and direction (Rajchman, 1985).
Descartes held that theorists want to prove the existence of a planet of objects exterior the mind.
Kant, however, considered it a scandal that such a proof had by no means been victorious.
Heideggerholds alternatively that the disgrace is that academics have sought such a “proof” at
all(Dreyfus, 1991:248).
Many philosophers have had animportant impact on education and educational philosophy as
their views determined the framework for learning at the time. The literature reviewedconsidered
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the works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Avicenna, Descartes, Locke, Rousseau, De Bono, Feuerstein,
Piaget, Mehl, Montessori, Steiner, Osho, Vygotsky, Jung and Da Vinci as a framing context for the
postmodern educational discussion structure, in which this study on accreditation and external
moderation models resides.
2.3.1 Socrates (470 BC – 399 BC)
"The unexamined life is not worth living."
Socrates
Plato proclaimed that Socrates was “the wisest, and justist, and best of all men whom I have ever
known” (Plato, 1925). Socrates left no writings of his own work and his body of knowledge
principally originated from the writings of Plato (Fisher, 1995). During this period, education time
took place in spectacular structures such as the Parthenon and Hephaisteion and in the large open
areas at the front of the Acropolis. Education was not formalised at this stage and had not yet
evolved to the concept of schooling, colleges and establishments(Brickhouse, 2000:53)
Socrates considered a dialogue named Meno in the reincarnation of an eternal soul, which
contained all knowledge. According to him, man loses touch with that knowledge at birth and so
we need to be encouraged of what we already know, as opposed to learning something new
(Boeree, 2000) The Socratic Method, as referred to by Aristotle, requires one to make use of
questions and answers to strike a chord with students regarding knowledge they already possess
(Boeree, 2000).
Socrates’ unconventional political and religious views were of course contra bonos mores at the
time and gave the principal citizens of Athens the justification to condemn him to death for
corrupting the morals of the youth. He measured the idiosyncratic types of knowledge, important
and trivial, holding that in general man knows many "trivial" things resulting in the craftsman
having principal knowledge to practice his craft. Socrates considered “how best to live” the most
important of all knowledge is (Brickhouse, 2000:53).
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The Socratic Method required a teacher to ask questions and guide students to discovery: a
dialectical method employs critical investigation to challenge the plausibility of widely held
doctrine (Brickhouse, 2000:53). Socrates substantiated the use of discourse to confirm the truth
using raison d'être in a collective analysis, rather than a passing down of knowledge.
Socrates believed that wise teachers acknowledge their own unawareness to gain an enhanced
perceptive. Socrates philosophy can be summarised as follows (Ferguson, 1970):
i. Knowledge can be pursued and can lead to an understanding of what is true;
ii. The search for true knowledge is a co-operative enterprise;
iii. Questioning is the primary form of education, drawing out true knowledge from within rather
than imposing knowledge from outside;
iv. Knowledge must be pursued with a ruthless intellectual honesty.
The divergence between the 'Socratic method' and the 'academic tradition' of teaching can be
summarised as follows(Ross, 1996):
The Socratic method The academic tradition
Philosophy is an active process Philosophy is a learned body of teachings
Philosophy is questioning Philosophy is dogmatic
Philosophy is inductive Philosophy is deductive
Philosophy is linguistic Philosophy is conceptual
Philosophy is open to all Philosophy is for the few
Philosophy is applicable to life Philosophy is abstract truths
Philosophy is dialogue (oral) Philosophy is written
Table 2.2 Socratic method versus academic tradition
A dynamic learning community is therefore built from a legacy of shared knowledge, as well as the
practice of creative analysis to reassign knowledge into comprehension. Socratic education has a
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vital part to play in developing independent learners as each learner serves as an educator in
continuing the pursuit for ways of life that are worth existing (Fisher, 1995).
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2.3.2 Plato (424 BC - 347 BC)
“Do not train a child to learn by force or harshness; but direct them to it by what amuses their
minds, so that you may be better able to discover with accuracy the peculiar bent of the genius of
each.”
Plato
Plato came from a privileged background and was Socrates’ most honoured student. Plato’s
greatest work is ‘The Republic’, where heimagined (through Socrates) a culture that discovered
the significance of justice. Plato argued that women were indeed equal to men and should
therefore be allowed to be educated (Boeree, 2000).
Plato created his academy,which was considered the first university, in Athens in approximately
385 BC after the death of Socrates. His didactic deliberation is set out in his writings of the ideal
society, in ‘The Republic’. Plato held that educators must have a deep care for the development of
students and critically be subject matter experts (Plato, 1955). His free academy was funded by
donations and was similar to Pythagoras’s society where rich young men and women studied
astronomy, mathematics, law, and philosophy. The academy became the centre for Greek
knowledge for a millennium (Boeree, 2000).
Plato propagated an educational philosophy where one needs to be subordinate to societyand the
republic at large. He also divided reality into two constructs. The first construct related to idea or
ideal. This is ultimate reality, permanent and eternal, spiritual. The second construct involved
manifestation of the ideal (Boeree, 2000).
Plato believed that children must be removed from their parents and then educated to a level
dependent on the caste of the individual. This philosophy served as the foundation for the public
education system. Plato believed, too, that some individuals from lower castes may improve their
talents and be trained to serve the state (Plato, 1955).
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Plato proposed three levels of pleasure. First is sensual or physical pleasure. The second level is
sensuous or aesthetic pleasure,with the pleasures of the mind as the highest level (Boeree,
2000)."(I)f you ask what is the good of education in general, the answer is easy; that education
makes good men, and that good men act nobly" (Plato, 517). Paralleling these three levels of
pleasure are three souls. We have one soul called appetite, which is mortal and comes from the
gut. The second soul is called spirit or courage. It is also mortal, and lives in the heart. The third
soul is reason. It is immortal and resides in the brain. The three, according to Plato, are strung
together by the cerebrospinal canal (Boeree, 2000).
Plato’s “Allegory of the cave” describes "our nature and want for education”,(Plato, 514 a, 2 to 517
a, 7) in a fictional dialogue between Plato’s teacher, Socrates,and his brother in-law Glaucon.Plato
articulated his opinions in an image of ignorant civilians who are unaware that they are ensnared
in the depths of theirown restricted viewpoints. He stated that the exceptional individual escapes
the limitations of that cave and commences on a tortuous intellectual journey to discover a higher
realm. These individuals, in Plato’s opinion, are best equipped to govern in society. Prisoners in the
cave are only a shadowy illustration of reality (Brians, Gallwey, Hughes, Hussain, Law, Myers,
Neville,Schlesinger, Spitzer, and Swan, 1998).
Plato believed that there are invisible truths that only the most enlightened individuals can
understand. The cave demonstrates that prisoners at first resist enlightenment, as students resist
education.However, those who can achieve enlightenment ought to be the leaders and rulers of
all the rest. Plato held that education is not a process of putting knowledge into empty minds, but
of making people realise that which they already know, as the truth is entrenched in our
minds(Brians, 1998).
2.3.3 Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC)
“Education is the best provision for the journey to old age.”
Aristotle
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Commencing at the age of eighteen Aristotle studied in Plato’s academy. He later built the first
great library that served as the model for Alexandria and Pergamum(Ross, 1996). Aristotle’s power
eventually became consequential when he was appointed as Alexander’s teacher. Aristotle is
considered the father of invented modern logic (Burckhardt, 1898).
Aristotle established his own school and named it Lyceum in 334 BC. The school operated as a
school and Open University. Early educational democracy was evidenced as Aristotle permitted
teaching staff to run the school for ten-day interludes. However, Aristotle did not hold women as
the equals of men as Plato did (Hummel, 2002).
Aristotle entrenched a pedagogical concern and educational breadth throughout his writings.
Education is in fact the benchmark of Aristotelian ethics (Hummel, 2002)and he held that
education is a function of the state. Davidson supports Aristotle’s view that education is
preparation for some worthy activity, and confirms that education should be directed by
legislation and corresponds with the outcome of psychological analysis, totrack the gradual
improvement of the bodily and mental faculties (Davidson, 1900).
Aristotle held that the content man is neither a righteous savage, nor in an intuitive condition, but
the educated man and no one else lives by reason, as he possesses reasonableness(Aristotle,
1976). A number of qualities and types of knowledge, though, can only be obtained through
experience. This applies to,amongst other topics,prudenceand physics (Nichomachean, 1142).
Education through reason is characterised by two methods: epagoge, or learning by induction, and
learning by demonstration (Aristotle, 1976).
Society and governments advance a system of education, and Aristotle argued that education is a
responsibility of the state. He argued that government should be accountable for the
administration of schools and education throughout, and that habit is connected with three
notions: “imitation, experience and memory” (Aristotle, 1976).Aristotle argued that education is
the original indictment of the legislator: “No one can doubt that it is the legislator’s very special
duty to regulate the education of youth, otherwise the constitution of the state will suffer harm.
The citizen should be trained in accordance with the particular form of government under which
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he is to live, for each type of constitution has a distinctive character, which originally formed it and
makes possible its continued existence. Preliminary training and habituation are required for the
exercise of any faculty or art; and the same, therefore, obviously applies to the practice of
virtue”(Aristotle, 1976).
Emancipation is capable in the course of reflection or the theoretical existence in the activity of
the mind, comforted of all substance constraints and so education ought not to have the character
of occupational training alone. Aristotle held that ‘The meaner sort of artisan is a slave, not for all
purposes but for a definite servile task’. His education system, rather,was a structure of lifelong
education (Aristotle, 1260). Aristotle stated that even the art of living could be learned. “Ethics are
based on such concepts as happiness, the mean, leisure, and wisdom, which we also encounter in
his theory of education. Freedom is an ultimate objective of education and happiness is impossible
deprived of freedom”(Hummel, 2002). “The most powerful factor of all those I have mentioned as
contributing to the stability of constitutions, but one which is nowadays universally neglected, is
the education of citizens in the spirit of the constitution under which they live” (Aristotle, 1984).
The value of education and training was of particular importance to Aristotle. “Happiness seems
however, even if it is not god-sent but comes as a result of virtue and some process of learning or
training, to be among the most godlike things; for that which is the prize and end of virtue seems
to be the best thing in the world, and something godlike and blessed,”(Aristotle, 7 (Book I 5), at
16-1 Book I.8-9).
Aristotle also held that there are four causes that contribute to the movement of intellect. They
are answers to the question “why?” or “what is the explanation of this?” (Boeree, 2000):
� The material cause: what something is made of;
� The efficient cause: the motion or energy that changes matter;
� The formal cause: the thing’s shape, form, or essence, its definition;
� The final cause: its reason, its purpose and the intention behind it.
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Aristotle’s theory of education is still relevant in the modern day educational realm. Aristotle’s
annotations on educational policy and its role in society confirmed his hypothesis of a system of
continuing lifelong education. Aristotle’s education for peace and leisure and educational thoughts
has much in common with the uneasiness in education at present (Hummel, 2002).
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2.3.4 Avicenna (980 - 1037)
“The knowledge of anything, since all things have causes, is not acquired or
complete unless it is known by its causes.”
Avicenna
Ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna, was the first major Persian Islamic philosopher. Avicenna was a
foremost interpreter of Aristotle and was the author of almost 200 books on science, religion, and
philosophy. His two most important works are Shifa - The Book of Healing, and Al Qanun fi Tibb -
The Canon of Medicine (Sohei, 1958). Avicenna later also wrote three ‘encyclopaedias’ of
philosophy.
Islamic education has been documented since the 10th century. Islamic elementary education is
known as Maktab and the Islamic higher education system is referred to as Madrasahs. In the 11th
century, Ibn Sina wrote on the significance of the role of the teacher in a Maktab.
Avicenna wrote that students should be educated in groups and not individually as this
encouraged competition amongst them (Asimov, 1999). He was a meta-physical philosopher who
was concerned with understanding self-existence in this world in relation to its contingency. The
philosophical space that he articulated relates to God as the necessary existence position; the
groundwork for Avicenna’s theories of the soul,intellect, and cosmos. Logic is a critical aspect of
Avicennan philosophy (Rahman, 1981).
Avicenna’s theory of knowledge held that human intellect at birth amounts to pure potential that
islater actualised through education. Knowledge is attained through empirical familiarity with
objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts, and is developed through a
syllogistic method of reasoning; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when
compounded lead to further abstract concepts.
Avicenna stated that intellect has stages of advancement from material intellect (al-‘aql al-
hayulani), the potentiality that can acquire knowledge, to the active intellect (al-‘aql al-fa‘il), the
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state of the human intellect at conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge (Rizvi, 2000). The
graduation date of learners should be flexible though, according to Avicenna, as different
individuals reach emotional maturity at different stages (Asimov, 1999).
2.3.5 Descartes (1595-1650)
“The greatest minds are capable of the greatest vices as well as of the greatest virtues.”
Descartes
Rene Descartes is heralded as the first modern philosopher. Descartes investigated knowledge first
for himself and later in the hope of also challenging the epistemology of the great Aristotelian-
scholastic synthesis that had conquered European thought for centuries” (Wilson, 1993:13).
Descartes’ re-establishment of a knowing process involved doubting everything based upon
mathematical proceedings, and gave a physiological reaction to his dilemma (Garber, 1992).
Descartes’ greatness was not to be established in his discourse on the body-mind dualism, his
physiological epistemology or even his Cartesian reservation, though. His reputation is recognised
in his association to the thinking modus operandi itself in the form of cogito ergo sum(Spinoza,
1985).
To precede with his investigation Descartes was determined to (Spinoza, 1905):
� lay aside all prejudice;
� find the fundamental truth on which all knowledge rests;
� discover the cause of error;
� Understand everything clearly and distinctly.
Descartes rationalism arose out of a deductive process that incorporates a number of premises:
� I think therefore I am;
� God exists;
� My mind has clear and distinct ideas;
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� God guarantees my clear and distinct ideas;
� I have clear and distinct ideas about a material world.
Descartes progressed in thought from a prejudiced to a universal certainty, to a statement of faith
and then to one of reason. His deductive reasoning based on the existence and assurances of God,
though, were challenged (Strauss, 1958:387). Descartes’ pursuit to comprehend the body-mind
dualism appeared to be mirroring that of the classical Greeks; the power to will and the power to
understand remain depicted as an active struggle and, like the Greek tragedies, it is a war within,
and a war with no solution(Niebuhr, 1941).
Descartes expected to dispute and substitute scholastic reasoning in the rapid decline of Cartesian
metaphysics. This was due to epistemological and ontological incoherencies. However, many are
critical of Descartes and outline that he was unable to establish epistemological certainty because
of the logical ‘incoherencies of his ontological dualism and because just as his physics failed to fit
the facts of experience and experiment, so also did his theology fail to conform with Christian
hopes and dogma”(Watson, 1988:02).
2.3.6 Locke (1632-1704)
"Good and evil, reward and punishment, are the only motives to a rational creature: these are the
spur and reins whereby all mankind are set on work, and guided."
Locke
John Locke was a British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher. Locke wanted us
to apply reason to search for truth and not just accept a version as the truth. Locke's essay
concerning human understanding concerned the limits of human understanding in God, the self,
natural kinds and relics and ideas. Opposition to authoritarianism characterised much of Locke’s
work(Uzgalis, 2010).
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Locke published ‘Some thoughts oneducation’ that focused on how to instruct the mind. Locke
believed that the mind is an "empty cabinet" and that education constructs the man. "I think I
may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful
or not, by their education(Grant and Tarcov, 1996:10).
Locke stressed the consequence of formative year development in children. He held that the early
years are the establishment of the self: what first mark the tabula rasa. "Associationism", as this
theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought
(Locke, Essay 357, n.d.).Knowledge, it establishes, requires the agreement or disagreement of
information. “The Understanding Faculties being given to Man, barely for Speculation, but also for
the Conduct of his Life, Man would be at a great loss, if he had nothing to direct him, but what has
the Certainty of true Knowledge(Locke, Essay IV xvii , n.d.).
“Therefore, as God has set some things in broad day-light; as he has given us some certain
knowledge. Therefore, in the greater part of our Concernment, he has afforded us only the
twilight, as I may say so, of probability, suitable, I presume, to that state of mediocrity and
probationership. He has been pleased to place us in here, wherein to check our over-confidence
and presumption, we might by every day's experience be made sensible of our short sightedness
and liableness to error” (Locke - IV, xiv, n.d.).
2.3.7 Rousseau (1712-1778)
"I have entered on an enterprise which is without precedent, and will have no imitator. I purpose
to show my fellows a man as nature made him, and this man shall be myself."
Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss-born essayist, novelist, and philosopher. Rousseau gained
fame as an educationist although his own formal education ended at the age of twelve (Damrosch,
2005), and he published his theory under the title Èmile. Rousseau held that that all children are
impeccably conscious individuals that are prepared to learn from their environment. He held that
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the development of children into moral adults results in the disparaging influence of corrupt
society, which in turn results in children being habitually disheartened (Bloch, 1995).
“Èmile” stated that experience should come from life and not from books. Rousseau's theory of
education, then, was grounded in two assumptions: that man is by nature good, and that society
and civilisation corrupt the native goodness. He felt that only through proper education in youth
could the "natural man" come to being. Children, he said, should be kept from books until the age
of 12 and youth should be taught "natural religion" only (girls were to be trained solely as wives
and mothers)(Damrosch, 2005).
Rousseau acknowledged the significance of Plato even though he rejected Plato’s theory based on
the decay of society. Where Plato held that people were born with skills levels commensurate to
their caste, Rousseau held the notion of curiosity leading children to explore and adapt to their
environment (Jimack, 1983). Rousseau also endorsed though, as Plato did, that children should be
removed and educated in a different environment than their homes e.g. in the countryside.
Rousseau stated that a child should grow up without adult meddling and that the child must be
directed to suffer from the encounter of the natural penalty of its own actions(Rousseau, 1783).
2.3.8 Conclusion
The philosophical masters referred to in this chapter commenced with the debate of knowledge
creation and value in societal advancement. Many of the ideas such as public education, schools
and universities emanated from their ideas and practices. Remarkably, the re-cycling of their
philosophical frameworks are prevalent, and so the reference to educational elitism. These
philosophers have influenced modern philosophy as manyquestion the reason for existence.
Descartes, Rousseau, Kant, Locke and Ibn Sina are all examples of philosophers that have
contributed to societal transformation and the humanities in a myriad of areas.
Other philosophers have also transcended time and influenced religious and spiritual
understanding within educational contexts. These include Buddha, Jesus, Mohammed and
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Ramanuja, as they all emerged as religious and spiritual icons to millions of followers over time.
The critical importance of philosophy in the evolution of a cognitive universal framework that
influences political, legal, economic, social and technological frameworks is evident. Educational
evolution is influenced by western and eastern philosophy in the search of our understanding of
knowledge acquisition and development.
This philosophical setting was further enhanced, in setting the context of this research by a review
of literature focusing on learning.
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2.4 Self-directedness in learning
2.4.1 Introduction
The legacy left by proponents of modernism, postmodernism and educational philosophy
prompted the researcher to self-directedness and learning, including the relevance of cognitive
development in educational discourse. Self-directed learning and lifelong learning are
fundamentally entrenched.
Both challenge individual students to determine the pace, content and time-line of their learning
experiences. Imagination evolves when we are able to look at things from a new awareness, and
this new awareness has evolved the research undertaken.
Einstein understood that the key to education was flexible thinking. 'To raise new questions, new
problems, to regard old problems from a new angle require creative imagination and makes real
advances. To understand is to invent' (Piaget, 1948 and 1974).We make knowledge our own “by
reconstructing it through some creative operation of the mind. The mind once stretched by a new
idea, never regains its original dimensions” (Holmes, 1908).
According to Torrance creativity is a process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps
in knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies and so on; identifying the difficulty, searching for
solutions, making guesses or formulating hypotheses about the deficiencies, testing and retesting
these hypotheses and possibly modifying and retesting them, and finally communicating the
results (Fisher, 1995).
In addition, Fisher postulated that open discussion allows students to articulate their judgment,
but it does not automatically present the cognitive challenge for students to expand their thinking
(Fisher, 1995).
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2.4.2 Edward De Bono (1933 - )
"Many highly intelligent people are poor thinkers. Many people of average intelligence are skilled
thinkers. The power of a car is separate from the way the car is driven."
De Bono
De Bono formulated a theory of lateral and parallel thinking. De Bono predicates an idea of
“thinking outside of the box”. The conventional critical thinking processes of De Bono's key
concept is that logical, linear and critical thinking has limitations because it is based on
argumentation (De Bono, 1992).
De Bono founded the Cognitive Research Trust (CoRT) in 1969 to produce and promote his ideas
on thinking. According to him, articulate people are not automatically triumphant at thinking and
learning. They may fall into the intelligence trap of making instant judgements, of jumping to
conclusions and do not explore the unconventional as alternative scenarios (De Bono, 1992).
Skilful thinking compels exploration and the ability to examine a position prior to making a
judgement. Awareness allows for a pragmatic view from any state of affairs. Expanding on the
scale of consequence opens the impending exploration of creative thinking and living. In this
sense, thinking can be developed (De Bono, 1992).
De Bono’ssixthinking hats
De Bono conceived the six thinking hats method to outline lateral thinking. The significant
theoretical reasons to use the six thinking hats are to:(De Bono, 2008).
I. Encourage parallel thinking;
II. Encourage full-spectrum thinking;
III. Separate ego from performance.
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2.4.3 Reuven Feuerstein (1921 - )
“The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as the unique propensity of
human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to
the changing demands of a life situation.”
Feuerstein
Feuerstein’s theory advocates that intelligence can be modified through mediated intercession.
Feuerstein is recognised for developing the theories and applied systems of structural cognitive
modifiability, mediated learning experience, cognitive mapping, deficient cognitive functioning,
dynamic assessment, learning propensity assessment, instrumental enrichment programmes and
shaping modifying environments (Feuerstein, Feuerstein, Falik,and Rand, 1979 and 2002).
These systems can equip educators with the skills to analytically progress student cognitive
function and meta-cognition (Feuerstein; Rand, Hoffman and Miller 1980 and 2004). Feuerstein
poses the queries “what if, instead of measuring a child’s acquired knowledge and intellectual
skills, the ability to learn was evaluated first? In addition, what if intelligence was not a fixed,
attributed, measurable finality? What if intelligence can be taught and is in fact the ability to
learn?”(Feuerstein, 1990:10).
The theory of structural cognitive modifiability and its emergent practices of dynamic assessment,
active intervention, and assignment of both children and adults in “shaping environments”
aredemarcated as part of the Feuerstein model (Feuerstein, Feuerstein, Falik,and Rand, 1979 and
2002). Mediated learning is anelement of differential cognitive development and is based on the
supposition that human development can be imagined of as a sole epiphenomenon of neuro-
physiologicalfruition(Feuerstein, Feuerstein, Falik,and Rand, 1979 and 2002).
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The concept of a mediated learning experience that is designated as the proximal determinant of
differential cognitive development is based on the assumption that human development is not
comprehended as a sole epiphenomenon of neuro-physiological maturation, nor considered as
simply the product of the individual’s accidental coincidence with, and absoluteknowledge to,
stimuli and the resulting collaboration.
The course of evidenceconveyed by a progression of mediation through conduits produced by that
mediation leads to higher mental utilities being established. Cultural and spiritual permanence are
materialised in a variety of ways and conditions. The psychologist has seldom been apprehensive
with the integration of cultural transmission within the progression of learning, “leaving the
definition of modalities of cultural transmission and its teleological dimensions to the cultural
anthropologist” (Feuerstein, 1980; 2004).
2.4.4 Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
“To understand is to invent.”
Piaget
Jean Piaget was a renowned Swiss development psychologist who developed learning theories
based on particular stages in the development of a child’s aptitude. Piaget has been labelled an
integrationist and a constructivist. His epistemology of human knowledge was constructed
through interactions with reality and his work on early cognition significantly prejudiced western
didactic theories (Munari, 2000).
Piaget pioneered cognitive development and referenced it as ‘genetic epistemology.’ He served as
the Director of the International Bureau of Education and declared in 1934, "only education is
capable of saving our societies”.Piaget’s concept is of cognitive structure being patterns of physical
or mental action that underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child
development. He outlined four primary cognitive structures i.e., development stages:(Piaget,
1977):
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� In the sensor motor stage (0-2 years), intelligence takes the form of motor actions.
� Intelligence in the preoperational period (3-7 years) is intuitive in nature.
� The cognitive structure during the concrete operational stage (8-11 years) is logical but
depends upon concrete referents.
� Formal operations (12-15 years), thinking involves abstractions.
Piaget's method was fundamental to the school of cognitive theory acknowledged as "cognitive
constructivism". Other scholars, known as "social constructivists", such as Vygotsky and Bruner,
have argued further prominence on the part played by language and other people in facilitating
children to learn (Atherton, 2011).
Piaget understood that children's impulsive annotations provided constructive evidence to
appreciate their thoughts and he was not concerned in the forms of logic and reasoning the child
used(Singerand Revenson, 1978). Piaget saw cognitive growth as an extension of biological growth
and governed by the same laws and principles, and he argued that intellectual development
controlled every other aspect of development, be it emotional, socialor moral (London, 1988: , 27,
82-95).
2.4.5 Merlyn Mehl (1956 - )
“On the other hand, industry has developed bodies of knowledge that exist in no academic faculty.
This brings you to the inevitable conclusion that there are more bodies of sophisticated knowledge
outside formal education systems than inside them!”
Mehl
Thinking About Critical and Creative Thinking (TACCT) model
The TACCT programme has been structured around the capacity to ‘SEE’. Eight thinking skills
clusters, covering the required capacities to develop both critical as well as creative thinking, have
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been designed. Deliberate practice is then used to inculcate specific thinking strategies and
techniques (for example, particular creative thinking strategies, and developing critical cross-field
outcomes). In this way, it becomes apparent that the means to develop truly expert thinkers are
employed (Mehl, 2011).
The programme is based on the well-documented phenomenon of neuro-plasticity, which has
gained substantial support. It holds that brain functioning is open to considerable improvement
and that entities such as IQ, genetic functioning, creativity and talent are all open to considerable
environmental influence and nurture(Mehl, 2011).
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2.4.6 Maria Montessori (1870–1952)
“We discovered that education is not something which the teacher does, but that it is a natural
process which develops spontaneously in the human being. It is not acquired by listening to words,
but in virtue of experiences in which the child acts on his environment.
The teacher's task is not to talk, but to prepare and arrange a series of motives for
cultural activity in a special environment made for the child.”
Montessori
Dr Maria Montessori had attended an all-boy technical school at the age of thirteen in preparation
of becoming an engineer. Montessori was the first woman to graduate from the University of
Rome’s La Sapienza Medical School, becoming one of the first female doctors in Italy. She was a
member of the university's psychiatric clinic and became intrigued with trying to educate the
‘special needs” or "unhappy little ones” and the "uneducable”(Foschi, 2008).
The method of learning presented by Montessori aimed to duplicate the experimental observation
of children, to bring about, sustain, and support their true natural way of being(Montessori, 1972).
Because of her success with mentally disabled children, Montessori was asked to start a school for
children in a housing project in Rome, which opened on January 6, 1907, and which she called
"Casa dei Bambini”.
“Children's House” was a child-care centre in an apartment building in a poor neighbourhood of
Rome. She was focused on teaching the students ways to develop their own skills at a pace they
set, which was a principle Montessori called "spontaneous self-development" (Gardner, 1966). The
Montessori method of teaching concentrated on quality rather than quantity (Gardner, 1966).
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2.4.7 Rudolf Steiner (1861 – 1925)
“Vague and the general phrases - ‘The harmonious development of all the powers and talents in
the child,' and so forth - cannot provide a basis for a genuine art of education. Such an art of
education can only be built on a real knowledge of the human being.”
Steiner
Rudolf Joseph Laurence Steiner was born in Kraljevec, which is today in modern-day Croatia, and
was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Steiner acquired a Ph.D. from the University of
Rostock in 1891 and developed the "anthroposophical spiritual science based on idealistic
philosophy rooted in the thinking of Aristotle, Plato and Thomas Aquinas(Nordlund, 2006).
Waldorf education (also known as Steiner, or Steiner-Waldorf, education) is a humanistic approach
to pedagogy based upon the educational philosophy Steiner, the founder of Anthroposophy
(Schneider and Rist , 1979).
Learning is interdisciplinary, integrating practical, artistic and conceptual elements. The approach
emphasises the role of the imagination in learning, developing thinking that includes a creative as
well as an analytic component (Nielsen, 2004).
This educational philosophy's overarching goals are to provide young people the basis on which to
develop into free, morally responsible and integrated individuals, and to help every child fulfil his
or her unique destiny, the existence of which anthroposophy posits. Schools and teachers are
given considerable freedom to define curricula within collegial structures (Nordlund, 2006).
Steiner also believed that young children should meet only goodness. Waldorf elementary
education is strongly arts-based, centred on the teacher's creative authority; the elementary
school-age child should meet beauty. Secondary education seeks to develop the judgment,
intellect and practical idealism; only the adolescent should meet truth (Nordlund, 2006).
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2.4.8 Osho (1931 – 1990)
“In fact, the moment a child is perfectly conditioned by you, you are very happy; you call it
“religious education”. You are very happy that the child has been initiated into the religion of his
parents. All that you have done is you have destroyed his capacity to know on his own. You have
destroyed his authenticity. You have destroyed his very precious innocence.“
Osho
Osho was born in Kuchwada, India, in 1931 as Chandra Mohan Jain. Osho was a Professor of
philosophy (Joshi, 1982).In reviewing the work of Osho, it appears that he saw the potential of
human beings as limitless.
In the philosophical interpretation of what is, and what should be, it is clear that education is the
viaduct for accessing individual potential. Osho held that what is being applied in conventional
schools and universities is not education but rather a preparatory programme for earning. He
confirmed that traditional education prepares man for an enhanced standard of living, but the
enhanced standard of living is not a better standard of life.
Education he defined as to extract that within you, to make your possible actual, like extracting
water from a well. Education according to Osho comes from the word “educare”, to guide from
darkness to light (Osho, 1978:37). He reflectedon the teaching of Jesus: “Man cannot live by bread
alone.” Current education, he says, prepares man only to earn bread and this is a primitive kind of
education: it does not prepare one for life. Education should provide inner richness, according to
Osho, and not, as the current education model teaches, competition and ambition in a madhouse
that grooms individuals for a cutthroat, bloodthirsty world where everybody is an enemy and love
is not a reality (Osho, 1978:37).
Osho’s vision for education was that life should not be taken as a struggle for survival; life should
be taken as a celebration. Playing and music should be explored by individuals, and education
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should prepare individuals to fall in tune with the trees, with the birds, with the sky, with the sun
and the moon.He sawclearly that education should prepare individuals to be themselves and not
to be an impersonator. Real education, according to Osho, will expose potential.
A tremendously significant meaning of his: to lead you from darkness to light. The Upanishads say,
“Lord, lead us from untruth to truth” — “asato ma sadgamaya”; “Lord, lead us from death to
deathlessness” - “mrityorma amritamgamaya”; “Lord, lead us from darkness to light” —” tamaso
ma jyotirgamaya”.“That is exactly the meaning of the word “education”: tamaso ma jyotirgamaya
— from darkness to light”(Osho, 1978:36).
Man lives in darkness and is unconscious, says Osho. The consciousness needs to be awakened,
according to him, and people should note that the thought that a man just has a human body is
wrong, and this has caused damage down the ages.
Education is to bring you from darkness to light, Osho guided, and that man must be true to
him/herself and be fearless, not yielding to social pressure. Man should not be a conformist and
yearn for comfort and convenience, as society will give them to you at a cost, he said, although the
cost will be immense: and you will lose your consciousness. “You get comfort, but you lose your
soul”(Osho, 1978:37).
The society does not need you to function as an intelligent being, per Osho, because an intelligent
being will behave in an intelligent way and there may be moments when he will say, “No, I cannot
do this”(Osho, 1978:37).
Osho felt that intelligence and awareness prevents one from being part of an army, as that
requires unintelligence. Years, he felt, are needed to destroy your intelligence; they call it
“training” (Osho, 1978:37). According to Osho, education has been very inadequate, deficient and
superficial; it only creates people who are un-loving and earn their livelihood, and focuses on
competition. Competition is violent deep down, and creates people who are un-loving, he said:
their whole effort is to be the achievers: of name, of fame, of all kinds of ambitions; everybody is
fighting against the whole world (Osho, 2008).
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Osho stated that education has been goal
this requires individuals to sac
tremendous emptiness in life. Osho’s vision set out a five
(Osho, 1987).
Osho stated that he had been a professor himself and resigned from the university with a note
saying: “This is not education,
Osho also stated that insignificant education prevails all over the world and that it does not make
any positive difference to people’s lives (Osho, 1988).
Figure 2
ducation has been goal-oriented in that it sacrifices the present for the future
his requires individuals to sacrifice the moment for something that is not present
us emptiness in life. Osho’s vision set out a five-dimensional educational framework:
been a professor himself and resigned from the university with a note
ation, this is sheer stupidity; you are not teaching anything significant.”
that insignificant education prevails all over the world and that it does not make
any positive difference to people’s lives (Osho, 1988).
2.2: Osho’s five dimensions of education
t sacrifices the present for the future;
is not present; it creates a
dimensional educational framework:
been a professor himself and resigned from the university with a note
you are not teaching anything significant.”
that insignificant education prevails all over the world and that it does not make
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Osho held that almost everybody is uneducated; that even those who have great degrees are
uneducated in the vaster areas of life. A few are more uneducated, a few are less uneducated, but
everybody is uneducated, Osho stated, and the educated man is impossible to find, as no whole
education of an individual exists (Osho, 1988).
2.4.9 Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
“The only “good learning” is that which is in advance of development.”
Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky investigated child development in relation to the roles played by culture and
interpersonal communication. Vygotsky observed that higher mental functions developed
historically within particular cultural groups, as well as individually through social interactions with
significant people in a child's life, particularly parents, and other adults(Van der Veer, 1991).
Vygotsky said that a child comes to learn the habits of mind of her/his culture, including speech
patterns, written language and other symbolic knowledge through which the child derives
meaning and which affected a child's construction of her/his knowledge through interactions; the
specific knowledge gained by children through these interactions also represented the shared
knowledge of a culture known as internalisation. This key premise of Vygotskian psychology is
often referred to as cultural mediation (Van der Veer, 1991).
"Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first on the social level, and later
on the individual level; first between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-
psychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory and to the formation
of concepts. All of a child’s higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals”(Vygotsky, 1978:57).The aptitude to learn through education and mediation is specific
to human intelligence, according to Vygotsky, and with the facilitation of adults, children can do
and comprehend more than they can on their own(Cameron, 2005).
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Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that a child can complete independently was the “zone of
proximal development” (ZPD). The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill achieved by the child
working independently and the upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can
agree to with the assistance of a competent instructor (Van der Veer, 1991).
The ZPD captures the child’s cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing and can be
accomplished only with the assistance of a more skilled person. Per Vygotsky, scaffolding
(changing the level of support) is a concept closely related to the idea of ZPD; a more skilled
person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the child’s current performance during the course of
a teaching session.
Dialogue is applied as a tool as unsystematic, disorganised and spontaneous concepts are met with
the more systematic, logical and rational concepts of the skilled helper (Van der Veer,
1991).School psychology will only increase its role in society if it is socially responsible and
operates in an inclusive theoretical framework (Bardon, 1985:185-96).
2.4.10 Carl Jung (1875 –1961)
“Practical, for the totality of the psyche can neverbe grasped by the intellect alone.”
Jung
Carl G. Jung’s prominence as a psychiatrist began through his association with Sigmund Freud,
although Jung was never reasonably comfortable with Freud, even during the height of his
association (Jung, C, 1968).Jung is considered the first modern psychiatrist to view the human
psyche as "by nature religious" and make it the focus of exploration (Dunne, 2002).
There was no great stretch for Jung to discern the Freudian elements in the dream. Jung suspected
that there was more to it than that. He believed that these elements were examples of those
“fragments” that emerged from an even deeper layer of psychic functioning, that “primordial”
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layer that Jung believed to be the ultimate ground of the human psyche (Jung, 1953:113). This
suggested that there was a very deep psychosocial well from which individuals, of all sorts and
cultures and religions of all times and all places, drew in order to produce the images, themes and
stories that expressed their ways of seeing and being in the world.
“This discovery,” said Jung, “means another step forward in our understanding: the recognition,
that is, of two layers in the unconscious. We have to distinguish between a personal unconscious
and an impersonal or transpersonal unconscious. We speak of the latter also as the collective
unconscious because it is detached from anything personal and is common to all men, since its
contents are found everywhere, which is naturally not the case with the personal contents”(Jung,
C, 1953:66).His theory resulted in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and learning style indicators.
Jung’s theory converged on four basic psychological purposes (Jung, 1953:113) :
� Extroversion versus Introversion;
� Sensation versus Intuition;
� Thinking versus Feeling;
� Judging versus Perceiving.
The Teacher–Student relationship is archetypal.
Education: He felt that educational processes are themselves archetypal. Jung held that “the teacher” and “the student” are themselves archetypal figures. The interfaceamongsta teacher and student is very close. The archetypal significance of education is evidenced centrality in the archetypes of the Wise Old Man and Wise Old Woman. This archetype is at the very top of Jung’s list of prominent archetypes. (Jung, 1967: 390 - 391). Educators often speak in riddles to urge young students to intellectual and moral growth. The Wise Old Man is closely related to teaching, and Jung held that this archetype best “personifies meaning”(Jung, 1963:233). Jung argues that a teacher who understands the student- teacherarchetype, and is in touch with the archetype psyche, is also assuredof beingaprominent teacher(Jung, 1966:82).
Education should not be reduced to technical rationality.
Jung’s interpretation of education is inherently archetypal and consequently a sacred act. Jung objected to any approach to teaching and learning that was fundamentally technical in its pursuit. Jung set out that an educational system that occurs to service the needs of a consumer society and its military-industrial machinery is socially destabilising,
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despite its grand social-efficiency prerogatives. These forms of education fail to address the whole child in the physical, emotional, political, cultural and ethical complexity it requires. Jung cautionedin contradiction ofthe preparation of rationalists, materialists, specialists, technicians. Corporate education “blots out” the individual, across the span of the person’s formal education: it “begins in school [and] continues at the university” (Jung, 1953:153). Jung held that the education system is immoral as it creates the “mass man” of technocratic society and deprives the individual of his/herindividuality. The system accomplishes this totalitarian goal by doing violence to the deeper personal needs of teachers, students and administrators.The result is that it affects the delicacy and sanctity of the archetypal relationship between teacher and student, wreaking psychological, social and moral chaos(Jung, 1967: 47-48).
Education should not be simple “Intellectualism”.
Jung assumed the life of the mind and the danger of relying on reason and the intellect. Rationality and the classical forms of education are,however, stated as being important. The cognitive-rationalist curriculum is critical in a holistic pedagogical jigsaw. Jung understood that reason provides a lens to interpret the universe in the final analysis. The lens mayprovide a vehicle for us to understand, but we must be cautiousnot to describe the ultimate reality of the “thing-in-itself”(Jung, 1953:73). Mere intellectualism results in ontological error, spiritual pride and psychosocial imbalance. Extreme intellectualism is “in point of fact nothing more than the sum total of all [a person’s] prejudices and myopic views” (Jung, 1959:13).
Teachers and students can explore archetypal dimensions of subject matter.
The Jungian perspectiveconfirms an ongoingendeavour to discover in the curriculum “the greatest and best thoughts of man shape themselves upon … primordial images as upon a blueprint” (Jung, 1953:69). Waldorf Schools (Rudolf Steiner)undertake this objective from kindergarten to 12th grade. Throughout a Waldorf education the teacher organises much of the curriculum around archetypal images that are been drawn from an array of religious, cultural and artistic traditions and periods(Trostli, 1991).
The symbolic domain and Intuitive function are educationally crucial.
Jungian theory argues that concepts areinflexible and empty things and that education emphasises assisting the students to participate in richly symbolic terms. A symbol stimulates our ability to sense a reality that surpasses mere ratiocination. Jungian curriculum stresses that dissimilarto the typical politically motivated cries for educational reform, through the imposition of standardised testing, which always cast art and literature to the edges. “The great secret of art…and the creative process” observed, consists in the unconscious activation of an archetypal image, and in elaborating and shaping this image into the finished work(Jung, 1953-1978: 65-83). “The debt we owe to the play of imagination is incalculable” (Jung, 1971:63).
Failure can be constructive.
Jungian psychology’s opinion of education emphasises nurturing the student as all energy “can proceed only from the tension of opposites”(Jung, 1953:29). The student who is continuously shielded against the developmentally necessary reality
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of occasional failure must ultimately capitulate to psychic entropy. Jung holds that where there is no possibility of failure, he believed that kata basis;(a Greek term for the descent to the underworld) is requisite for psycho spiritual success(Jung, 1966:140).
Education has a legitimate therapeutic function.
Modern developmental psychology tried to apply the findings of psychological research and practice. The very idea of a “developmentally appropriate curriculum” is already an attempt to shape pedagogy around children’s evolving psychic issues and interests. The junior high schoolwas established to assist students making the psychologically difficult transition from early childhood to adolescence and, as such, is inherently a “therapeutic” institution(Tyack, 1974). Margaret Naumburg, the founder of the Walden School movement, asked her teachers to undergo psychoanalysis (just as Freud and Jung required of analysts in training) so that the teachers could recognise and appropriately respond to theirstudents’ psychosexual dilemmas(Cremin, 1964). The “teacher-as-therapist” is an image that some teachers think of when asked to reflect on the nature of their work with children(Mayes, 2001). Although teaching has a therapeutic aspect, the teacher should always remember that he/she is not a therapist (Jung, 1954:74). A teacher must have a personalised sense of what makes each student tick if he/she is to be most effective at his/her work.Jung claimed, “for the doctor this means the individualstudy of every case; for the teacher, the individualstudy of every student”(Jung, 1953:93).
Reflectivity is key to teacher development.
Jung placed great faith in, and responsibilities on, the teacher and argued for ongoing education of the teacher. Jung undervalued “training” prospective and pre-packaged “methods” of education.Jung importantly stated, “in reality, everything depends on the man and little or nothing on the method” (Jung, 1978:09). The teacher’s moral character and psychological insight contributes to his/her success. The therapist and the educator are similar in that “psychotherapy has taught us that in the final reckoning it is not knowledge, not technical skill, that has a curative effect, but the personality of the doctor. And it is the same with education: It presupposes self-education” (Jung, 1954:140). Jung’s “self-education” consisted in what today is called“teacher reflectivity” (Bullough; 1991; Mayes; 1999).Teachers examine and analysethemselves in psychological and politicalterms to see if they are being sensitive and fair.“The teacher should watch his own psychiccondition, so that he can spot the source of troublewhen anything goes wrong with the children entrustedto his care” (Jung, 1954:120).
Education should be both culturally conservative and progressive.
Jung’s vision is that the socio-cultural aspects of education are a synthesis of cultural conservatism and radicalism. Jung promoteda traditional humanities curriculum in the higher grades of students. Jung believedstudents should “have a regard for history in the widest sense of the word” (Jung, 1954:145). Jung was very clear that the so-called “civilised” cultures are not superior to the so-called “primitive” ones in this respect, and are in some respects inferior. Jung warned, “anything new should always be questioned and tested with caution, for it
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may very easily turn out to be only a new disease” (Jung, 1954:140). A culture’s collective shadow is the other side of its conscious values (Odajnyk, 1976.). Jung saw the Westerner’s faith in foundational cultural narratives eroding. He warned, “the old myth needs to be clothed anew in every renewed age if it is not to lose its therapeutic effect”(Jung, 1959:181).
Education can and should have a spiritual dimension.
Jung’s view of the interaction of spirituality and culture states thatevery culture has “a highly developed system of secret teaching, a body of lore concerning the things that lie beyond man’s earthly existence and of wise rules of conduct” (Jung, 1966:96). The archetypally abundant ground of “body of lore” is that a society is civic and legal narratives grow over the centuries (Bruner; 1996). Berger highlighted how most cultures aregrounded in their (occasionally unspoken) spiritual commitments, especially regarding mortality and the promise of an afterlife. For “every human society is, in the last resort, men banded together in the face of death (Berger, 1967:52). That is why morality is found at all levels of society. It is the instinctive regulator of action(Jung, 1953:29)Tillich said that in the last analysis everyone has ethical and spiritual commitments because everyone has “ultimate concerns(Tillich, 1959). A Jungian approach allows us to imagine driven pedagogy, which benefits students to explore spiritual sensitivity without being theologically inflexible or denominationally opinionated.
Table 2.3 Implications of education – Jung’s ten pillars of education
2.4.11 Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519)
“It had long since come to my attention that people of accomplishment rarely sat back and let
things happen to them. They went out and happened to things.”
Da Vinci
Leonardo Di Ser Piero Da Vinci was born in 1452 near Florence, Italy. Da Vinci completed his
education in Florence and was prominent as a painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer and
cartographer, but the degree of awareness of his anatomical work among his contemporaries is a
mystery (Vezzosi, 1997). Da Vinci’s mastery in art, science and engineering earned him a place
among the most prolific geniuses of history. He was one of the most important artists of the Italian
Renaissance.
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“The most heavenly gifts seem to be showered on certain human beings. Sometimes
supernaturally, marvellously, they all congregate in one individual. This was seen and
acknowledged by all men in the case of Leonardo Da Vinci, who had an indescribable grace in
every effortless act and deed. His talent was so rare that he mastered any subject to which he
turned his attention. He might have been a scientist if he had not been so versatile”(Vasari, 1568).
Renaissance humanism did not consider the sciences and the arts as mutually exclusive polarities.
Da Vinci’s studies in science and engineering were evidenced in 13,000 pages of notes and
drawings, art and natural philosophy(Arasse, 1998).
Da Vinci observed science and attempted by describing and depicting in detail what he observed
without theoretical explanation. Da Vinci lacked official education in Latin and mathematics and
for this reason contemporaneous scholars dismissed him as a scientist. Da Vinci taught himself
Latin and studied mathematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of regular
solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli's book De Divina Proportione,
published in 1509 (Arasse, 1998).
2.4.12 Conclusion
A variety of scholars and thinkers has, over years, framed the context, and provided input and
theories, which have grounded this research. The research, therefore, was not conducted in a
vacuum but in the space prepared for it by those recorded in this literature review, and others.
2.5 Principal approaches to learning models
2.5.1 Introduction
The inclusion of learning frames at this juncture depicted what has emerged in the
aforementioned review of educational perspectives in modernism and postmodernism, as well as
the contributions of educational philosophers.
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The researcher therefore continued to explored, as the level of saturation on this topic had not yet
been exhausted, the relevance of those learning constructs, frameworks, and models that have
been published within the domain of educational psychology.
2.5.2 Behaviourism
“Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten.”
Skinner
Behaviourism can be traced back to Aristotle and is based on the change of reflexive behaviour of
a person with the help of external stimuli. The environment,either through association or through
reinforcement, determines all behaviour (Skinner, 1947).
Behaviourist theories " make use of one or both of two principal classes of explanations for
learning: those based on contiguity (simultaneity of stimulus and response events) and those
based on the effects of behaviour (reinforcement and punishment)" (Lefrancois, 1988:28).
Behaviourism converges on the study of evident behaviours that can be observed and calculated.
Major contributors to behaviourism include Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner (Good and
Brophy, 1990). A behavioural objective states learning objectives in "specified, quantifiable,
terminal behaviours" (Saettler, 1990:288).
Skinner defines informal learning as learning that takes place naturally, and formal education that
depends on a teacher generating optimal archetypes of motivation and response that are
classified as reward and punishment or ‘operant conditioning’. Skinner defined radical
behaviourism as a philosophy codifying the basis of his discipline of research “Experimental
Analysis of Behaviour”(Skinne and Skinner, 1968:10).
“Behaviourism stands firmly in the tradition of 'associationism'. The qualities, from which this
association arises, and by which the mind is after this manner conveyed from one idea to another,
are three, viz. resemblance, contiguity in time or place, and cause and effect” (Hume, 1962:1739).
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2.5.3 Cognitivism
Cognitivism is based on exploring the mind (mental processes) while observing the change of the
outside behaviour (Gagné, 2004). Cognitivism can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle and
became apparent in the 1950’s in its modern application (Saettler, 1990:288). Piaget played a
major role in the development of cognitivism in the 1920s, though the impact was only evident
after the 1960s.
"Cognitive theorists recognise that much learning involves associations established through
contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although they
stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a
motivator. However, even while accepting such behaviouristic concepts, cognitive theorists view
learning as involving the acquisition or reorganisation of the cognitive structures through which
humans process and store information”(Good and Brophy, 1990).
Cognitivism is the psychology of learning that emphasises human cognition enabling man to form
hypotheses and develop intellectually. The underlying concepts of cognitivism involve the process
of thinking and gaining knowledge (Feldman, 2010).
2.5.4 Connectivism
George Siemans originally published connectivism in December 2004 as a theoretical framework
for understanding learning that allows for the reflection of changing technologies. Behaviour is
shaped throughout the use of technologies. Connectivism allows learning to occur when
knowledge is set in motion of a learner connecting to, and supplying information to, a learning
community (Gredler, 2005).
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“Learning must be a way of being, an on-going set of attitudes and actions by individuals and
groups that they employ to try to keep abreast of the surprising, novel, messy, obtrusive, recurring
events” (Vaill, 1996:42).
Half of what is known today was not known 10 years ago. The amount of knowledge in the world
has doubled in the past 10 years and is doubling every 18 months according to the American
Society of Training and Development (ASTD). To combat the shrinking half-life of knowledge,
institutions have been forced to develop new methods of deploying instruction” (Gonzalez, 2004).
The principles of connectivism are(Siemens, 2005):
� Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions;
� Learning is a process of connecting;
� Learning may reside in non-human appliances;
� Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known;
� Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed for continual learning;
� Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill;
� Accurate, up-to-date knowledge is the aim of all connectivist learning;
� Decision-making is a learning process. What we know today may change tomorrow;
� The right decision today may be the wrong decision tomorrow.
Connectivism theory is considered aprogression, where the role of informal information exchange,
prearranged into networks is supported with electronic tools. Learning is continuous and a lifelong
system of network performance is entrenched (Bessenyei, 2008).
2.5.5 Constructivism
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Constructivist learning was first developed by Plato and further explored by Dewey, Montessori,
Piaget, Bruner, Bartlett and Vygotsky, and had emerged as a protuberant methodology of teaching
in the preceding decade (Fosnot, 1996). Constructivist learning considers the active construction
of knowledge by learners(Wadsworth, 1996). Constructivists accept as true that learners construct
their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences; in such a
way, an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures and
beliefs that areused to interpret objects and events(Phillips, 1997).
Constructivism is seen as the main underlying learning theory in postmodern education. The basic
idea is that all knowledge is invented or "constructed" in the minds of people. Knowledge is not
discovered, as modernists would claim (Braund, 1996). The thoughts teachers teach and students
learn do not match to "reality”, they are merely human assembly. People construct knowledge,
ideas and language, not because they are "true”, but rather for the reason that they are valuable
(Braund, 1996).
Theassumptions of constructivism include(Merrill, 1991:45-55):
� Knowledge is constructed from experience;
� Learning is a personal interpretation of the world;
� Learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience;
� Conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple
perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning;
� Learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and
not a separate activity.
The focus of the classroom, in postmodern education, becomes the student's construction of
knowledge; they shift away from a teacher-centred classroom to a more student-centred
environment (Braud and Driver, 2002).
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Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content are presented and encouraged.
Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or system.
Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and facilitators.
Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to encourage meta-cognition, self-analysis –regulation, -reflection and -awareness.
The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning.
Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic and authentic and represent the natural complexities of the 'real world'.
Primary sources of data are used in order to ensure authenticity and real-world complexity.
Knowledge construction and not reproduction is emphasised.
This construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation, collaboration and experience.
The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and attitudes are considered in the knowledge construction process.
Problem solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep understanding are emphasised.
Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students' previous knowledge constructions.
Exploration is a favoured approach in order to encourage students to seek knowledge independently and to manage the pursuit of their goals.
Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship learning in which there is an increasing complexity of tasks, skills and knowledge acquisition.
Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness and interdisciplinary learning.
Collaborative and cooperative learning are favoured in order to expose the learner to alternative viewpoints.
Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the limits of their ability.
Assessment is authentic and interwoven with teaching
Table 2.4: Characteristics of constructivism (Murphy, 1997)
2.5.6 Conclusion
Principal learning models includeconstructivism, connectivism, behaviourism, and cognitivism. The
inclusion of learning frames allowed for the review of educational perspectives in modernism and
postmodernism as well as the contributions of educational philosophers.
Constructivism is seen as the main underlying learning theory in postmodern education.
Constructivists accept as true that learners construct their own reality in relation to their
perceptions of experiences. Knowledge, ideas and language are constructed for the reason they
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are valuable to the individual.Connectivism provides a theoretical framework for understanding
learning that allows for the reflection of changing technologies in a modern learning community.
Behaviourism, in contrast, is based on the change of reflexive behaviour of a person with the help
of external stimuli. The environment,either through association or through reinforcement,
determines all behaviour (simultaneity of stimulus) and response events,whilst by contrast
Cognitive theorists hold that learning occurs through contiguity, reinforcement and repetition.
Cognitivism underscores human cognition, qualifying individuals to construct theories and advance
intellectually. Available literature on learning models necessitates an investigation into teaching
and learning styles as the cognitive model leads further along the journey that emerges into self-
directedness.
2.6 Teaching stylesversuslearning styles
2.6.1 Teaching styles
The following section deals with available literature on teaching styles versus learning styles.
Teaching behaviours suggest the beliefs and values that teachers embrace concerning the
learner's role in the exchange process (Heimlich and Norland, 2002). Corresponding teaching and
learning styles are not actually determinant of the paramount understanding for adult basic skill
learners, as learning style may differ according to age and situational factors or subject being
studied (Spoon and Schell, 1998).
"Research supports the concept that most teachers teach the way they learn"(Stitt-Gohdes, 2001).
This may be why most training is provided through instructor-led classrooms in the corporate
environment(Caudron, 2000).
Corresponding the teaching and learning styles is more beneficial to occupational students who
are field independent (Allinson, 1997). Occupational classes contain students with dissimilar
learning style preferences; teachers need to adopt an integrated flexible approach to their
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instructional practice (Nuckles, 2000). "it is more effective to design curriculum so that there is
some way for learners of every learning style to engage with the topic, so that every type of
learner has an initial way to connect with the material, and then begin to stretch his or her
learning capability in other learning modes"(Delahoussaye, 2002: 28-36).
"Most teachers have only one or two perspectives as their dominant view of teaching… [However]
similar actions, intentions, and even beliefs can be found in more than one perspective" (Pratt,
2002).
Pratt’s five perspectives on teaching are(Pratt, 2002):
� Transmission: Teacherscenter on content and determine what students must learn and how
they ought to learn it. Feedback is intended for students' mistakes;
� Developmental: Teachers are aware of the significance of students' prior knowledge and
direct student learning to the advancement of progressively more complex ways of reasoning
and problem solving;
� Apprenticeship: Teachers offer students authentic responsibilities in real work settings;
� Nurturing: Teacherscenter on the interpersonal fundamentals of student learning: listening,
getting to know students and reacting to students' emotional and intellectual requirements;
� Social reform: Teachers are inclined to communicate thoughts unambiguously to their
students.
2.6.2 Learning styles
Pedagogy is defined as “a relatively permanent change in behaviourthat results from practice:
learning involves practice" (Felder, Silverman, Honey and Mumford, Gregorc and Butler, Hunt,
Jung and Myers-Briggs, 2000). Individuals require a bespoke approach to achieve their learning
potential. Sociological (Marxist) rather than primarily educational prospects mean that all US
education has a covert curriculum intended by a capitalist economy (Bowles, 1976). Adult learning
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is biased by intrinsic theories of knowledge obtained at school. Teachers reproduce their
entrenched forms in the ways they teach(Mileva, Simpson, Thompson, 2008).
The discourse of experiential learning styles involved the process of how the mind works when
processing information. Learning styles research included three schools of thought: perceptual,
personality and information processing. Additional academics that have developed learning styles
which are inventories-related include Felder, Silverman, Honey and Mumford, Gregorc and Butler,
Hunt and Jung (Huitt, 2000).
In the 1950’s, a research study concerning MIT students confirmed that students develop coping
mechanisms for congested curricula to guarantee they manage in the learning environment.
Students would selectively learn the sections of work they expected would be included in
assessment(Snyder, 1971). This phenomenon has developed into “surface learning” that is viewed
as an institutional learning challenge (Mileva, Simpson, Thompson, 2008).
Learning styles may differ over a person’s lifetime. "Exposing learners to learning activities that are
mismatched with their preferred learning style will help them develop the learning competencies
necessary to cope with situations involving a range of different learning requirements"(Allinson,
1997).
Governments are currently expected to strive to incorporate a vision of lifelong learning into their
overall national policy frameworks and to embed lifelong learning into their national education
systems by adhering to the following (Yang and Liang, 2011):
• Lifelong learning policies need to be supported by broad social consensus, legislative
instruments, and coordination mechanisms to facilitate collaboration between various
stakeholders;
� Making lifelong learning a reality for all calls for increased financial investment in education
and learning;
� Given the principle that learning should continue throughout individuals’ lives, it is essential
to establish a financial incentive mechanism to mobilise greater and broader participation;
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� Innovative financing strategies have to be tried out;
� The need for learning pervades every political, social, environmental, cultural and economic
issue;
� Diverse formal, non-formal and informal learning opportunities must be developed and
made equally accessible to all, with an emphasis on serving the needs of marginalised
groups;
� Formal learning opportunities provided by primary, secondary and higher education form
the ‘basic education’ of modern society. It is imperative to reform the curricula of schools
and higher education institutions to reflect today’s vision of lifelong learning, and to build
new teaching/learning relations, to enable students to become lifelong learners;
� Facilitating synergy between diversified various learning systems calls for a learning
outcomes-based qualification framework or system and a coordinated approach to
recognition, validation and accreditation as well as the transfer of learning outcomes from
non-formal and informal settings;
� The development of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has made available
a pool of e-learning resources, alternative delivery mechanisms and massive open learning
opportunities. Further efforts need to be made in the effective use of ICT and open learning
approaches so that qualitylearning opportunity is accessible to all at reasonable cost;
� A learning society is a society of learners where a new learning system emerges, revolves
and grows to lead economic, social and political development as a whole. Evidence from
some countries shows that building a learning city (region, community) can be an effective
approach to embodying the philosophy of lifelong learning and making learning part of
citizens’ everyday lives;
� Effective policies for lifelong learning need to be informed and inspired by evidence
generated by research. Monitoring and evaluation, appropriate indicators and benchmarks
on the effectiveness of policies, and accountability of programmes, are essential for
evidence-based policy-making for promoting lifelong learning.
Educators wanting to be student centred must be aware of the different learning experiences that
students value at specific stages of development, age and gender (Spoon and Schell, 1998).
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2.6.3 Kolb’s learning styles inventory
"Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.”
Kolb
Kolb’s learning styles summarises individual differences in learning styles that are grounded on
preference for different stages of the learning cycle. Learning is a method where knowledge is
shaped through the transformation of experience (Huitt, 2000). The Kolb model involves two
functions, perceiving and processing, and knowledge is created when these processes
conglomerate (Kolb and Kolb, 2005). Kolb’s model is helpful in the adult learning process, and
learning style, as reflection is an important part of the learning process. Kolb’s work was inspired
by the work of Lewin. Individuals learn from a specific experience they transform.
Kolb identified that individuals’ combined approaches could be categorised as one of the
following: Converging, Diverging, Assimilating, or Accommodating (Kolb, 1984).
Kolb’s model outlines four stages in learning which trail from each other:
� Concrete experience is followed by;
� Reflection on that experience on a personal basis;
� This is followed by abstract conceptualisation and;
� Active experimentation leading in turn to the next concrete experience.
Kolb’s learning styles model stemmed in the experiential learning theory that outlines that
educational philosophy accentuates the process of learning rather than outcomes. Kolb’s theory
holds that ideas are formed and re-formed through experience (Kolb, 1984).
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The learning cycle involves four processes that must be present for
i. Diverging (concrete, reflective)
doing things. Views concrete situations from many perspectives and adapts by observation
rather than by action. Interested in people and tends to be feeling
activities as cooperative groups and brainstorming;
ii. Assimilating (abstract, reflective)
into an integrated whole. Likes to reas
to design projects and experiments;
iii. Converging (abstract, active)
problems. Likes decision
Prefers technical problems to interpersonal issues;
Figure 2.3: Kolb’s learning styles
The learning cycle involves four processes that must be present for learning to occur
Diverging (concrete, reflective) - Emphasises the innovative and imaginative approach to
doing things. Views concrete situations from many perspectives and adapts by observation
ction. Interested in people and tends to be feeling
activities as cooperative groups and brainstorming;
Assimilating (abstract, reflective) - Pulls a number of different observations and thoughts
into an integrated whole. Likes to reason inductively and create models and theories. Likes
to design projects and experiments;
Converging (abstract, active) - Emphasises the practical application of ideas and solving
problems. Likes decision-making, problem solving and the practicable applicat
Prefers technical problems to interpersonal issues;
learning to occur:(Kolb, 1984)
es the innovative and imaginative approach to
doing things. Views concrete situations from many perspectives and adapts by observation
ction. Interested in people and tends to be feeling-oriented. Likes such
Pulls a number of different observations and thoughts
on inductively and create models and theories. Likes
es the practical application of ideas and solving
making, problem solving and the practicable application of ideas.
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iv. Accommodating (concrete, active) - Uses trial and error rather than thought and reflection.
Good at adapting to changing circumstances; solves problems in an intuitive, trial-and-error
manner, such as discovery learning. Also tends to be at ease with people.
2.6.4 Honey and Mumford's learning styles
Honey and Mumford's Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) was developed based on Kolb’s theory,
and expanded on as Honey and Mumford found Kolb's Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) had low face
validity with managers. Kolb's LSI inquires directly from people how they learn.
Honey and Mumford present a questionnaire that investigates general behavioural predisposition
and they assume that individuals favour dissimilar techniques of learning in particular situations as
they progress between four available modes of learning(Honey and Mumford, 2000): Honey and
Mumford's learning cycle(Coffield, Moseley, Hall, and Ecclestone, 2004) :
� Having an experience;
� Reflecting on it;
� Drawing own conclusions (theorising);
� Putting theory into practice to see what happens.
Honey and Mumford's model varies from Kolb’s model as the terms “reflector” for divergers
(reflective observation), “theorist” for assimilators (abstract conceptualisation), “pragmatist” for
convergers (concrete experience), and “activist” for accommodators (active experimentation) and
minor dissimilar meanings have been ascribed(Coffield, Moseley, Hall, and Ecclestone, 2004):
i. Reflector - Prefers to learn from activities that allow him/her to watch think, and review
(time to think things over) what has happened and likes to use journals and brainstorming.
Lectures are helpful if they provide expert explanations and analysis.
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ii. Theorist - Prefers to think problems through in a
analogies, systems, case studies, models and readings. Talking with experts is normally not
helpful.
iii. Pragmatist - Prefers to apply new
laboratories, fieldwork and observations. Likes feedback, coaching and obvious links
between the task-on-hand and a problem
iv. Activist - Prefers the challenges of new experiences,
and role-playing. Likes anything new, problem solving and small group discussions.
Figure 2.4: Honey and Mumford
to think problems through in a systematic manner. Likes lectures,
analogies, systems, case studies, models and readings. Talking with experts is normally not
refers to apply new learning’s to actual practice to see if they work. Likes
fieldwork and observations. Likes feedback, coaching and obvious links
hand and a problem.
Prefers the challenges of new experiences, involvement with others, assimilation
playing. Likes anything new, problem solving and small group discussions.
Honey and Mumford’s learning cycle and learning s
manner. Likes lectures,
analogies, systems, case studies, models and readings. Talking with experts is normally not
to actual practice to see if they work. Likes
fieldwork and observations. Likes feedback, coaching and obvious links
involvement with others, assimilation
playing. Likes anything new, problem solving and small group discussions.
’s learning cycle and learning styles
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2.6.5 Conclusion
Global knowledge economies are driving the higher education agenda as cumulative prominence
is placed on admission, diversity, maintenance and throughput rates and lifelong learning has
focused the importance of learning styles. The increased recognition of gender and cultural
diversity within society made the above theories relevant to the discourse within this thesis as the
theories of learning and teaching styles explored alternative means of coding individual’s learning
experiences.
Educators need to examine their personal conviction in an "on-going process of diagnosis, with self
and with learners, including observation, questioning, obtaining evaluative feedback and critical
reflection" (Nuckles, 2000).
Educators must reflect on their own learning styles for the implementation of effective teaching
and learning strategies. Learning may be negatively affected when there is an obvious
incompatibility between the style of the learner and the approach of the educator(Fielding, 1994).
2.7 Conclusion of chapter two
Historically the High Priest of religious groupings was the custodian of knowledge and decided
what is to be disseminated to the general populace. Having considered the theories and
frameworks discussed in this chapter, one of the resulting experiences was the creation and co-
creation of knowledge.
Society has demonstrated its inability to accept “futuristic thinkers”. These are individuals that
strongly believed that they would not conform to the rules of society. Examples include, but are
not limited to, Da Vinci, Osho, Piaget and Feuerstein. The experiences of these and other thinkers
indicated that society is often not ready to accept what is available to it at a given point in time.
Theories and writings may only be accepted hundreds of years later when the collective
consciousness of society has evolved to accept the unaccepted.
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Da Vinci believed in the possibility of flight and the investigation of corpses to advance the study
of anatomy in his journey to create knowledge. In the same vein, educational philosophy has
demonstrated that society is often not ready to transcend from its historic belief system to
evolutionary advancement.
It is inconceivable that a student in a knowledge economy is unable to operate a personal
computer after twelve years of formative learning. Concurrently, education is undergoing
revolutionary reforms whilst mobile and e-learning is making education more accessible to those
that are able to afford access.
Piaget’s constructivist approach to learning is outlined in a study of how a child constructs its own
understanding, building on previous understanding. Assimilation and accommodation describe
how learning takes place (Piaget, 1977).
Piaget encompassed the idea that learning is constructed on factual intake and is amplified by the
learner’s personal translation and perception of formal learning (Piaget, 1953).
For South Africa to compete as a knowledge economy and capitalise on global opportunities it will
be forced to revisit current policy and legislation to address its current ranking that has slipped
gradually on the knowledge-based economy index from 49th in 1995 to 65th in 2009. This is a
reflection of the lowuniversity throughput, slow internet penetration and decreasing funding for
research and development (World Bank, 2002).
A "learning economy" requires the creation of wealth in proportion to the capacity to learn and
share innovation. Formal education requires becoming less about passing on information and
focusing more on teaching people how to learn (Foray, 1996). Technology and knowledge are now
the key factors of production, as knowledge is the rudimentary formula of capital. Economic
growth is bound by the gathering of knowledge, and technological innovation, as they appear to
be random, and considering new technological developments as opposed to having limited
influence(Romer, 1986).
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Creating a knowledge society should become a vision of robust learning communities to conduct
the business of education and training in accordance with their communal identities (Torres,
2010). In line with the above one has already identified major thrusts in the changing patterns of
education and learning as confirmed by Yang and others(Yang and Liang, 2011):
� Learner-centered learning rather than teacher-centered learning;
� Encouraging variety, not homogeneity: embracing multiple intelligences and diverse
learning styles;
� Understanding a world of inter-dependency and change, rather thanmemorising facts and
striving for right answers;
� Constantly exploring the theories-in-use of all involved in the educationprocesses;
� Reintegrating education within webs of social relationships that link peers, friends, families,
organisations and communities;
� Overcoming the knowledge fragmentation that is typical of a first enlightenment mode of
understanding in favour of more holistic andintegral ways of knowing; and
� Favouring an increasing role for non-formal and informal learning.
In this changing educational landscape, education institutions will undergo major pressures to
replace the traditional emphasis on all-taught learning with a blend of flexible learning: some
taught learning, a great deal of self-learning, as well as increased assisted and group learning.
Learning interacts with the world through active knowledge (as opposed to inert knowledge), that
is, the wholesale knowledge that adds value to problem-solving and interpretative abilities (Yang
and Liang, 2011).
Continuous learning therefore poses a daunting test to conventional knowledge-driven societies.
Rarely are individuals able to self-organise and self-manage long-term knowledge pathways. The
underpinning meta-cognitive competencies and skills from the very early stages of formal
education must be instilled in all individuals to become productive citizens that support learning
cultures (Yang, Watkins,and Marsick, 1998). Little social and educational credit is given to learning
in informal settings. Experiences of APL (Accreditation ofPrior Learning) and RPL (Recognition of
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Prior Learning) remain scant and viewed with suspicion by gatekeepers of the formal systems of
education and knowledge certification.
The researcher holds that youth unemployment is a challenge that requires an immediate and
structured intervention. Addressing unemployment in general will lower poverty levels and add to
GDP. South Africa must concentrate on stratagems to generate employment and guarantee that
the required skills base is available to grow the economy. Proposed legislation changes pose a
number of challenges that must be resolved to ensure that job creation is a reality and is not
overcome by additional job losses. A research paper commissioned by the Department of Labour
(Benjamin and SBP, 2010) is of significant importance in forging the road ahead.
With the conclusion of chapter two, the researcher had sustained the journey of discovery and
stood at the threshold of progression to create a platform for accreditation and external
moderation. The researcher was empowered to continue on the journey of reframing and
contextualisationincluding an investigation into the available frameworks found in the South
African, Canadian, German, Singaporean, USA and UK education landscapes, policies and
legislative frameworks, as addressed in Chapter 3.
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3. Chapter 3 –The Global Educational Context
"Education is the great engine of personal development. It is through education that the daughter
of a peasant can become a doctor, that the son of a mineworker can become the head of the
mine, that a child of farmworkers can become the president of a great nation. It is what we make
out of what we have, not what we are given, that separates one person from another.”
Nelson Mandela
3.1 Introduction
Chapter 3 outlines the South African economic reality in relation to youth unemployment and the
credibility and quality standards in education. The chapter further delineates the South African
landscape as related to legislative context and occupational education structures;it also
investigates global accreditation structures and draws on global accreditation and external
moderation models within education and training.
A broad overview has been provided for the South African education framework, and information
is supplied in relation to international frameworks applicable to the policy and legislative
frameworks as applied in the Canadian, German, Singaporean, USA and UK education landscapes.
The researcher is of the opinion that the South African government has failed to create a
sustainable environment for employment creation. Restrictive labour laws, unskilled and
untrained job market entrants and limited incentives to business, amongst other reasons, are
restricting employment and in particular youth employment. Global recessionary pressures have
compounded the inhibitors for job creation.
For South Africa to address the need for significant job creation and market investment, we will
have to reflect inwardly to increase our global competitiveness. South Africa was ranked 36th in
the global competitiveness survey during 2006/07and slewed to 45th in 2010.
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Truncated labour market efficiency, poor labour-employer relations, low educational
performance, high crime levels and high unemployment havegenerally weakened South Africa’s
internal competitiveness indices (Manuel, 2011:16).
In the pursuit to effect social and economic transformation of South Africa in the post-apartheid
era, the youth of South Africa is a critical resource that needs to be equipped and developed to
play a considerable role in the reconstruction and development of the country.Excellent education
and a flexible labour market policy hold the key to sustainable employment creation(Meyer,
2009).
The official unemployment rate in South Africa was quantified at 25, 3 % for the second quarter of
2010 and confirmed as 47 % for youth (Statistics South Africa, 2010). It must be considered that
only individuals who are actively seeking employment are included in the percentage.
The current South African national budget allocates approximately 20% to education (2011/2012).
The Minister of Higher Education and Training recently released the “Green Paper for Post-School
Education and Training”(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012). The Green paper
offers a proposed integrated strategy for post-school level education. Many would say that this is
too little too late. It is unclear how these targeted numbers of student placements will be
achieved, given the current infrastructure and capacity constraints in public institutions.
“By 2030, South Africa ought to have a post-school system that provides a range of accessible
alternatives for young people. By 2030, we aim to raise university enrolments to 1,500,000 (a
projected participation rate of 23%) as opposed to the 2011 enrolments of 899 120 (a 16%
participation rate). In addition we aim for 4 000 000 enrolments (approximately a 60%
participation rate) in colleges or other post-school institutions such as the proposed community
education and training centres discussed below. The DHET must build, resource and support this
expanded system” (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012).
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3.2 South African youth unemployment
South African youth unemployment has a significant impact on our human resource development
planning. Available skills are incompatible to existing vacancies that exist in the semi-skilled and
skilled sectors of the economy. The currentemployment ratio is currently 40.8 %; this means that
just twooutoffive working aged South Africans (aged between 15 and 64) are employed. The
employment ratio is therefore low by international standards (71 % for China, 55 % for India and
an average of 56 % across emerging markets)(International Labour Organisation, 2010). In
2010/2011, of the 139 countries surveyed, South Africa ranked at 135 for hiring and firing
practices, at 131 for flexibility of wage determination and at 112 for pay and productivity(Jeffery,
2011).
Unemployed young people tend to be less skilled and inexperienced – almost 86 % do not have
formal further or tertiary education, while two-thirds have never worked(National Treasury,
2011). For the South African economy to demonstrate progress in relation to socio-economic
transformation, the required skills must be available for market uptake and sustainable
employment creation. Educational institutions are simply not reacting in a proactive and
transformative way to provide high quality, accessible and affordable programmes that
underwrite the national challenge decisively (Rasool, 2006).
Because of the uncertainty of the skills sets acquired by school leavers, employers consider entry-
level wages too highrelative to the risk of hiring these inexperienced workers. Education data
suggests that continuation rates from Grade 11 to completing secondary school are low and that
the quality of schooling in South Africa is poor. The International Education Authority’s “Progress
in international reading and literacy study”(International Association for the Evaluation of
Educational Progress, 2006)and the“Trends in international mathematics and science
study”confirmed South Africa as among the worst global performers(TIMSS, 2003).
The researcher is of the opinion that employers require skills and experience of all employees.
Employers regard unskilled, inexperienced jobseekers as an uncertain investment. Education is not
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an alternative for skills. Learners completing their schooling are destined for unemployment,
as“passing” grade 12 is not a trustworthy signal of basic competencies that are required to enter
the world of work.
Low levels of quality output produced by schools are destined to compromise an already fragile
labour market. A complete overhaul of the South African education system must be initiated, with
educator retraining as the starting point.
Simply expanding the already ineffective and distended public service is a recipe for disaster.
Public institution salaries take up an unacceptably high ratio of the national budget, which should
be available to provide services and infrastructure requirements to the South African population.
The dependence on the social grant system should be re-evaluated to ensure that the system does
not further perpetuate the poverty cycle, as children have children to access grants.According to a
2011 survey released by the South African Institute for Race Relations, one in eight South Africans
are employed in the public sector and earn on average 44% more than employees in the private
sector (South African Institute for Race Relations, 2011).
The government must focus on creating investor confidence andfuelling market growth for
sustainable job creation and excellence in education.
3.3 South African labour and education legislative context
Proposed legislative amendments in the education and labour fields will have a negative impact on
job creation. Proposed amendments to labour legislation would place literally millions of jobs in
jeopardy, would in all likelihood be unconstitutional, would have "serious detailing effects in the
labour market" and would result in "significant" other unintended consequences(Benjamin and
SBP, 2010).
The proposed labour legislative amendments include changes to the Labour Relations Act, Basic
Conditions of Employment Act, Employment Equity Act and a new Employment Services Bill
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(Anderson, 2011).The Employment Services Bill imposes administrative burdens on employers
who will have to notify every vacancy (whether permanent or temporary) to the Labour
Department, along with the details of every appointment made. This will be particularly
burdensome for those who frequently use temporary staff for short periods (Jeffery, 2011).
The proposed eliminationof labour brokers, expanding the ability of trade unions to unionise
workforces,criminalising the breaking of certain labour laws and enabling government to levy fines
of up to 10% of turnover on employers who contravene the law are all negative. The amendments
increase government's surveillance of employers, ability to censure them and restrict employers'
flexibility (Duncan, 2001). The researcher is of the opinion that the education ROI by the South
African government has failed to create skilled individuals for market uptake. South African
unemployment statistics, and in particular youth unemployment, are at unprecedented levels.
The Department of Higher Education and Training’s(Department of Higher Education and Training,
2012)proposed amendments to the South African post-school education frameworkappears, on
the face of it, to propose positive changes in the occupational and higher education arena. Private
provision has been acknowledged in the context of providing a complementary role to public
institutions. Considerable unhappiness from private providers is however evident in the context of
diminished opportunities to access public fundingfrom SETA grants. Many occupationally directed
providers have invested significant resources in setting up advanced systems for delivery.
3.4 The South African qualif ications sub-frameworks
The National Qualifications Framework is an overarching framework that has 10 levels and three
sub-frameworks (National Qualifications Framework Act, Act 67 of 2008). The current education
statutory sub-framework includes three distinct quality councils, namely: the Quality Council for
Trades and Occupations (QCTO), Council on Higher Education (CHE) and Umalusi. The Human
Resources Development Strategy for South Africa, the council of which is chaired by the Deputy
President, is administered by the DHET (Department of Higher Education and Training , 2011).
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“Access to decent education and training is essential for the completion of the liberation struggle,
whose foundation must be economic liberation. Education is the apex government priority and
now accounts for 19.4% of the total national budget for 2011/12. Vote 17 has received R37.4
billion of which R9.1 billion is a direct charge against the national revenue fund and goes to our
Sector Education and Training Authorities and the National Skills Fund. Universities receive R19.4
billion for the 2011/12 financial year and R4.3 billion is allocated for Further Education and
Training (FET) colleges. R4.1 billion is for our public entities, of which R4 billion is allocated to the
National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS)”(Nzimande, 2011).
3.4.1 Primary and secondary education
Academic quality assurance in each sub-framework is assigned to three different quality councils.
Qualifications from NQF levels 1 to 4 are the responsibility of the council for quality assurance in
general and further education (Umalusi).Thoughtful concerns have been raised by South Africans
vis-à-vis the poor standards of primary and secondary education in South Africa(National Planning
Commission, 2011). Learners are being “passed” en masse, as the formative education system is
subjected to considerable pressure to perform in the development of social justice and
transformation.
The argument has been levelled that an education system that fails to prepare students
adequately for further and higher education will undoubtedly only contribute to human capital
depletion and unrealistic employment expectations. Learners accomplishing without substance of
achievement will surely contribute to a culture of entitlement(Morrow, 1994:13(1): 33–47,
1994).South Africa requires a new social compact to advance public education. The national
interest in a vividly enhanced schooling system for the poor majority must outplay sectional
securities (Berstein, 2011).
“If I had to make the choice with my own children today, I would seriously consider not sending
my child to school in South Africa, for one simple reason: I do not trust a system that makes it
possible for a child to pass Grade 12 with 30% in some subjects and 40% in other subjects. I would
be filled with fear when I discover that you can get 32% in mathematics and 27% in physical
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science and still get an official document that says you can continue to study towards a Bachelor’s
degree at University”(Jansen, 2012).
The South African learner-to-educator ratio is the set at 32:1 (Organisation For Economic Co-
Operation And Development , 2009). Disparities exist between provinces and districts, particularly
in poor schools.
The best performing provinces, Western Cape and Gauteng, do not have the lowest educator pupil
ratio(Manuel, 2011:44). Less than 50% of grade 3 learners are at the level they should be(Manuel,
2011:50).
3.4.2 Further Education and Training (FET)
The South African occupationally directed education and training environment operates primarily
between NQF levels 1 and 4. Occupationally directed qualifications have been developed at higher
levels on the NQF framework, with significantly less success in enrolment numbers.
The QCTO has been awarded jurisdiction from NQF levels 1 to 10 and will quality assure these
qualifications once the QCTO is operational. The current quality assurance of all occupationally
directed qualifications falls within the jurisdiction of assigned ETQAs. Occupationally directed
providers offering full qualifications from NQF levels 2 to 4 are required to register with Umalusi
and DHET as an FET provider(Ministers of Education and Labour Joint Policy Statement, 2008).The
FET sector with its 50 colleges and 263 campuses nationally is the principal location for
skillsdevelopment training. The FET college system carries about 220 000 students in the public
colleges, with fewer than 100 000 in private colleges (Statistics South Africa, 2010).
Approximately 70% of all South Africans are under the age of 35. The DHET developed a strategy
to increase the ratio of young people that are in education, employment or training by 2014/15.
“The college sector is small and weak. In 2010, total headcount enrolment was 326 970 students,
enrolled in the National Certificate (Vocational) (NCV), the Report 191 programmes (or N courses)
and non-DHET (i.e. SETA-accredited) programmes. For the 2011 academic year, the projected
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headcount enrolment was 359 000 students. This figure is just a little over one-third of the total
university student enrolment. FET colleges are varied and diverse but, with some notable
exceptions, they are mainly weak institutions”(Department of Higher Education and Training,
2012).
“With their present capacity, colleges can neither absorb significantly larger numbers of students
nor achieve acceptable levels of throughput. General vocational programmes have not had time to
mature and to be tested in the labour market. Training of artisans has declined, and is only now
beginning to grow again. Colleges are playing their traditional role in offering the theoretical
component of apprenticeship programmes, but the curricula of these programmes have not yet
been sufficiently updated and improved, although the Department has now started a process to
do this” (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012).
FET colleges operate under a single governing council appointed by the DHET minister to oversee
accountable management. FET colleges provide learning and training from National Qualifications
Framework (NQF) levels 2 to 4 or the equivalent of grades 10 to 12 in the school system, and an
FET Certificate (FETC) in General Occupational, and in Trade Occupational, on NQF levels 2 to 4 in
FET colleges. The FETC replaced the existing Senior Certificate in 2008(South African Qualifications
Authority, 2009).
The Minister of Higher Education and Training has outlined that the department’s aim is the
transformation and improvement of the capacity of FET colleges to offer a range of programmes
for the assembly of mid-level skills for the economy, reaching one million students by
2014(Nzimande, 2011). In the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) 2011, R14,29 billion
was allocated as subsidies to the FET colleges and R1.42 billion has been allocated to expand FET
college student enrolment, particularly to escalate artisan uptake (Nzimande, 2011).
DHET crucial initiatives to tackle skills include (Nzimande, 2011):
i. A review to improve the country’s Further Education and Training (FET) colleges;
ii. A career guidance programme for students;
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iii. A standards body to improve the quality of artisans;
iv. Improved funding for disadvantaged students;
v. A new strategy for teacher training and development.
The FET sector in the opinion of the researcher will require significant support and resourcing to
assist in the skills-set acquisition by learners. FET graduates have not been received with any great
vigour in the South African marketplace.
It has also been the experience of the researcher that public FET colleges are at a distinct
disadvantage in relation to delivery methodology understanding, to offer occupational directed
qualifications in the service sector as opposed to private FET providers,which are geared to
address specific corporate client needs for targeted skills employment.
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3.4.3 Higher Education and Training (HET)
Qualifications from NQF levels 5 to 10 are assigned to the Council on Higher Education (CHE) and
occupational qualifications ranging from levels 1 to 10 are assigned to the Quality Council on Trade
and Occupations (QCTO), which is in its process of being operationalised(Mkhize, 2011).
The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA), the Council on Higher Education, the National
Skills Authority and the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations, share the remainder. “NSFAS
will disburse R5.4 billion in loans and bursaries this financial year, double the R 2.7 billion
disbursed last year”(Nzimande, 2011).
The South African higher education system includes twenty-three public higher education
institutions; eleven universities, six comprehensive universities and six universities of
technology(South African Higher Education, 2009).As of 18 February 2011, there were also 87
registered and 27 provisionally registered private higher education institutions. In 2009 the public
higher education institutions employed 43 446 academic staff and 117 797 staff in total. As of 15
October 2010, there were also 84 registered and 25 provisionally registered private higher
education institutions (Department of Education and Training, 2012).
3.4.4 National Skills Development Strategy III(NSDS III)
South Africa requires an integrated human capital development strategy to ensure social and
economic transformation. The current NSDS,third version, was provided to the 21 SETAs on 01
April 2011. The NSDS falls under the jurisdiction of the Department of Higher Education and
Training (DHET), which assumed responsibility for skills development from the Department of
Labour in 2009.
South Africa is at an educational impasse. Unemployed youth are being imperilled in substandard
educational structures, with limited tangible prospects of finding employment. Employment
creation is made remarkably unattractive with current labour market policy and limited incentives
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for employers to create jobs or fill positions that could be outsourced (often globally) or
mechanised.
The reduction of mandatory grant rates to 40 % and the creation of a 10 % pivotal (professional, occupational,technical, and academic) placement allowance Expending skills development levy income resources, including the National Skills Fund, to underwrite capacity building and opportunity-promotion at public education and training provider institutions Public service and its participation in mainstream skills development including possible levy payments
Review of SETA and public FET’s management and performance Improved SETA governance focus on strategy and sector skills development priorities Quality Council for Trades and Occupations to take over ETQA functions from SETAs in future Skills development to support government’s goals for rural development Enhanced placement of both students and graduates, especially from the FET colleges and universities of technology Promotion of strategic partnerships and innovation in project delivery to drive key skills strategies as well as to meet the training needs of the unemployed, non-levy-paying co-operatives, NGOs and community structures and vulnerable groups
Table 3.1 NSDS III – Vicissitudes
Priorities that advance the Human Resource Development Strategy Priorities identified by the Minister after consultation with the National Skills Authority (NSA) Projects that align with the National Skills Development Strategy in support of the new economic growth path, the Industrial Policy Action Plan and rural development
increased relevance of skills development interventions and building strong partnerships between stakeholders and social partners Establishing a credible institutional mechanism for skills planning Increasing access to occupationally-directed programmes PIVOTAL grants Addressing low levels of language and numeracy skills to provide access to additional training Encouraging better use of workplace-based skills development Support for small enterprises, non-profit organisations, co-operatives and worker-led training initiatives Increasing public sector capacity for improved service delivery and supporting the building of a developmental state
Building career and occupational guidance Encouraging and supporting worker-led, NGO- and community training initiatives
Table 3.2 NSDS III – Priorities Sector strategies aligned to government- and industry-development initiatives, programmes and projects
Relevant sector-based programmes that address the needs of unemployed people and first-time entrants to the labour market PIVOTAL programmes that provide full occupationally directed qualifications. These courses are intended for colleges or universities and include supervised practical learning in a workplace as a prerequisite for graduation.
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Programmes that contribute towards the revitalisation of occupational education and training, including the competence of lecturers and trainers and their ability to provide work-relevant education and training Partnerships between public and private training providers, between providers and SETAs and between SETAs, in order to address inter- and trans-sectoral needs Increased focus on skills for rural development
Table 3.3 NSDS III – Determinants supported by NSDS III
3.5 Accreditationmodels
“Education is simply the soul of a society as it passes from one generation to another.”
Chesterson
This section provided insight into provider accreditation and external moderation processes in
South Africa and offered a global comparative review of available accreditation andexternal
moderation frameworks. South Africa has adopted a fusion of accreditation and external
moderation processes.
Insight into occupationally directed provider and external moderation processes and the national
ETQA landscape has been outlined. A comparative analysis of SETA ETQA processes, the CHE,
QCTO (proposed) and Umalusi, has also been provided, to outline the proportionalaccreditation
processes and requirements.
3.5.1 International accreditation models and guidelines
The need for South Africa to compete favourable inthe global educational arenais incontrovertible.
Knowledge economies are driven by their ability to invent and adapt in challenging times.Global
competitive credentials are important as multinationals operate in various markets and require a
seamless integration of operations. Industry professional bodies are serving as second quality tiers
in ensuring global standards are benchmarked to validate professional credentials on completion
of professional qualifications.
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Accreditation is defined as “the outcome of a process by which a governmental, para-statal or
private body (accreditation agency) assess the quality of a Higher Education Institution (HEI). This
may be done as a whole, or for a specific higher education programme/ course, in order to
officially recognise it as having met certain set criteria or standards and award a quality label”
(Sanyal, 2007:04).
As governments experience increased pressure and budgetary constraints, subsidisedpublic
further and higher education will become exceedingly restricted. The roles of private providers are
becoming more important in the delivery of quality and affordable education. Globally, private
learning institutions account for approximately 30% of all students enrolled in higher
education(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2009). The private
sector is the fastest-growing segment in higher education in many countries in Africa(United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization , 2006).African registration in higher
education has risen quicker than elsewhere (by some 66% since 1999). Notwithstanding this
express growth, Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest participation rate globally - 5.6%. A child in
Sub-Saharan Africa is less probable to complete primary school than a child in Europe is to go into
university(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2009).
The following organisations / institutions serve as international confederated accreditation bodies.
Global relationships are being forged between international accreditation bodies. The following
organisations have built a reputation for credibility and regional representation.
3.5.2 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)and
the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
UNESCO and OECD have established procedures for quality delivery in cross-border higher
education in line with the resolution of the 32nd session of the General Conference of
UNESCO(UNESCO and The Commonwealth of Learning, 2003).
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The four main policy objectives for the UNESCO guidelines: (UNESCO and The Commonwealth of
Learning, 2003):
� Students/learners protection from the vulnerabilities of misrepresentation, low-quality
provision, and qualifications of insufficient legitimacy;
� Qualifications ought to be intelligible and descriptive in order to ensure an acceleration of
their international legitimacy and accessibility. Reliable and user-friendly evidence should
serve as the foundations;
� Recognition measures must be transparent, comprehensible, sensible, and consistent and
limit liability to mobile professionals;
� National quality assurance and accreditation agencies need to reinforce their international
collaboration to develop reciprocated understanding.
3.5.3 The International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education
(INQAAHE)
The International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE) was
established in 1991. The INQAAHEis a global voluntary association of over 200 organisations,
representing more than 130 countries linked to 14 regional networks. The INQAAHE isrecognised
as an NGO with UNESCO and is active in the field of global quality assurance in higher education.
The bulk of the INQAAHE membership bases are quality assurance agencies (Klaassen, 2009).
The South African Council on Higher Education (CHE) and the Higher Education Quality Committee
(HEQC) joined INQAAHEin November 2011 as the first quality agency in Africa to be conferred with
this formal recognition. The HEQC states that this confirms their comprehensive adherence to the
good practice guidelines for external quality assurance agencies(Higher Education Quality
Committee, 2011).
INQAAHEspecifies that the accreditation processbegin with the formation of an accreditation
agency with nine principles of operation (Massy, 2003):
� Focus on the customer;
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� Good leadership;
� Stakeholders’ involvement;
� Focus on indicators of inputs, processes and outcomes;
� Evidence-based decision-making;
� Recognising continuous improvement;
� Allowing Institutional autonomy in academic matters;
� Optimising benefits to stakeholders
� Ensuring follow-up improvement actions.
INQAAHE accumulates and circulates statistics on the current and developing global theory and
practice of accreditation for quality assurance in higher education at the international
level(Klaassen, 2009).
3.5.4 The Association of African Universities (AAU)
The Association of African Universities (AAU) is an international non-governmental organisation
founded in Morocco in 1967. The head office is located in Accra, Ghana. The AAU has been
selected to direct the higher education component of the “Action Plan for the Second Decade of
Education of the African Union”(Association of African Universities, 2009).
The Association of African Universities (AAU) is the apex organisation and forum for consultation,
exchange of information and co-operation among institutions of higher education in Africa. The
association has provided a platform for research, reflection, consultation, debates, co-operation
and collaboration on issues pertaining to higher education (Association of African Universities,
2009).
The undertaking of the AAU is to raise the quality of higher education in Africa and reinforce its
influence to African growth by fostering alliances between its member organisations. By providing
support to their principal purposes of teaching, learning, research and community engagement;
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and by enabling critical reflection on, and consensus-building around, issues touching higher
education and the advancement of Africa (Association of African Universities, 2009).
Memberships are representative of all five sub-regions of Africa. The AAU has associations with a
growing number of organisations within and outside Africa. The AAU is conferred observer
standing by the African Union (AU), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) and the United Nations University (UNU). Membership is 265 members
from 46 African states (Association of African Universities, 2009).
The AAU has assembled a “Database of African Theses and Dissertations” (DATAD) to advance
management and admittance to African scholarly work. Theses and dissertations characterise a
substantial percentage of Africa’s examination achievement (Association of African Universities,
2009).
Objectives of DATAD: (Association of African Universities, 2009)
� Profiling a regional databank of theses and dissertations;
� Supporting the formation of amilieuadvantageous for research and publication in African
universities and the constituencies;
� Creatingcapability in African universities for the assortment, management and distribution of
theses and dissertations electronically;
� Providing distinction and enlightening availability to the work of African scholars inside and
external of the region;
� Enabling the development of suitable copyright processes and regulations that encourage the
defense of the intellectual property rights of African University researchers and scholars;
� Providing support for AAU programmes that have a purpose of capacity construction in the
areas of research andadvancement of cooperation between affiliate universities and
networking of institutions.
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3.5.5 The Asia-Pacific Quality Network (APQN)
The Asia-Pacific Quality Network (APQN) was establishedto attendto quality assurance agencies in
higher education in the region. The Asia–Pacific region comprisesof over half the world's
population. The APQN mission statement is “to enhance the quality of higher education in Asia
and the Pacific region through strengthening the work of quality assurance agencies and extending
the cooperation between them”. APQN has received support from the World Bank and
UNESCO(UNESCO-APQN , 2006).
The Asia-Pacific region is a speedilyemerging constituency with avoracious desire to take part in
education and development with accumulativeflexibility of students and providers.The region has
an ever-increasing requirement for the expansion of quality assurance agencies that must enter
into anagreement with public and private providers and students that cross national borders.
APQN is making a concurred effort to edifice associations between agencies and they are
supportiveto countries that do not have their own quality assurance agencies. This devoutness and
partnership has conveyed the continuous development and enhancement of APQN to serve its
constituency(UNESCO-APQN , 2006).
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3.5.6 Global Initiative on Quality Assurance Capacity (GIQAC)
GIQAC embraces quality assurance as a central theme and highlights that quality can only be
effective when all stakeholders comprehend and embrace its challenges and benefits. GIQAC
argues for a philosophy of qualityfrom global leaders in higher education. GIQAC offers the context
to maintain a culture of quality. The World Bank provided the funding for the establishment and
operation of GIQAC in 2007, and said funds are controlled through UNESCO. The GIQAC
determinations and purposes are to support original regional and global energies that are well
organised and effective in encouraging knowledge distribution between wide ranges of quality
assurance practitioners (UNESCO, 2008).
APQN has been one of the beneficiaries of GIQAC subsequent to its implementation in 2008.
APQN has accomplished a number of projects sponsored by GIQAC from May 2008 to April 2009,
which include (UNESCO-APQN , 2006):
� APQN website: expansion/maintenance and database development;
� Internship and cross-regional staff exchange programme;
� Training materials and resource package;
� Chinese translation project;
� APQN referenced quality assurance practitioners (whether in higher education institutions,
quality assurance agencies or government bodies) are absorbed on the progression of
structural quality assurance frameworks.
The United Nations mandatedUNESCO to drive the higher education agenda and interface with
international agencies and other implementing partners in 194 countries.GIQAC is directed to
further UNESCO’s work through the Global Forum on International Quality Assurance,
Accreditation and the Recognition of Qualifications and the UNESCO/OECD Guidelines for Quality
Provision in Cross-border Higher Education (UNESCO, 2008).
The following section introduced a selection of global qualification frameworks in an attempt to
outline available and comparative frameworks.
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3.5.7 European Higher Education Qualifications Framework
The European higher education structure has evolved over 1200 years of evolution. The first
recorded European University was established in the 9th century in Salerno, Italy, followed in the
11th century by Bologna in Italy and then Paris in France. Oxford and Cambridge in England,
Salamanca in Spain, and Poland followed in the establishment of Universities. The European
University model has remained constant, notwithstanding the refined concept of higher education
(Cobban, 1975).
The predominant qualifications framework for the European higher education area descends its
characteristic from the intentions articulated through the Bologna Process. Thirty one European
Ministers accountable for higher education that sanctions global transparency, recognition and
mobility signed the Bologna declaration in June 1999.The European Consortium for Accreditation
Association entails of fifteen accreditation organisations from ten European states. ECA was
recognised in 2003 with the aim to accomplish the mutual gratitude of accreditation declarations
among the candidates(Castejon, 2009).
These agreements are proposed to endorse the acknowledgement of qualifications of students
and graduates in Europe. ECA members cooperate with authorities responsible for the recognition
of foreign qualifications to accomplish automatic acknowledgment of qualifications from
accredited programmes and institutions to enable cross-border accreditation and recognition of
cooperative programmes (e.g. European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University
Students (Erasmus Mundus programmes)(European Commission, 2009).
Institutions are only required to apply for accreditation in one of the ECA member countries to
have their qualifications recognised across all ECA member countries. The EQF has been a valuable
piece of the European education landscape. It sets out common reference points among European
countries and beyond in relating their respective qualifications systems and improving interaction
of the European region with the rest of the world (Castejon, 2009).
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European nations confirm a higher education framework that sanctions policy and construction of
higher education institutions. The framework holds stakeholders e.g. learners, staff in higher
education institutions and social partners as instrumental in the framework’s success.The
European Qualifications Framework (EQF) is a set of eight reference levels. This qualifications
framework affords a shared appreciative at all levels in a common locus for the European Union.
The overarching qualificationsframework augments the usefulness of qualifications through the
European Higher Education Area (EHEA). The higher education stakeholders established the
overarching qualificationsframework across Europe (European Commission, 2009).
A national framework of higher education qualifications is defined by the EQF: “The single
description, at national level or level of an education system, which is internationally understood
and through which all qualifications and other learning achievements in higher education may be
described and related to each other in a coherent way and which defines the relationship between
higher education qualifications” (European Higher Education, 1999).
The EQF approach intends to:(European Commission, 2009):
� Support equally the requirements of the labour market (for knowledge, skills and
competences) and education and teaching delivery;
� Promote the verification of non-formal and informal learning;
� Assist with the repositioning and use of qualifications amidvaried states and education and
training constructions.
The levels in the EQF:(European Commission, 2009)
The EQF has eight levels of descriptors characterising the learning outcomes pertinent to
qualifications at that level in any classification of qualifications.
The EQF supports the vocational education construct through the European Credit System for
Vocational Education and Training (ECVET), European Quality Assurance Reference Framework for
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Vocational Education and Training (EQARF) and the EUROPASS, a trans-national document on
educational achievement widely used across Europe.
Degree structure in Europe(European Commission, 2009)
The European national higher education systems have a three-cycle degree configuration.
Students must first complete a Bachelors programme,and then apply to be admitted to a Master’s
programme in the second cycle, and the third cycle is the Doctoral programme.The developing
advances within the Bologna Process have been key factors in stimulating reflections. Emerging
from this discussion has been the prerequisite to have a policy motivation on the higher education
credentials. The single, internationally accepted framework must be implicit and all qualifications
and further learning accomplishment in higher education may be designated and related to each
other in an articulate approach.
The European Union has agreed the set of specific objectives:(European Commission, 19
September 2003):
� Recognition of a taxonomy of effortlesslycoherent and corresponding degrees, also through
the achievement of the Diploma Supplement;
� Agreement of a system fundamentallystranded on two main cycles, undergraduate and
graduate;
� Admission to the second cycle will imposepositiveaccomplishment of first cycle studies,
lasting a minimum of three years;
� Instituting a modus operandi of credits as suitable resources of motivating the
greatestreputable student mobility. Credits might be advanced in non-higher teaching
contexts, covering lifelong learning, distributed they are recognised by accepting Universities;
� Endorsement of mobility by incapacitatingimpairments to the operativesubmission of
legitimate progress;
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� Validation of European co-operation in quality assurance with an understanding to emerging
equivalent criteria and methodologies;
� Progression of the necessary European proportions in higher education, relative to curricular
progress, inter-institutional co-operation, mobility arrangements and integrated programmes
of study, training and research.
EU quality assurance purposes include:(European Commission, 2009)
� Development and augmentation of quality;
� Preservation of national educational criteria;
� Recognition of programmes and/or institutions;
� Accountability (in return for autonomy);
� The delivery of independently verified evidence about programmes and/or institutions.
European prototypes of quality assurance can contain assessments and accreditation at subject,
programme and institutional levels and permutations of the aforementioned. The European
qualityassurance framework is considered in the light of the Bologna Process that targets the
establishment of a European process of collaboration with a view to evolving equivalent principles
and methodologies. The European Ministers of Education adopted the’ Standards and Guidelines
for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area’ (EHEA)(European Higher Education,
1999).
European Standards and Guidelines(European Consortium for Accreditation in Higher Education,
2005).
The following fundamental doctrines pervade the European Standards and Guidelines:
i. The welfares of students as well as employers and the society improves more commonly in
good quality higher education;
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ii. The fundamental prominence of institutional autonomy, tempered by a recognition that this
conveys with it substantial responsibilities;
iii. The requirement for external quality assurance to be fit for its purpose and to place only
suitable and essential encumbrance on institutions for the accomplishment of its intentions;
The guidelines above intend to validate:(European Consortium for Accreditation in Higher
Education, 2005)
i. Internal quality assurance within higher education institutions;
ii. External quality assurance of higher education;
iii. External quality assurance agencies;
iv. A peer review system.
EU Accreditation process
Accreditation is defined as “a formal and independent decision, indicating that an institution of
higher education and/or programmes meet certain predefined standards”. This definition also
covers some quality assessments that are described as “accreditation -like procedures” (European
Commission, 2001):
� Accreditation processes are momentous for external quality assurance in Europe.
Accreditation is increasingly more distinct as each formalised declaration by a suitably
recognised authority as to whether an institution of higher education or a programme agrees
to prerequisite criteria;
� Accreditation is accomplished through a multi-step development;
� Self-evaluation or documentation submitted by the entity undertaking accreditation;
� External assessment by independent experts; and,
� The accreditation judgment.The accreditation pronouncement is grounded on the external
evaluation. The accreditation pronouncement is imposing in nature and grades in a “yes”
(with or without conditions) or “no” judgment with a restricted validity.
European countries have dedicated themselves to presenting the recommended model of quality
assurance. European Ministers have decided to compile a European database of quality assurance
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agencies (EQAR). The agencies will be acknowledged after an adequate peer review of the
agencies. This peer review will have to meet the requirements of the European Standards and
Guidelines (European Commission, 2009).
3.5.8 Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
In exploring Technical and Vocational Education and Training (including Occupationally Directed
Education and Training), it is important to understand the global referencing of Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET).
TVET is concerned with the acquiring of knowledge and skills for the world of work, including
apprenticeship training, vocational education, technical education, Technical-Vocational Education
(TVE), Occupational Education (OE), Vocational Education and Training (VET), Professional and
Vocational Education (PVE), Career and Technical Education (CTE), Workforce Education (WE),
Workplace Education (WPE), etc. (King, 2009).
Education and training are intertwined. The importance of validating basic and secondary
education as the building blocks foran operative vocational education and training system cannot
be over-stated. “Good quality basic education and initial training, availability of adult and second-
chance education, together with a learning culture, ensure high levels of participation in
continuous education and training (UNESCO and UNEVOC , 2004).
The defensive debate on cataloguing occupationally directed positions is irrelevant. TVET, VET and
CTE are principally duplicate in meaning. The South African occupationally directed education and
training learning path includes learnerships, apprenticeshipsand internshipsetc.TVET
initiallyfocused on the training for work as being the main goal of TVET, and this remains
prominent in many developing nations (King, 2009).
Nevertheless, with the technological revolutions and innovations in science and technology during
the 20th century, new domains of knowledge and new disciplines have become important at all
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levels of education and training. Further, the upward differentiation of TVET from first to second
level and then to the third level of education has been an important development of the 20th
century and set the stage for the 21st century. The current focus is increasingly upon preparing
knowledge workers to meet the challenges posed during the transition from the Industrial Age to
the Information Age, with its concomitant post-industrial human resource requirements and the
changing world of work (UNESCO and UNEVOC , 2004).
"That vocational education sits at the centre of skills development is clear – how we design and
deliver it is less clear. The best way to teach vocational education is widely debated. The challenge
of how best to link conceptual knowledge and workplace experience continues to plague TVET"
(Pandor, 2008).
TVET has returned to the limelight asAfrican policy makers, The Wold Bank and the international
donor community consider the potential positive impact TVET is able to deliver in relation to
national and regional development. TVET focuses on skills and education for the world of work
and the acquisition of employable skills. TVET is designed and geared to be offered by a wide
range of institutionsthat address the skills-set requirement of a varied band of learners from
diverse socio-economic and academic backgrounds (Ministers of Education of the African Union,
2007).
Foremost awarding bodies such as the Cities and Guilds, and Cisco, have conventional quality
requirements for the award of their qualifications. International agencies such as ISO are used
across many national VET systems (including the Australian system) and have a formal role in the
quality assurance processes in the German VET system (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009).
The African Union’s (AU) vision of “an integrated, peaceful, prosperous Africa, competing globally
in the knowledge economy” has resulted in an AU“Plan of Action for the Second Decade of
Education” (2006 – 2015). The AU recognises the importance of TVET. TVET should therefore be
integrated into the general education system (Ministers of Education of the African Union, 2007).
3.5.9 Conclusion
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International accreditation frameworks are predominantly regionally driven to address regional
specific emerging and seminal issues. Global accreditation endorsement such as the European
Quality Improvement System (EQUIS)for business school accreditation endorsement has built
significant global credibility.
Common denominators in the global accreditation system confirm the most important quality
evaluation indicators aspeer review mechanisms, institutional academic autonomy and capacity,
external assessment processes from industry/experts, quality assurance systems,national
educational criteria, stakeholders’ involvement andstudents’protection, mobilityand articulation.
The importance of accreditation is ever more prevalent as international validation of quality
assurance standards enhances standards of education globally. The requirement of multinational
organisations to operate seamlessly in respective industries requires a comparative level of
qualifications and competence of representative employees.
Having outlined global and regional institutions, the researcher explored in depth accreditation
and external moderation models in selected countries, in order to allow for comparative
contemplation.
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3.6 Country accreditation models
3.6.1 The South African accreditation framework
The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) regulates the South African accreditation
framework for private providers under the auspices of the Department of Higher Education and
Training and the
Department of Basic Education. Public institutions are automatically accredited by virtue of their
publicstatus and are accountable to the CHE, the Department of Higher Education and Trainingand
the Department of Basic Education. Qualifications of all institutions must be registered with
SAQA(National Qualifications Framework Act, 2008).
The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) recognises three bands of education and training,
namely General Education and Training (GET), Further Education and Training (FET) and Higher
Education and Training (HET)(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012).Umalusi is the
Quality Council for General and Further Education and Training as provided for in the GENFETQA
Amendment Act. The NQF is an all-inclusive system sanctioned by the Minister of Education for
the classification, registration, publication and articulation of quality-assured national
qualifications (National Qualifications Framework Act, Act 67 of 2008).
The Objectives of the NQF are to(National Qualifications Framework Act, 2008):
� Create a single cohesive national framework for learning accomplishments;
� Facilitate admission to, and mobility and progression within, education (articulation), training
and career paths;
� Improve the quality of education and training;
� Fast track the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment
prospects.
The Council on Higher Education (CHE) is the Quality Council for Higher Education as provided for
in the Higher Education Amendment Act. The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations is the
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Quality Council for occupations and is provided for in the Skills Development Amendment Act.
Umalusi is the Quality Council for General and Further Education and Training as provided fo
the GENFETQA Amendment Act
There are three Quality Councils for the three main sectors in education namel
further education and training, higher education and the occupational sector. SAQA plays an
important role throughout the NQF and must advance and implement policy and criteria, after
consultation with the Quality Councils
qualifications and part-qualifications
2008).
General and Further
Education Band
Further Education and
Training Band
Higher Education and Training
Band
The NQF is a single integrated system, which comprises of three co
General and Further
Education and Training -
General and Further
Education Band -
Umalusi
NQF 1 - 4
Quality Council for occupations and is provided for in the Skills Development Amendment Act.
Council for General and Further Education and Training as provided fo
the GENFETQA Amendment Act (Department of Education and Training, 2012)
There are three Quality Councils for the three main sectors in education namel
further education and training, higher education and the occupational sector. SAQA plays an
important role throughout the NQF and must advance and implement policy and criteria, after
consultation with the Quality Councils, for the development, registration and publication of
qualifications (Ministers of Education and Labour Joint Policy Statement,
eral and Further Umalusi / SETA ETQAs (QCTO)
DHET / DoBE
NQF level 1 /
her Education and Umalusi / SETA ETQAs (QCTO) Department of Basic Education DHET
NQF level 2 National (Occupational) Certificates level 2NQF level 3 National (Occupational ) Certificates level NQF level 4 Certificate and National (Occupational ) Certificate
Higher Education and Training CHE DHET SETA ETQAs / QCTO
NQF level 5 and Advanced National (Occupational ) CertificateNQF level Advanced CertificatesNQF level 7
The NQF is a single integrated system, which comprises of three co-ordinated qualification sub-frameworks, for:
- Higher Education and Training
CHE
NQF 5-10
Trades and Occupations
GFETQF and Occupational
Qualifications Framework
NQF 1
Quality Council for occupations and is provided for in the Skills Development Amendment Act.
Council for General and Further Education and Training as provided for in
(Department of Education and Training, 2012).
There are three Quality Councils for the three main sectors in education namely general and
further education and training, higher education and the occupational sector. SAQA plays an
important role throughout the NQF and must advance and implement policy and criteria, after
t, registration and publication of
(Ministers of Education and Labour Joint Policy Statement,
/ Grade 9
NQF level 2 / Grade 10 and National (Occupational) Certificates level 2 NQF level 3 / Grade 11 and National (Occupational ) Certificates level 3 NQF level 4 / National Senior Certificate and National (Occupational ) Certificates level 4
NQF level 5 / Higher Certificates and Advanced National (Occupational ) Certificates NQF level 6 /Diplomas and Advanced Certificates NQF level 7 /Bachelor’s Degrees
ordinated qualification
Trades and Occupations
GFETQF and Occupational
Qualifications Framework
(OQF)
QCTO
NQF 1 - 8 (10?)
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and Advanced Diplomas NQF level 8 / Masters, Post-Graduate Diplomas and Professional Qualifications NQF level 9 / Masters Degrees NQF level 10 / Doctoral Degrees
Table 3.4 South African Quality Councils and NQF levels
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3.6.1.1 The Council on Higher Education (CHE)
The current Higher Education Qualifications Framework was established in 2007 and effective
from January 2009 (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2007). The purpose of the
amended framework was to ensure that a coherent process was enabled for articulation and
transfer of students to other alternative institutions of higher learning(Council for Higher
Education, 2001).
The Higher Education Act, 1997 establishes the South African Council on Higher Education. The
CHE is the Quality Council for Higher Education and is responsible for advising the Minister of
Education on all higher education issues and for quality assurance and promotion through the
Higher Education Quality Committee(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2007).
HET quality assurance is a statutory responsibility of the CHE, supported by the Higher Education
Quality Committee (HEQC),a permanent sub-committee. The HEQC operates within the
framework of the NQF and is accredited by SAQA as the band ETQA for higher
education(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2007). Jita is of the opinion that the
processes of stakeholder involvement in the higher education quality assurance system have been
rather inadequate and poorly conceptualised (Jita, 2006).
The functions of the HEQC are to(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2007):
i. promote quality in higher education;
ii. audit the quality assurance mechanisms of higher education institutions; and
iii. accredit programmes of higher education.
The South African Council on Higher Education (CHE) is an independent statutory body responsible
for advising the Minister of Higher Education and Training on all matters related to higher
education policy issues and for quality assurance in higher education and training. The Higher
Education Qualifications Framework (HEQF) applies to all institutions of higher learning, including
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private and public. The HEQC regulates qualifications from Higher Certificates to Doctoral and
Professional Doctoral Degrees (Council for Higher Education, 2001).
The CHE is responsible for quality assurance and works closely with SAQA and DHET. SAQA is
responsible for qualification registration on the NQF and SAQA must develop policy and criteria,
after consultation with the Quality Councils, for assessment, recognition of prior learning and
credit accumulation and transfer(National Qualifications Framework Act, 2008).
Programme Accreditation and Coordination Directorate(Department of Education (DoE) and the
South African Qualifications Authority , 2008):
Programme accreditation entails the evaluation of higher education academic programmes in
accordance with the HEQC’s programme accreditation criteria that stipulate the minimum
requirements for programme input, process, output and impact and review (Higher Education
Quality Committee, 2004):
The Programme Accreditation and Coordination Directorate has a wide range of responsibilities,
which include:
� Accreditation of new programmes from private and public higher education institutions;
� National reviews: the re-accreditation of existing programmes in a particular
programme/discipline area;
� Collaboration with other ETQAS, professional councils and other regulatory authorities on
qualityassurance in higher education. This includes delegation of certain quality assurance
responsibilities tobodies or institutions with systems to carry out such responsibilities. The
delegation of short courses,RPL, assessor training, moderation of assessment and certification
arrangements to institutions fallswithin this category of work.
Quality assurance functions delegated to Higher Education Institutions(Council on Higher
Education , October 2009).
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The HEQC is required to report to SAQA on how its constituent providers ensure quality in the
following areas (Higher Education Quality Committee , 1997 ):
� Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
� Assessor training and development
� Moderation of assessment
� Certification arrangements
� Short courses
The large majority of private providers will not go through an institutional audit. The HEQC Board
decided that the Directorates should develop an institutional accreditation system collaboratively
for Accreditation, Coordination and Institutional Audits, in order to evaluate institutional
arrangements for quality at the private providers that are not being fully audited. The
development of the institutional framework to guide this process is in progress(Higher Education
Quality Committee, 2004).Public providers have automatic institutional accreditation.
Higher Education and Training
Admission into higher education requires a Grade 12 pass or Grade 12 passes with exemption.
Private institutions offering higher education must register with the Department of Higher
Education and Training in accordance with the Higher Education Act, 1997, Act No 101 of 1997
(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012).
The registrar will consider the provider application for registration as a private higher education
institution. The registrar will confirm if the applicant will comply with the quality assurance
requirements of the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) of the Council on Higher
Education (CHE) (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012).
3.6.1.2 Umalusi
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Umalusi is a statutory South Africanorganisation that determines and monitors standards for
general and further education and training. Umalusi ensures the quality of education and training
between NQF levels 2 and 4. Two acts, namely the National Qualifications Framework Act of 2008
and the General, Further Education, and Training Quality Assurance Act of 2001, amended in
2008,determine Umalusi’s mandate.
The Constitution of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) protects the right to basic education for all.
South Africa also subscribes to a number of international conventions that underwrite the right to
basic education(The Constitution of South Africa, Act 108, 1996).
Umalusi performs quality assurance of exit-point assessments in FET Colleges, ABET centres and
schools.(Portfolio Committee on Basic Education, 2010).
Umalusi has five key functions: (Umalusi Presentation to the Basic Education Portfolio
Committee, 2011):
i. Evaluating qualifications and curricula to ensure that they are of the expected standard;
ii. Moderating assessment to ensure that it is fair, valid and reliable;
iii. Conducting research to ensure educational quality;
iv. Accrediting educational and assessment providers;
v. Certifying learner attainments.
Private further education and training providers must register with the Department of Higher
Education and Training, as well asUmalusi, should they wish to offer full qualifications on the NQF
between levels 2 and 4.
The notice published by the Minister of Education in (Government Gazette No 28911,
2006)confirms“With effect from 1 January 2008 no person, other than a Public FET institution or
an organ of state, shall be allowed to offer FET qualifications unless such a person is registered or
provisionally registered as a private FET institution in terms of the Act. Any person who
contravenes the Act is guilty of an offence and is liable on conviction to a fine or imprisonment not
exceeding five years or to both fine and imprisonment” (Government Gazette No 28911, 2006).
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Training providers are required to obtain programme approval for the delivery of full qualifications
from their primary focus or through a MoU process prior to applying to Umalusi and then to the
Department of Higher Education and training. No learner may be enrolled on the aforementioned
qualifications prior to the DHET confirmation being received (South African Qualifications
Authority , 2000).
Public FET colleges are regarded as a provincial competence and resort under the various
provincial education departments. The Minister of Education is responsible for determining
national policy for FET colleges. FET colleges are not permitted to certificate in their own right as
Umalusi, as the progeny to the former South African Certification Council,(Stumpf, Papier,
Needhamand Nel, 2009)completes the certification utility.
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� General Education and Training
Primary and secondary school constitutes the General Education and Training band from grade R
to grade 9, and Adult Basic Education and Training, latterly referred to as Adult Education and
Training (AET). The registration of private or independent institutions offering general education
and training is the competence of the provincial education departments. The registration of these
institutions is in terms of the South African Schools Act(South African Schools Act, 1996, Act 84,
1996).
� Further Education and Training
Further Education and Training includes Grades 10 to 12 and includes occupationally directed
education and training offered in technical colleges, community colleges and private colleges.
Private institutions offering further education and training programmes must register with the
Department of Education (Further Education and Training Colleges Act 16, 2006).
3.6.1.3 Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO)
The Skills Development Act,2008, established the QCTO. The QCTO is responsible for advising the
Minister of Higher Education and Training (DHET) on all matters of policy concerning occupational
standards and qualifications. The occupational qualifications levels are pegged from NQF levels 1
to 10. SAQA level descriptors determine the level of the qualification (The General and Further
Education and Training Qualifications Framework, 2011).The QCTO is responsible for standards
setting and quality assurance of occupational qualifications on the trades and occupations sub-
framework. QCTO recommends to SAQA qualifications for registration on the NQF (Department of
Education (DoE) and the South African Qualifications Authority , 2008).
The Organising Framework for Occupations commenced development in February 2005. The
framework is based on the conceptual ILO framework and operationalised with analogous
classifications on the Australian and New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (Fretwell,
2001).
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The QCTO is responsible for(The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations, 2011):
Establishing and maintaining occupational standards and qualifications:
i. The quality assurance of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in and for
the workplace;
ii. Designing and developing occupational standards and qualifications and submitting them to
the South African Qualifications Authority for registration on the National Qualifications
Framework;
iii. Ensuring the quality of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in and for the
workplace;
iv. The QCTO will appoint quality partners (statutory and non-statutory professional bodies,
occupational associations, legislated boards, SETAs, etc.) for related occupational
qualifications. National moderating bodies will be appointed to delegate certain quality
assurance responsibilities (SAQA);
v. An occupational qualification is associated with a trade, occupation or profession, resulting
from work-based learning and consisting of knowledge, work experience and practical unit
standards;
vi. Occupational qualifications will be assessed through a national standardised integrated
assessment administered by an external body.
The Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) operates within the QCTO framework and
applies the ILO International Standards Classification of Occupations. The OFO is a skills-based
coded classification system that includes all occupations in the South African
economy.Occupations are linked with comprehensive competence profiles thatCommittees of
Expert Practice generate. The OFO informs the Career Pathway Frameworks interrelated to
learning paths (Marock, 2011).
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The OFO organises job posts and titles into a condensed structure of eight major occupational
groups (e.g. professionals, machinery operators, managers, technicians). Each of the eightprimary
groups is delineated into more detailed occupational groupings that result in alevel of an
occupationas reached on the OFO. Each occupation on the OFO has its own unique reference
code.(South African Qualifications Authority, 2009).
The following categories are identified:
� Business administration, information services, human resources and teaching and related
occupations;
� Finance, insurance, sales, marketing, retail and logistics and related occupations;
� Security and law and related occupations;
� Art, design installation, maintenance and construction and related occupations;
� Production and processing and related occupations;
� Transportation, materials moving and mobile plant operating and related occupations.
The South African occupationally directed education and training environment operates primarily
between NQF levels 1 and 4. Occupationally directed qualifications have been developed at higher
levels on the NQF with significantly less success in enrolment numbers. The QCTO has been
awarded jurisdiction from NQF levels 1 to 10, and will quality assure these qualifications once
operational. It is anticipated by the researcher that further changes will however be made to the
QCTO framework and that NQF levels 9 and 10 will remain under the jurisdiction of the CHE
(National Qualifications Framework Act, 2008).
The current quality assurance of all occupationally directed qualifications falls within the
jurisdiction of assigned ETQAs. Occupationally directed providers offering full qualifications from
NQF levels 2 to 4 are required to register with Umalusi and DHET as an FET provider. Quality
Councils are new band-based structures accountable for the development and quality assurance
of qualifications in their sub-frameworks of the National Qualifications Framework. At the time of
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this research, ETQAs were still performing the functions intended for the QCTO under the
jurisdiction of SAQA (National Qualifications Framework Act, Act 67 of 2008).
The Quality Council for Tradesand Occupations is mandated (National Qualifications Framework
Act 67, 2008) to perform the following functions:
� The QCTO is accountable for inaugurating and continuing occupational standards and
qualifications;
� The quality assurance of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in and for the
workplace;
� Designing and developing occupational standards and qualifications and submitting them to
SAQA for registration on the NQF;
� Confirming the quality of occupational standards and qualifications and learning in and for
the workplace;
� The National Qualifications Framework is designed as a succession of learning achievements
arranged in ascending order from levels one to levels ten. Respective levels on the National
Qualifications Framework are manifested by a declaration of learning achievement
proprietary as a level descriptor.
The Quality Council for Trades and Occupation qualification landscape was at the time of this
research in the process of settling; therefore the level and minimum credits should have been
finalised imminently. SETA ETQAs and other occupational ETQAs e.g. SABPP are currently
operating under the jurisdiction of SAQA and the DHET in anticipation of the QCTO
operationalising phase.
3.6.1.4 Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) Education and Training
Quality Assurance bodies (ETQAs)
The Department of Education was delineated in 2009 into The Department of Higher Education
and Training (DHET) and The Department of Basic Education. The change included the absorption
of the Skills Development function of the Department of Labour (DOL) into The Department of
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Higher Education and Training (DHET). Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) were
consequently removed from DOL to the jurisdiction of DHET. The Minister assumed the legal
mandate on 01 November 2009 (Parliamentary Monitoring Group, 2009).
The Quality Council was at the time of this research due to replace the current Sector Education
and Training Authorities (SETAs) Education and Training Quality Assurance (ETQA) structures for
Trades and Occupations (QCTO) once said body had become operational. The QCTO had been
established and enacted and was planned for operational confirmation during 2012.
The NQF Act (No. 67 of 2008) repealed the SAQA Act (No. 58 of 1995), including the regulations
under which SETAs were accredited to conduct quality assurance (Department of Higher Education
and Training, 2012).
The SETA structure involves organisations established in terms of the Skills Development Act(Skills
Development Act, 1998), with the resolution to guarantee the advance of skills in South Africa in
specific sectors. SETAs must accomplish equipoise in the supply and demand of skills in their sector
and declare education and training for qualifications and learnerships under their corresponding
jurisdiction(National Qualifications Framework Act, Act 67 of 2008) :
� Recognises and augments the skills of the present employees, (in accumulation to ensuring
that new potential employees to the labour market are satisfactorily competent);
� Achieves sanctioned standards within a national framework as provided subject to
authentication and quality assurance;
� Benchmarks compared to international standards;
� Ensures an Education and Training Quality Assurance (ETQA) may accredit an occupational
training provider on request if it observes the standards intended by SAQA Regulation 13.
3.6.1.5 Accreditation System for Occupationally Directed Training providers
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SAQA requires training providers pursuing accreditation to provide evidence of compliance with
the SAQA specified criteria(South African Qualifications Authority, 1995). Of particular importance
are the specified constraints concerning reporting techniques that providers are compelled to
adhere to. External market forces have added to the internal professional necessities for
accreditation (Martindale and Collins, 2007).
The majority of SETAs have unfortunately become bureaucratic machines failing to drive
occupationally directed education and training in respective industries. A number of public FET
and HET providers have attempted to operate in the occupationally directed education and
training space, but seem not to have performed well (Marock, Harrison, Soobrayan and
Gunthorpe, 2008: 20).
SAQA has seconded a number of staff members to the QCTO(Parliamentary Monitoring Group,
2011). Although the transference of institutional knowledge is positive, SAQA’s role in quality
assurance has been questioned by some in the occupationally directed, education and training
fraternity.” Sadly, SAQA decided in 2006 to no longer act as a quality assurance body but rather to
take on the role of mediator and facilitator, and be more critical of the constraints that are often
the result of decisions taken elsewhere in the system. Further, in shaping an inclusive NQF, SAQA
decided to become more involved in educational research, for example by investigating the impact
and outcomes of the objectives of the NQF. SAQA also
became actively involved in the promotion of employment and lifelong learning through initiatives
like online learning and recognition of prior learning (RPL). In the opinion of the researcher SAQA
has lost its focus – no organisation can survive if they don’t have a very clear and focused vision,
and a vision is not a matrix (Nel, 2011)”.
The SAQA criteria for the accreditation of South African occupational providers are set out by
SAQA.(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001). SAQA specifies that an Education and
Training Quality Assurance body with a primary focus that corresponds with the primary focus of
the provider may accredit an organisation as a provider if:
� That provider is registered in terms of the applicable legislation at the time of the
application for accreditation;
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� That provider has devised a quality management system, that embraces but is not restricted
to:
• A quality management policy exists that defines what the provider aspires to
achieve;
• Quality management procedures exists that facilitate the provider to exercise its
defined quality management policies;
• Review mechanisms exist that confirm that the quality management policies and
procedures defined, are pragmatic and remain effective;
� The provider is capable of developing, providing and evaluating learning programmes that
result in quantified registered standards or qualifications;
� Compulsory financial, administrative and physical resources required;
� Policies and practices for employee selection, appraisal and development;
� Policies and practices for learner entry, guidance and support systems;
� Policies and practices for the management and administration of off-site, practical or work-
site components of training and learning;
� Policies and practices for the management of assessment;
� The necessary reporting procedures;
� The ability to achieve the desired outcomes, using presented resources and procedures
deliberated by the Education and Training Quality Assurance body;
� The capacity to develop, deliver and evaluate learning programmes which culminate in
specified registered standards or qualifications; and
� That the training provider has not already been granted accreditation by or applied for
accreditation to another ETQA contemplated in the act.
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3.6.1.6 The SAQA Core Criteria for the Accreditation of Providers
The South African Qualifications Authorityhas eight core criteria for the accreditation
ofoccupationally directed education and training providers as expanded on below. All
occupationally directed ETQAs operate under the same specified criteria that must consistently
and transparently be applied to providers (South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
Criterion 1: Policy statement
SAQA defines an education and training provider as “A body which delivers learning programmes
which culminate in specified National Qualification Framework standards and/or qualifications,
and manages the assessment thereof”.
SAQA defines a “NQF Organisation” as having created a vision, set the policies, defined a
timetable, delegated the tasks and defined quality of performance for those to whom they are
delegated. It is the equivalent of the board and senior executive of an organisation. The specified
criterion outlines that a provider must outline how they view themselves, achievements it aims to
achieve and the reasons for its existence(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001).
A Total Quality Management (TQM) approach in the context of the NQF requires that a policy
statement provides a framework aligned to the values and principles articulated in the NQF:(South
African Qualifications Authority, 2001)
� Confirmation of how the provider is positioned within the NQF;
� Indication of democratic practices and how these enlighten the structure, management and
operations of the provider;
� Designated approach adopted to teaching and learning activities of the provider;
� Direction on how ongoing development of activities will be ensured through assessment,
auditing, monitoring, research and review practices of the provider.
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SAQA views the provider’s policy statement as a manifestation of the principles and intention to
operate, by whom, and for what purpose and is not an exhaustive account of the providers
operations.
SAQA has supplied the following questions to providers as a self-evaluation tool in the preparation
of this criterion: (South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� What are the organisation’s values and principles?
� How do these values and principles link with those of the NQF?
� What are the structures, systems and activities of the organisation that attempt to apply such
values and principles?
� What is the aim of the organisation?
� What does it offer?
� To who is the organisation directed?
Criterion 2: Quality Management Systems
The provider’s QMS is considered an integrated and holistic blueprint. A number of free ETQA
QMS templates are available online. Occupationally directed education consultants sell the
modified QMS adapted template to providers. It appears that the availability of standard
templates has been beneficial to providers(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001).
SAQA provides guidelines for the development of the provider QMS in the Quality Management
Systems for education and training providers approved as a guideline document (South African
Qualifications Authority, 2001)Quality is defined by SAQA as “The combination of processes used
to ensure that the degree of excellence specified is achieved in Regulation 1127”(South Africa
Qualifications Authority, 1995).
Terms and definitions relating to quality assurance: (South African Qualifications Authority,
2001):
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� Quality assurance means the sum of engagements that guarantee the quality of products and
services at the time of construction or delivery. Quality assurance measures are regularly
pragmatic only to the actions and products related directly with the goods and services
provided to external customers.
� Quality audits are activities undertaken to measure the quality of products or services that
have already been made or delivered. In itself, a quality audit has no impact on quality.
� Quality control is assumed by the person(s) who make the product (or deliver the service) for
internal determinations.
Quality Management Systems are defined as a combination of processes used to ensure that the
degree of excellence specified is achieved. A quality management system is the sum of the
activities and information an organisation uses to enable it to better and more consistently deliver
products and services that meet and exceed the needs and expectations of its customers and
beneficiaries, more cost effectively and cost efficiently, today and in the future(South African
Qualifications Authority, 2001).
SAQA has supplied the following questions to providers as a self-evaluation tool in the preparation
of this criterion: (South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� How does the organisation, in practice, create and sustain a quality culture within the
organisation?
� How are the relevance, comprehensiveness and clarity of standards used in the organisation
ensured?
� How is information about the workings of the organisation collected, how often and by
whom?
� How are learners’ needs actually met?
� How often are programmes delivered by the organisation reviewed?
� How does the organisation ensure that its facilitators of learning actually possess the
competence to both facilitate the learning effectively and assess learners in ways that are
consistent with the NQF?
� How does the organisation ensure that learning and assessment activities are monitored? In
addition, reviewed?
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� How does the organisation ensure that what is gathered from reviews, audits and/ or
monitoring in fact leads to improvements in the organisation’s activities?
� What are the mechanisms the organisation uses to report to people within the organisation?
� How does the organisation ensure that resources available to it are utilised effectively, in
addition efficiently, and are used to good effect?
� How does the organisation report to and generally relate to the ETQA under which it falls?
� How does the organisation relate to other providers in the area that it works within, if this
applies?
Criterion 3: Review mechanisms
Providers seeking accreditation must present a framework for the use of policies and offer
confirmation of how said policies will be monitored, researched, audited, and/or reviewed and
indicate how often this will be done. Providers may articulate compliance in relation to external
evaluations, the use of internal moderators, the provider’s internal review and monitoring
systems, assessments, employee performance reviews, research and auditing processes(South
African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
Providers need to articulate the review system they have in place, how it operates in practice and
what the concrete successes of measurements have been. Providers must also indicate how
recommendations of review conclusions will be implemented.
SAQA has supplied the following questions to providers as a self-evaluation tool in the preparation
of this criterion(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� What are the review, monitoring, research and/or auditing mechanisms, the organisation has
in place?
� How do these mechanisms work?
� How often are they carried out?
� By whom?
� How are review findings reported back within the organisation?
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� How do the review findings inform improvements in the organisation?
Criterion 4: Programme delivery
SAQA requires a provider to outline how learning programmes are developed, delivered, and
evaluated. Providers that were non-compliant largely fell short on providing the following
documentation in the appropriate format in relation to programme evaluation as opposed to
policy compliance(South African Qualifications Authority, 1999; South African Qualifications
Authority, 2001):
� Learner guides
� Assessment guides
� Moderation Guides
� Facilitator guides
� Structured Curriculum
� Model Answer Guides
� Alignment Matrix
� Notional Hour compliance Matrix
Central to training providers’ activities is the delivery component function. The provider must
deliver a comprehensive coherent description relating to the programme delivery practice.
Providers must narrate their descriptions of their programme delivery in relation to the NQF
principles.SAQA has supplied the following questions to providers as a self-evaluation tool in the
preparation of this criterion:(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� What is the nature of the programmes the organisation delivers?
� What is the NQF status of the programmes (e.g. NQF level 5)?
� What are the components (for example, modules) that make up the programmes?
� How often are the programmes delivered, and what is the duration in notional learning
hours?
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� What are the modes used in the delivery of the programmes? (For example, the use of
group work, opportunities to learn in the workplace, or the role of distance learning would
be described at this point.)
� To what extent is the delivery of the programmes flexible?
� How is learner-centeredness ensured in the delivery of the programmes?
� How does programme delivery ensure that the programmes are relevant to learners?
� How are learners assessed during the programme delivery? How often? By whom?
� How are learners given feedback on their performance during the delivery of programmes
and what forms does this take?
� How are resources planned for the delivery of programmes?
An additional range of rather deeper questions is suggested from a SAQA research report
concerning teacher education programmes(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� The programme practices must develop in learners an applied and integratedcompetence. A
programme should ensure that learners are able to integrate (horizontally) the knowledge
and skills delivered through the different courses or modules that make up the programme.
� A programme should also ensure that learners are able to integrate (vertically).
� The following dimensions of competence apply:
� The ability, in an authentic context, to consider a range of possibilities for action, make
considered decisions about which possibility to follow, and to perform the chosen action (a
practical competence);
� The theoretical basis for and the knowledge which underpins and informs the action taken
(foundational competence); and
� The ability to connect decision-making and performance (practical competence) with
understanding (foundational competence) and use this to adapt to change or unforeseen
circumstances, to innovate within one’s own practice, and to explain the reasons behind
these innovations and adaptations (reflexive competence);
� The programme should be conceptualised and delivered in a manner that integrates theory
and practice, and strengthens provider-workplace linkages;
� A programme should work closely with relevant workplaces in order to develop learner skills;
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� Relevant work experience should be linked to the rest of the programme, and students
should be well prepared for it. Work experience should be integral to the programme and not
an ‘add-on’.
The programme, and the programme ethos, should support lifelong learning in concrete ways.
Learners, for example, might be involved in programme design and implementation, either
formally (for example, through decision-making structures) or informally (for example, by making
decisions regarding the nature of their assignments)(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� Relevant learner-initiated activity might be recognised towards the qualification.
� Assignments should be designed to encourage problem-solving within authentic contexts.
� A programme should prioritise and teach critical engagement, reasoning and reflective
thinking.
� A programme should ground teaching in a wider social, economic and political understanding
and awareness.
� The provider should have a workable strategy for the Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL).
� The programme provider should adopt inductive rather than deductive approaches to
programme design, or at least motivate why deductive approaches to programme designs are
justified.
� A programme should be designed based on research, and some or all of this research should
be conducted among target learners.
� Conversely, a programme should not be designed through an exclusively deductive ‘desktop’
exercise.
� The emphasis in this criterion is on the nature of the learning and teaching process itself,
including the assessment process.
� This criterion is central to ensuring that education andtainting practices in the delivery of
programmes by providers are in accordance with NQF principles.
SAQA stipulates that accreditation will not be statutorily possible if these principles are not
followed or, at the very least, if providers have not identified the need to locate their programme
delivery in NQF terms and developed a plan for implementation.
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Criterion 5: Staff policies
SAQA requires providers to outline the policies and procedures for ETD staff selection, appraisal
and development(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001). Providers are required to provide
evidence that their ETD staff members are competent in their positions as facilitators, assessors
and moderators. Assessment of competence to NQF principles must also be demonstrated.
SAQA has supplied the following questions to providers as a self-evaluation tool in the
preparation of this criterion (South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� What criteria are used in the ETD staff selection process?
� Who selects ETD staff in the organisation?
� What selection procedures are followed?
� To what extent are the stipulations of the (Department of Labour, 1998)respected in the
selection process?
Providers are offered the following questions by SAQA to confirm compliance (South African
Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� To what extent do ETD staff possess applied and integrated competences as education and
training development practitioners?
� How do staff ensure the integration of theory and practice in the delivery of the programme?
(Here questions of work experience to develop practical understandings of relevant theories,
or the use of simulated work environments and, generally, strategies to ensure the
development of applied competence among learners need to be addressed.)
� To what extent does the provider ensure that all staff have access to ongoing forms of
professional development and that they are themselves ‘lifelong learners’? (Here the
emphasis is on the development and self-improvement of staff and on the procedures the
provider has in place to ensure that this happens within the organisation.)
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� To what extent does the organisation ensure that their ETD staff members design their
activities in ways that are informed by the organisation’s mechanisms of review, research,
monitoring and/or auditing? (In other words, are teaching and learning methods informed by
reflections on existing practices, or do activities continue unchanged despite the findings of
reviews, research, monitoring and/or auditing in the organisation? Do staff decide on changes
in programme delivery purely based on intuition? Alternatively is intuition informed by
research into, and feedback received on, how well or how poorly a programme is being
delivered?)
� How does the organisation ensure that their ETD staff are competent to carry out assessment
activities in ways that are both applied and integrated? (Staff competence in assessment
practices is key in the life of learners, since this is the basis upon which learners are qualified.
It is therefore critical that facilitators are adequately skilled to carry out this function
effectively and efficiently. Since, in NQF terms, assessment is cast within the framework of
lifelong learning and integration, assessment here refers to ways in which continuous
assessment can inform the teaching and learning process, though, for example, learner
portfolios.)
The purpose of Criterion 5 is clearly to ensure that policy on ETD staff selection and appraisal
should be informed by principles of increased access and respect for employment equity policy, as
well as ensuring the transformation of education and training practices and adherence to NQF
principles.
Criterion 6: Learner policies
Policies and procedures for the selection of learners are outlined, and learners are given guidance
and support(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
Providers need to be mindful of the following key NQF principles with regard to learners:
� Learner-centeredness
� Learner participation
� Relevance of the programmes to learners
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� Recognition of prior learning
� Lifelong learning
SAQA has supplied the following questions to providers as a self-evaluation tool in the
preparation of this criterion(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� How are learners selected for the programme?
� To what extent do such selection procedures recognise the prior learning learners have?
� What is the demographic composition of the learner population? (Gender and race are clearly
crucial, but attention should also be given to how learners from outlying areas are attended
to, and to poverty indices.)
� Is the organisation planning to diversify the demographic composition of the learner
population, taking into account historical disadvantages and discrimination?
� How does the provider ensure that the programme is relevant to the needs and aspirations of
the learners?
� How does the delivery of the programme encourage learner participation?
� How does the organisation identify the nature of support that learners require?
� What support is given to learners?
� What guidance is offered to learners and why?
� How are opportunities for further learning provided for by the organisation?
� How, by whom and how often are learners given feedback on their performance?
Criterion 7: Assessment policies
The provider is required to outline the policies and procedures for the forms of assessment used
and how they are managed(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001).Assessment policies
include assessment practices applied by the provider and describe the approaches that are used
by an organisation in its assessment practices(e.g.Are assessment approaches mainly examination-
based?). The assessment policies must recognise the principles of lifelong learning, recognition of
prior learning and integration of theory and practice.The provider must demonstrate that the
assessment policies are informed by an understanding of the notions of failure and
deficits,andhow they work in a developmental,supportiveand continuous way. Resultantly,
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assessment policies need to indicate what approach the provider has adoptedin relation to
assessments and confirm if assessmentsare in line with NQF principles.
Assessment (internal assessment and external assessment) policies must outline how the
processes of assessment will be managed: by whom, how and how often. The provider must
supply detailed information on the moderation provision, outline how feedback to learners will be
given and maintain records of assessment. The provider must include ways which support to
learners is identified and ways in which support is provided to learners.Consequently, assessment
policies should not be conflated with assessment practices, although they include them(South
African Qualifications Authority, 2001).
SAQA has supplied the following questions to providers as a self-evaluation tool in the preparation
of this criterion(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
� What is the organisation’s approach to assessment?
� Is the organisation’s approach consistent with NQF principles?
� How does the organisation’s assessment policy incorporate principles of lifelong learning,
recognition of prior learning and integration of theory and practice?
� How are assessments conducted, by whom and how often?
� What are the mechanisms that the organisation puts into place to assure the quality of
assessments conducted?
� Aare moderators used for assessments?
� Are policies and procedures for possible appeals in place?
� How are learners given feedback on the ways in which they have been assessed?
� How does learner feedback occur? Who does it, and how often?
� How does the organisation ensure that assessments are used to identify, and provide for the
support and guidance learners need?
� How are assessment results fed back into programme development?
The assessment practices of a programme must be applied and integrated(South African
Qualifications Authority, 2001):
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� A programme should assess whether learners are able to integrate (horizontally) the
knowledge and skills delivered through the different courses or modules, which make up the
programme.
� A programme should also assess whether learners are able to integrate (vertically) the
dimensions of competence referred to in Criterion 4. In brief, these are:
• Practical competence;
• Foundational competence; and
• Reflexive competence.
� The assessment strategy should assess the extent to which learners have the ability to apply
what they have learned in authentic and changing South African contexts.
� Assessment should be ongoing and developmental.
Criterion 8: Management system and policies
The provider must provide evidence of managerial capacity of the provider to carry out its
management systems requirements and functions. The provider must indicate the capacity to
deliver the programme effectively and efficiently and in an accountable manner. Providers are
required to indicate the financial, administrative and physical resources of the organisation, as
well as procedures of accountability within the organisation(South African Qualifications
Authority, 2001).
SAQA acknowledges that provider capacity differs significantly. The SAQA Criteria and Guidelines
for providers reference diverse types of providers, i.e. ‘delivery only site; assessment only site; and
delivery and assessment site’. SAQA also references there are SMME providers, and their
particular needs and elevated support requirements (South African Qualifications Authority,
2001).
SAQA supplies the following questions to providers to assist with preparation with compliance
of this criterion(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
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� What is the management and administrative structure of the organisation?
� How are decisions taken in the organisation, by whom and in relation to what?
� What is the financial resource base of the organisation? What are the sources of funding?
� Does the organisation have a plan to become self-sustaining, if it is not already?
� Does the organisation have adequate human and material resources to carry out its intended
functions?
� What are the systems used by the organisation to manage and be accountable for its
finances?
� More generally, to what extent is the organisation run in ways that are transparent and
accountable?
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3.6.1.7 Conclusion
Three Quality Councils oversee delivery and assessment standards in public and private
institutions in the South African educational landscape. SAQA was at the time of this research
involved with the oversight role of occupationally directed providers and ETQAs as the QCTO
completed its transitional phase to operationalization. Private and Public providers are subject to
external review processes. The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) registers
qualifications on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF). The Departments of Basic
Education and Higher Education and Training are the responsible Ministries that regulate
education and training in South Africa.
Accreditation processes intend to ensure that institutions are accountable and demonstrate the
outcomes for their educational process that are consistent with the qualification outcomes.
Accreditation provides a formal process for ongoing evaluation and improvement of a provider to
advance educational excellence and quality management processes. Furthermore to the National
Qualifications Framework a number of diverse taxonomies and coding systems exist on the
Occupational Qualifications Framework in relation to occupational development(National
Qualification Framework, Act 67, 2008).
In the following section, the researcher has explored the relevance of international accreditation
frameworks as related to the purpose of this research thesis.
3.6.2 The Germanaccreditationframework
The German Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder
in the Federal Republic of Germany Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK) certifies quality development
and stability in tertiary education in Germany, and was established in 1948 (Federal Republic of
Germany). The responsibility for the qualifications framework, including its continuing
development, lies with the federal states associated within the KMK. In accordance with the
constitutional order of the Federal Republic of Germany, the federal states are largely responsible
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for higher education(The Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal
Republic of Germany and the Federal Ministry of Education, 2005).
The Foundation for the Accreditation of Study Programmes in Germany, or Accreditation Council,
was formed in a KMK resolution in 2004. The Accreditation Council certifies accreditation agencies
and instituted guidelines and criteria for programme accreditation in Germany.The German
Council of Science and Humanities, Wissenschaftsrat, was established in 1957 and conducts
institutional accreditation of private and religious universities in Germany (Harney and Kissmann,
2000)and (German Council of Science and Humanities Wissenschaftsrat).
Germany’s approach to NQF implementation is to consider its own educational culture and
systems to establish its position, and not being driven by the EQF, in line with the aim of the
Bologna Process to create a system of transparent and comparable higher education qualifications
(European Consortium for Accreditation in Higher Education, 2005). While the qualifications
framework for German higher education qualifications and the European Qualifications
Framework are compatible, the process is not an exact mirror of specifications(Commission of the
European Communities, 2008).
The present qualifications framework focuses initially on higher education and describes interfaces
with vocational training(German Rectors Conference, 2005). Germany's education system has a
number of strong sub-systems that are largely detached from one another and exhibit little
transparency or mobility between them, be it between vocational training and university
education or between initial training and continuing training, and horizontal and vertical
mobility(Kehm, 2006).
Germany has traditionally focused onan institution-oriented or process-oriented accreditation
approach that is centred in institutional (vocational or academic) communities. The accreditation
of degree programmes was introduced into the German higher education system in 1998 as an
obligatory element for all Bachelors and Masters programmes.
An additional option was introduced in 2008, namely System Accreditation, which examines the
university’s own quality assurance systems and leads to the accreditation of degree
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programmes.The accreditation system in Germany is characterised by decentralised
agencies(German Rectors Conference, 2005).
The German foundation for the accreditation ofstudy programme’s functions (Kehm, 2005:131-
144) :
� Certifying accreditation agencies and producing procedural rules and criteria for accreditation
;
� Acquainting interested parties in Higher Education Institutions and the general public about
the purposes and outcomes of accreditation procedures;
� Decontaminating the accreditation system to allow Higher Education Institutions to improve
their accountability for the quality of teaching and learning;
� Indicating the German accreditation system in the international context and contributing in
the development of the European Higher Education Area;
� Unhesitatingly co-operating with accreditation agencies (including foreign partners) from
Higher Education Institutions, and the student community, government and occupations.
The German foundation for the accreditation of study programmes operates independently and
stipulates that Higher Education Institutions are predominantly responsible for the quality and
quality assurance of teaching and learning. It is clearly important for Germany that the quality of
teaching and learning is delineated as a quality response control system and is accordingly
certifiable(Schade, 2004 :175-196).
The evaluation of teaching and learning is instituted on the reciprocated suitability and fitness for
purpose methodology and therefore on the confirmation of the acceptability of the study goal in
concurrence with the goal presentation. Transparency of the accreditation system and
independence of the role-players are fundamental requirements for quality and serious for
competitiveness and mobility in an open higher education system that is transparent, reciprocally,
horizontally and vertically.
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Higher Education Institutions must be in a position to document quality physiognomies of teaching
and learning and their evaluation demands that influence. Universities are required to satisfy their
stakeholders, government and international experts from the occupation they wish to deliver
education and training in(Serrano-Velarde, 2006).
There are currently eight certified and recognised agencies in Germany(Kehm, 2005:131-144):
� AHPGS – Accreditation agency for study programmes in special education, care, health
sciences and social work;
� AKAST – Agency for quality assurance and accreditation of canonical study programmes;
� AQUIN – Accreditation, certification and quality assurance institute;
� AQAS – Agency for quality assurance by accreditation of study programmes;
� ASIIN – Accreditation agency for degree programmes in engineering, informatics/computer
science, the natural sciences and mathematics;
� EVALAG – Evaluation agency Baden-Württemberg;
� FIBA - Foundation for international business administration accreditation;
� ZevA – Central evaluation and accreditationagency, Hannover.
The listed agencies accredit programmes of education for Bachelors and Masters Degrees from
state or state-recognised higher education bodies in Germany. The accreditation procedure
embraces several stages established on the peer review model.Higher Education Institution submit
application for the accreditation of a study programme to one of the aforementioned agencies,
which they have selected, and the relevant agency will deploy an evaluation group. The evaluation
group’s configuration will be a reflection of specialists, for content focus, and representatives of
the study programme comprehensive profile.
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The evaluation team will comprise of representatives of Higher Education Institutions, i.e. teachers
and students, and of agents of the profession. Germany has two types of accreditation:
programme accreditation and system accreditation (Kehm, 2006).
German Programme Accreditation Process(Kehm, 2006):
The programme accreditation process in Germany is made up of several stages and is based on the
peer evaluation principle. A higher education institution submits an application for the
accreditation of a programme to a licensed accreditation agency:
� The relevant agency appoints an expert group that consists of:
� The composition must be a reflection not just of the specialist content focus of the
programme but also of its specific profile;
� The expert group will enclose representatives of higher education institutions, i.e. teachers
and students, and of representatives of the professional field;
� The expert group does an evaluation of the programme;
� The Accreditation Council carries out this evaluation against the specified criteria for the
accreditation of study programmes which includes:
� The appointed expert group carries out an on-site visit of the institution;
� The expert group draws up an assessment report;
� Based on the assessment report and in agreement with the conclusion, regulations provided
by the Accreditation Council, the responsible accreditation commission from the relevant
agency makes their judgment.
The judgment may be:
� To grant an accreditation for the relevant study programme;
� To grant accreditation with conditions;
� Abandon the accreditation process;
� To reject the accreditation.
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German systems accreditation process:(Schade, 2004)
� The system accreditation practice comprises several stages and is based on the peer review
principle.
� A higher education institution submits an application for the accreditation of its internal
quality assurance system to a licensed agency.
� The Agency conducts a preliminary evaluation on the prerequisites for higher education
institutions for the admission to system accreditation compliance.
� In case of a constructive preliminary evaluation, the agency engages an expert group.
The expert groups include:
� Three members with understanding in the fields of managing Higher Education Institutions
and of core quality assurance of Higher Education Institutions;
� A student member having familiarity in the fields of self-administration of Higher Education
Institutions and of accreditation;
� One practitioner from the respective profession;
� One member of the expert group with experience in the management of Higher Education
Institutions, in curriculum design of study programmes and in quality assurance in the field of
teaching and learning;
� One member of the expert group shall be from a different country.
The Accreditation Council conveys the evaluation of the quality assurance arrangement in
agreement with the particular criteria for system accreditation:(Kehm, 2006)
� The evaluation procedure contains two on-site visits as well as a feature random sample and
a programme indiscriminate sample;
� The first on-site visit predominantly serves for gathering of evidence on the Higher Education
Institution and its management systems;
� The second on-site visit attends to the critical analysis of the acquiesced submission and for
directing the feature indiscriminate samples;
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� The feature random sample is a comprehensive qualified investigation of relevant features of
the arrangement of study programmes, the conduct of study programmes and quality
assurance encompassing all study programmes for Bachelors and Master’s degree;
� The evaluation of random sample serves for verifying compliance of all study programmes of
the Higher Education Institution with the procedures enumerated by the Standing Conference
of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK), the state-specific procedures and the
standards set up by the Accreditation Council (Federal Republic of Germany);
� The Agency conducts an evaluation of 15% of the study programmes and a minimum of 3
study programmes. The accreditation agency employs expert groups to ensure a suitable
assessment of the study programmes in all areas relevant for the evaluation processes;
� The expert group for system accreditation formulates a final report with their decision
sanctioned for system accreditation, taking into account the evaluation reports on the
programme random samples and involving the chairpersons of the expert groups for the
programme random samples;
� The experts measure the insufficiencies in quality recognised in the feature and programme
random samples.
The German accreditation agency’s decision is based on the experts' report and the decision
recommendation, taking into account the Higher Education Institution's observation. The
accreditation agency may award or deny system’s accreditation. Industry, academic and peer
review validation is highlighted as fundamental elements of the accreditation and quality
assurance frameworks(Kehm, 2005:131-144).
Germany has a vibrant and successful occupationally directed provider base. South Africa has
mirrored a number of Germany’s processes and policy frameworks in relation to occupationally
and vocationally directed learning and teaching. Legislation was passed in Germany in 1969 to
unify the vocational training system under the shared responsibility of the state, the unions,
associations and chambers of trade and industry(Harney and Kissmann, 2000).
Germany has a tripartite school system thatdistributes children at the age of 10. Students can go
to grammar school where they sit the Abitur, the equivalent of UK A-levels, or they can opt to
attend comprehensive schools. Those who attend Realschule study for the "middle" leaving
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certificate, akin to GCSEs, while those who attend high school, Hauptschule, can get only a basic
leaving certificate (Bawden, 2007).
Vocational education and training are separated into two different and complex systems: one for
the initial vocational training and one for the further vocational training.Apprenticeships take
approximately three years and are very popular. Merely students with Abitur or a vocational
diploma can go to university. Employers that take on apprenticeships want higher qualifications
from school leavers as jobs are becoming more technical in Germany. About 60% of all training
schemes are in sales and industrial professions, such as electrical engineering.
Vocational training is becoming more prestigious in Germany, and those with basic skills are
limited. The German vocational system is now a casualty of its own success as learners require
increasing skills to meet the entry level requirements of much sought after apprenticeships
(Bawden, 2007).
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3.6.2.1 Conclusion
The German accreditation system is stringently regulated. The system focuses on provider capacity
and quality management system validation. Peer review mechanisms and international validation
are pivotal to the accreditation system and processes.
The German system delineates between programme and system accreditation, as does the South
African accreditation system. The German vocational training system is in high demand. Ironically,
employers are requiring elevated skills levels as vocational positions become increasingly
technical. The German accreditation process is made up of several stages and is based on the peer
evaluation and industry validation principle.
This system both supports current practice in South Africa, and also underpins the researcher’s
proposals of alternative systems, which include peer review mechanisms.
3.6.3 The United States of America accreditation framework
The USA Department of Education confirms that the objective of accreditation in the US is to
guarantee that education provided by institutions of higher education meets satisfactory levels of
quality. The Secretary of Education must, in conforming to US Law,publish a list of nationally
recognised approved accrediting agencies that perform accreditation services on behalf of the US
Government.
The approved list of regional and national accrediting agencies recognised by the US Secretary of
Education serves as confirmation of jurisdiction of the approved agencies’ scope of accreditation
powers. The Secretary of Education also recognises state agencies for the approval of public post-
secondary occupational education and nurse education (USA Department of State Publication,
2005).The USA used “Vocational and Technical Education” until a few years ago when it was
changed to “Career and Technical Education” because it was believed to convey a better image, so
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these terms can be used interchangeably (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, 2009).
The USA Secretary of Education must confirm that the accreditation body is credible in the
management and evaluation of quality of education or training of institutions of higher education,
or higher education programmes they accredit. The USA Department of Education recognises
accrediting bodies for the accreditation of institutions of higher (post-secondary) education
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization , 2006).
Accreditation in the USA is aimed at confirming that institutions of higher education accomplish
adequate levels of quality to provide education. Accrediting agencies are private educational
associations of regional or national cultivate assessment standards and conduct peer evaluations
to consider amenability. Institutions and / or programmes are required to meet essential agency's
evaluation specifications for "accreditation” validation.Nearly 15 million students are currently
enrolled, either full- or part-time(Weaver, 2011).
For a body to apply to the USA Department of Education for accreditation awarding status the
body will be evaluated by the Department of Education’s Accrediting Agency Evaluation Unit and
demonstrate compliance against the Criteria for Secretarial Recognition (34 CSR Part 602 Subpart
B). The Accrediting Agency Evaluation Unit is located in the Department of Education’s Office of
Post-secondary Education to deal with accreditation matters(U.S. Department of Education -
Office of Post-secondary Education, 2006).
The USA stipulates that accreditation is voluntary in that the process of accreditation requires the
full cooperation with, and complete participation in, the process of accreditation by the college or
university seeking accreditation. The college or university must complete a self-evaluation process,
demonstratingtheir commitment to the quality standards of accreditation. Accreditation is the
principal means of determining the legitimacy and quality of colleges and universities in the United
States; to describe the process as "voluntary" is not to describe it as "optional" or "unnecessary”
(USA Department of State Publication, 2005).
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Two USA national associations of credential evaluation services are regularly used by federal
agencies, state agencies, educational institutions and employers. The two national associations
have published standards for membership and have affiliations to national and international
higher education associations. The two agencies are: (USA Department of State Publication, 2005).
� National Association of Credential Evaluation Services (NACES) is an association of 19 credential
evaluation services with admission standards and an enforced code of good practice.
� Association of International Credentials Evaluators (AICE) is an association of 10 credential
evaluation services with a board of advisors and an enforced code of ethics.
The Accreditation Agency Evaluation Unit conducts the following functions with respect to
accreditation in the USA:(U.S. Department of Education - Office of Post-secondary Education,
2006)
� Conduct a continuous review of standards, policies, procedures and issues in the area of the
Department of Education's interests and responsibilities relative to accreditation;
� Administer the process whereby accrediting agencies and state approval agencies secure
initial and renewed recognition by the Secretary of Education;
� Serve as the Department's liaison with accrediting agencies and state approval agencies;
� Prove consultative services to institutions, associations, state agencies, other federal agencies
and congress regarding accreditation;
� Interpret and disseminate policy relative to accreditation issues in the case of all appropriate
programmes administered by the Department of Education;
� Conduct and stimulate appropriate research; and
� Provide support for the Secretary's National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and
Integrity.
The USA Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) is a private government-accredited
non-profit national organisation that coordinates accreditation activitiesin the United States. CHEA
represents more than 3,000 colleges and universities(Eaton, 2011).
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Professional bodies accredit specific subject matter qualifications as it relates to their respective
industries (U.S. Department of Education - Office of Post-secondary Education, 2006):
� Chemistry - The American chemical society’scommittee on professional training (ACS).
� Computer Science - The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Computing
Accreditation Commission (ABET-CAC).
� Engineering and Technology - The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)
has representatives from all of the major engineering professional societies in the USA,
including the Association of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE), and the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE),
amongst many others.
� Law - The American Bar Association (ABA) section on legal education and the association of
American Law Schools (ALS) both evaluate law schools.
� Medicine - The Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) is a joint project of the
association of American Medical Colleges (AMC) and the American Medical Association,
Council on Medical Education (AMA-CME).
� Meteorology / Atmospheric Science - The American Meteorological Society (AMS) has issued
a policy statement that describes the minimum curriculum and faculty for a bachelor’s degree
in meteorology. The AMS also certifies individual people as competent in meteorology.
3.6.3.1 Conclusion
The USAaccreditation system relies on approved accreditation agencies approved by the USA
Department of Education. The USA Higher Education System contains the largest number of
formally rated outstanding universities. The USA accreditation system embraces professional body
and peer review validation.
USA institutions of higher learning have experienced tremendous success globally because of the
perceived quality as related to their accreditation system. As a result, large numbers of USA
universities have opened in foreign countries.
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The USAhas achieved the global leader status for reputable universities according to a new
Guardian global reputation ranking released in 2012. The list published by the Times Higher
Education, is the first of its kind looking solely at the reputations of institutions for teaching and
research. Harvard is ranked number 1, closely followed by Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) defeating Oxford and Cambridge universities. The US controls with 7 universities in the top
10 and a massive 45 in the total top 100 rankings(Times Higher Education, 2012).
The USA higher education structure consists of private and public universities and colleges.
Students have to apply for admission and are accepted based on their placement scores, academic
and extracurricular achievements. The accreditation framework in the USA is largely reliant on
regional (state) accreditation bodies and professional, independent, registered accreditation
bodies. The system in the USA allows quality assurance to operate independently within a
structured framework of independence in a free market economy.
This accreditation system supports the researcher’s proposed alternative in its embracing of
professional bodies and peer review mechanisms.
3.6.4 The Canadian accreditation framework
The Canadian accreditation framework stipulates that post-secondary education is the
accountability of provincial and territorial governments. Canada has ten provinces and three
territories. Respectively a province or territory administers the operation of post-secondary
institutions. The jurisdiction has its own quality assurance instruments that are used in
amalgamation to guarantee quality in the country's wide range of post-secondary institutes as
confirmed by the Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials (Lillie, 2008).
The Canadian Education and Training Accreditation Commission (CETAC) is a voluntary private
career college body established in 1984 as a private accreditation agency in Canada. CETAC sets
volunteer quality standards with provincial/territorial and federal government representatives,
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industry, educators and private career colleges (Canadian Education and Training Accreditation
Commission, 2010).
Canada requires individual programmes or faculties to obtain accreditation from a recognised
agency / professional body e.g. The Canadian Architectural Certification Board, Canadian Council
of Professional Engineers, Canadian Forestry Accreditation Board, the Federation of Law Societies
of Canada and the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. However, Canada does
not have a national consolidated accreditation system. Professional bodies appraise detailed
university and college programmes for accreditation(Usher, 2011).
The term "accreditation” has reference to the approval of a post-secondary institution or
programme, by an accreditation body, to meet determined standards, resulting in a recognised
practice of validation (Canadian Education and Training Accreditation Commission, 2010).
Public post-secondary institutions have the authority to grant degrees, diplomas and certificates
through specific legislation and these institutions are known as "recognised" institutions. A
restricted number of private post-secondary institutions also have been given degree-granting
authority.Private post-secondary institutions are not recognised but "registered" or "licensed”.
Registered or licensed institutions in Canada (usually private sector training organisations) issue
diplomas and certificates that are not authorised by specifics(Usher, 2011).The Canadian degree
qualifications framework contains bachelors,masters, and doctoral degrees.
The Canadian Information Centre specifies that the principal quality assurance instruments used
in Canada for International Credentials include (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009):
� Legislation
Legislation allows for the founding, governance, recognition and assurance for the quality of post-
secondary educational programmes. Government may examine or take possession of any part of
academic institutional operations. Legislation provides for initiated committees or boards to
maintain programme standards and accountability measures.
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� Affiliation and federation
Affiliation agreements divulge recognised measures between degree-granting institutions and
non-degree-granting institutions. The process requires degree-granting institutions and non-
degree-granting institutions agreeing on a delivery model that will culminate in graduates being
granted degrees from the degree-granting institutions. Colleges are permitted to participate in a
federation arrangement with colleges and universities in which programmes may be available to
students at various institutions as it transmits to the same university programme.
� Credit transfer and articulation
Credit transfer includes an equivalency assessment of progression that has been completed by a
student at one institution to courses presented at an alternative institution. Articulation
incriminates formal agreements between institutions of reciprocally suitable programme provision
and credits awards in specific programmes in advance of the contribution.
� External and internal review
External review procedures could embrace accreditation visits focussed by external committees of
quality assessors, frequently collected by academic peers or representatives from pertinent
professions or industry. Institutions likewise use self-assessment approaches to conduct internal
evaluations of excellence of specific programmes and of their organisations. The outcome of
internal reviews are provided to government and may be reproduced in pivotal suitability for
direct (e.g. grants) or indirect (e.g. government-based student loan revenues) public funding.
� Provincial/territorial registration/licensing
It is mandatory for private post-secondary education and training providers to register or license
their institutions, programmes or instructors with provincial or territorial government authorities.
Registration procedures place emphasis primarily on consumer protection and necessitate
validation of programme quality, curriculum and lecturer qualifications.
� Accreditation of professional programmes
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Canadian professional regulatory bodies (e.g. nursing, architecture, and engineering) contribute at
provincial/territorial and national level in the founding and assessment of post-secondary
curriculum standards and consult on other professional subjects governing students'
arrangements for entry into vocations. This appraisal leads to professional accreditation of specific
programmes. The Canadian government authorities are accountable for post-secondary education
and each province and territory provides lists of "recognised”, "registered” and "licensed"
institutions within their jurisdiction (Association of Canadian Community Colleges, 2011).
The Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials offers a guideline entitled ‘Quality
Assurance Practices for Post-secondary Institutions in Canada’, which delivers a summary of the
types of post-secondary institutions and the quality assurance mechanisms practical in each
province and territory (Johnson and Beaudin, 2007.11.26).
The absence of a formal, national system of accreditation for post-secondary education providers
in Canada makes it challenging to confirm how quality is guaranteed at both the institutional and
programme levels(Association of Canadian Community Colleges, 2011).
Evaluation of Canadian post-secondary credentials must take into account the framework in which
quality assurance is applied in each province and territory, institutions' recognition status and the
monitoring instruments applied by individual institutions. The legislative and public policy
frameworks in which post-secondary education operates in Canada, aspects that underwrite the
need to validate programme quality and guarantee recognition of qualifications include(Canadian
Education and Training Accreditation Commission, 2010):
� Current pronouncements to give degree-granting authority to some private, for-profit
colleges and restricted degree-granting authority at some public colleges;
� Reduced discrepancy between some universities and colleges owing to escalations in shared
programme distribution, joint credentials, and the formation of formal university/college
partnerships;
� Improved student and graduate mobility;
� The lack of provincial accreditation schemes for public education providers;
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� Increase of internet-based education programmes;
� Augmented procedure of Prior Learning Assessment and Recognition (PLAR) for academic
credit;
� Introduction of international, internet-based programmes that include providers without
provincial/territorial or inter-institutional standards or liability; mechanisms for web-based
programmes;
� Lack of data on quality assurance mechanisms used by institutions in other countries, private
corporations and professional organisations.
3.6.4.1 Conclusion
The constitutional structure of Canada locates all responsibility for education and training with the
provincial governments. The complex array of existing accreditation mechanisms and the lack of
national, provincial and territorial accreditation bodies pose significant challenges in relation to
quality assurance. The obvious absence of coherent evaluation mechanisms to assess Canada's
systems of quality assurance and the absence of information on how Canadian education systems
align with those of other countries make the assessment of Canada's quality assurance
mechanisms an extensive but not insuperable trial.
The entrenched style of professional body recognition, and its implied support for peer review
mechanisms, describes how the Canadian system supports the view espoused by the researcher.
3.6.5 The United Kingdomaccreditation framework
The education system in England is overseen by the Department of Education and the Department
of Business, Innovation and Skills. The various other countries in the United Kingdom i.e. Wales,
Scotland, and Northern Ireland have separate regulators responsible for their respective education
frameworks. The UK is centred in an outcomes-oriented approach that is an essential element of
qualifications frameworks.Qualification levels are contained in three qualification frameworks in
the UK(Qualifications and Curriculum and Development Agency and CCEA, 2012).
� The UK National Qualifications Framework
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Only qualifications that have been accredited by the three regulators for England, Wales, and
Northern Ireland can be included in the NQF. This ensures that all qualifications within the
framework are of high quality and meet the needs of learners and employers (Qualifications and
Curriculum and Development Agency and CCEA, 2012).
� Qualifications and Credit Framework (the new framework for vocational or work-related
qualifications)
The Qualifications and Credit Framework (QCF) contains vocational (or work-related)
qualifications, available in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. These qualifications are made up
of units that are worth credits. Units and qualifications also range in difficulty, from entry level to
level eight (similar to the levels in the NQF). Ofqual, together with its partner regulators in Wales
(DCELLS) and Northern Ireland (CCEA), is responsible for regulation of the Qualifications and Credit
Framework (QCF)(Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency England, 2011).
The QCF is a system for recognising skills and qualifications. It does this by awarding credit for
qualifications and units (small steps of learning). Each unit has a credit value. This value specifies
the number of credits gained by learners who complete that unit. The flexibility of the system
allows learners to gain qualifications at their own pace along routes that suit them best.Vocational
and work-related course approval is intrinsically linked to awarding body approval(The Scottish
Government. Creative & Cultural Skills, 2008).
Vocational qualifications include:
� NVQs (National Vocational Qualifications)
� HNCs (Higher National Certificates) and HNDs (Higher National Diplomas)
The names of vocational qualifications may indicate who awards the qualification, for example
BTECs from Edexcel, City and Guilds and OCR Nationals. There are many other organisations that
award qualifications.
� Framework for Higher Education Qualifications
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The Framework for Higher Education Qualifications (FHEQ) describes all the main higher education
qualifications. It applies to degrees, diplomas, certificates and other academic awards granted by a
university or higher education college (apart from honorary degrees and higher doctorates)(The
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, 2008).
The FHEQ broadly corresponds with levels 4 to 8 of the National Qualifications Framework, in
terms of the demands the qualifications place on learners. The Business Names Act 1985 made it a
crime for any business in the UK to use the word "University" in its name devoid of the formal
approval of the Privy Council (Parliament and Constitution Centre, 2005).
Three central institutions provide English Higher Education: universities, colleges and institutions
of higher education including art and music colleges. Universities are empowered by a Royal
Charter or an Act of Parliament and are sovereign institutions.The Further and Higher Education
Act of 1992 removed the boundary line separating universities and polytechnics and awarded
polytechnics university status (i.e. the right to award their own degrees) and award university
titles (The Further and Higher Education Act, 1992).
Some may offer Higher Degrees and other qualifications offered by most non-university higher
education institutions are validated by external bodies such as a local university or the Open
University. An institution can also apply for the authority to award its own degrees but it must be
able to demonstrate a good record of running degree courses validated by other
universities(Kaplan International Colleges, 2005).
Institutions can apply for university status but must satisfy a number of criteria, including the
power to award its own first and higher degrees. Further education institutions also provide some
higher education. The Further and Higher Education Act 1992 allows for the transfer of further
education institutions to the higher education sector, if the full-time enrolment number of the
institution concerned for courses of higher education exceeds 55% of its total full-time equivalent
enrolment number (The Further and Higher Education Act, 1992).
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The British Accreditation Council (BAC) is a self-governing body, established in 1984 to be the
national accrediting body ofthe independent sectors of further and higher education in the U.K.
The main objective of the Council's formation members was “to improve and enhance the
standards of independent further and higher educational institutions by the establishment of a
system of accreditation”(The British Accreditation Council, 2012).
The UK has a central repository known as the Universities and Colleges Admission Services for the
listing of UK accredited universities and colleges. The Open and Distance Learning Quality Council
is the custodian for quality in open and distance learning institutions. Very strict regulations exist
in the UK for provision and it is illegal to offer a qualification in the UK unless authorised to do so,
and degrees may only be awarded with the approval of theSecretary of State or a Royal Charter or
Act of Parliament. 157 institutions in the UK are permitted to award degrees; 700 colleges and
other institutions that do not have degree-awarding powers provide complete courses leading to
recognised UK degrees. Courses at these institutions are validated by institutions thatdo have
degree-awarding powers (The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills , 2011).
3.6.5.1 Conclusion
The United Kingdom’s education system has been exported to numerous countries that the UK
colonised. Zimbabwe and South Africa are two prime examples of the aforementioned. The UK
prides itself on its historic institutional traditions and the sacred knowledge of its universities.
Many universities in the UK are hundreds of years old and stooped in British academic tradition. Its
proponents consider the UK higher education system highly. The UK has a strict accreditation
policy for institutions that wish to participate in its higher education system. Private education is
considered of strategic importance in the UK education system and is in high demand. Professional
bodies play an important role in the approval of professional programmes.
The UK has a credible and internationally recognised accreditation and quality assurance system.
The US dominates the top 100 university rankings. Taking 12 of the places in the top 100, the UK is
second to the US with Cambridge University surpassing Oxford University. The Imperial College,
University College London (UCL), London School of Economics and Edinburgh University also make
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the top 50(Times Higher Education, 2012).The UK and Germany have a lot in common in relation
to their credence given to the role played by vocational education, the dual schooling system and
the high demand for university access.
Although the UK system aligns itself less readily to the researcher’s proposal of an alternative
system, that others do, the UK system of peer review mechanisms is supportive.
3.6.6 The Singaporeanaccreditation framework
The Singaporean education system depicts the equilibrium of distinction. Singapore is a model of
lifelong learning. There is a whole bio-network of government frameworks, education providers,
study programmes and financial schemes available (Ministry of Education Singapore, 2004).The
forming of thinking skills is projected to infuse all levels of society and the resulting impact on the
workplace. The Singapore Ministry of Education’srefrain“Thinking Schools, Learning Nation”,
indicates the objectives of educational reform are to create schools that cultivate thinking skills
and, eventually, a nation that participates in lifelong learning (Sellan, Chong,and Tay, 2004).
Singapore is considered the Asian education hub and has attracted some of the most prestigious
education institutions to their shores to establish campuses e.g. University of Chicago, INSEAD,
New York's Duke University, ESSEC of France etc. (Ministry of Education Singapore, 2004).
Singapore made fundamental and systemic educational changes to meet the needs of an
increasingly complex global environment.Teachers are compelled to attend regular Continuous
Professional Development programmes (CPD) and develop their abilities to become reflective
practitioners and capable researchers to improve classroom practices. Singapore transformed
from an industrial economy to aprosperousknowledge-based economy (Sellan, Chong,and Tay,
2004).
The Singaporean model links directly with training in the labour market, including the inculcation
of shared cultural values and attitude development (Pandor, 2008). There are no accrediting
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bodies separately from the Ministry of Education and the Workforce Development Agency, as the
polytechnics and universities have self-accreditation ability. Course accreditation involves a site
audit (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009).
Singapore has a dual bilingual education system that requires all learners to be proficient in
English and their mother tongue (Chinese, Malay or Tamil) to preserve their ethnic identity,
philosophy, culture and morals.Students acquire important skills like collaboration and
communication that foster meta-cognition and independent learning. Learners are subjected to
project based work to explore their ability to function in the real world by acquiring knowledge,
application, communication, collaboration and independent learning(Sellan, Chong,and Tay,
2004).
The Singaporean pre-school phase focuses on intellectual and social development skills. The pre-
school education is a structured 3-4 year programme encompassing language, basic mathematics,
simple science, music, and play learning. There are 2 years of nursery school, followed by 2 years
of kindergarten(Hodge, 2010).The primary school phase takes six years to complete (from ages 6
to 12). Students will sit for a significant examination at the end of this phase known as the Primary
School Leaving Examination (PSLE). The PSLE outcome determines where the learner will be placed
for their secondary education. The top achievers will gain access to the most prestigious schools.
Secondary school phase takes between 4 years or 5 years, and is dependent on the academic
abilities of the student. In addition to the traditional secondary schools, there are also specialised
schools like the Singapore Sports School, NUS High School of Mathematics and Science, and the
new Singapore School of the Arts. At secondary school level 3, students can opt for Arts, Science,
Commerce or Technical streams. Secondary school education will take four years leading to the
GCE "O" level examination or 5 years leading to the GCE "N" level examination. The duration of the
secondary school education will depend on the student's academic abilities.The secondary school
curriculum isdesigned to match the abilities and interest, as students select one of four courses
designed to match their learning abilities and interests (Sellan, Chong,and Tay, 2004).
The national curriculum structure sanctions schools to adapt their curriculum to meet students’
needs. The pedagogies include inquiry-based and experiential learning that are dynamically
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endorsed to empower students to discoveryprofounderdenotation in their learning.National
assessment maintains standards for benchmarking todeal with difficulties and abstruse challenges
they are likely to face (Sellan, Chong,and Tay, 2004).
The junior college phase prepares a student for university. There are two options in Singapore
comprising a 2-year junior college education or a 3-year pre-university course at the Millennia
Institute. There are 18 junior college level institutions in Singapore(Singapore Workforce Skills
Qualifications, 2009).The Institute of Technical Education (ITE) curriculum aims to develop
technical skills and knowledge for the various industry sectors in Singapore. There is a broad range
of institutional training and traineeship programmes for students of all predispositions. The ITE
education accentuates practical, hands-on learning and is suitable for students who like to take up
on more practice-oriented courses(Hodge, 2010).
ITE graduates can proceed to the polytechnics to advance their studies(Ministry of Education
Singapore, 2004).The five polytechnics in Singapore have established a good reputation for
providing highly valuable practice-oriented courses at diploma level. Courses provide range from
engineering, media studies, nursing and early childhood studies etc. The Singapore government
set up the Singapore Institute of Technology to bring overseas university programmes to
polytechnic graduates. Additionally there are five Singaporean universities and a number of
international university campuses in Singapore.Singapore does not assess or grant recognition for
foreign degrees. The Ministry of Education does not keep a list of accredited overseas universities
to validate country of origin requirements (Ministry of Education Singapore, 2004).
The Workforce Development Agency (WDA) collaborates with key industry players to develop the
relevant qualification titles and progression pathways based on industry and occupational needs.
For each industry, an industry skills and training council is set up to drive the development and
validation of skills standards, assessment strategies and training curricula. Key industry partners
including employers, industry associations, training organisations and unions represent each
council. The skills standards and training modules are organised into seven levels of nationally
recognised qualifications ranging from certificate to graduate diploma. Training packages are
developed by industry through national industry skills councils or by enterprises to meet the
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identified training needs of specific industries or industry sectors(Singapore Workforce Skills
Qualifications, 2009).
The Singaporean government holds strongly that employers should decide if a degree-holder has
the qualities desired for employment and if the qualification of the candidate is most relevant to
their business needs. The employer is considered the deciding driver in respect of the value
assigned to a person’s qualifications. Employers are encouraged to endorse the status of a foreign
institution with the respective countries Embassy and/or High Commission. The professional body
in Singapore for operating confirmation, e.g. engineering, medicine, law and accountancy, must
recognise professional degrees(Ministry of Education Singapore, 2004).
The Ministry of Education develops and implements education policies in Singapore and controls
the development and management of the Government (including subsidised) primary schools,
secondary schools, junior colleges and a centralised institute and the registration of private
institutions. The Singaporean government places the protection of students and student fees as a
primary concern. The education policy requires proper student protection in welfare practices and
standards as mandated by the Mandatory Enhanced Registration Framework. Education
institutions must provide detailed information in relation to student registration, corporate
governance, quality of provisions and confirm information transparency (Ministry of Education
Singapore, 2004).
3.6.6.1 Conclusion
Singapore has a profoundly strong, globally recognised education system. Mediocrity is not
acceptable and excellence in schools, leadership and well-equipped teachers and facilities are non-
negotiable deliverables. The future is viewed with optimism as global challenges present an
opportunity to participate with increased focus in the global knowledge economy. Singaporean
schools and tertiary institutions are geared to propel Singapore into this future.
Singapore has prepared an education system that is more flexible and diverse. Students have
greater choice to learn what they are interested in. Students are encouraged to choose what and
how they learn and to take greater ownership of their own learning. Students have a broad-based
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education framework to ensure their all-round or holistic development in and outside of the
classroom. Prime focus is placed on objectivity, relevance and receptiveness of the curriculum to
compete in the global market place.
Singaporeans are invigorated to think, explore and solve new problems, to create new openings
for the future. The Singaporean government focus is on comprehensive values to build the
personality and flexibility of students to deal with life’s challenges and be equipped as value
citizens (Ministry of Education Singapore, 2004).
Singaporeans far excel in the delivery of their country’s knowledge base. Singapore has
entrenched itself in the dimension of creating creative and cognitive individuals that think in new
ways, solve new problems and create new opportunities for the future;an added dimension of the
predation of personal values of citizens that are balanced and do not feel the need to destroy as
opposed to create.
In the search for data related to country accreditation models it became clear that most countries
globally do have some kind of anaccreditation framework or model in place to regulate quality of
education and training within their jurisdiction. Some overlap in accreditation understanding and
methodological application between countries has also been identified by the researcher, e.g. the
similarity between the systems implemented in South Africa, Zimbabwe and the UK, as well as
similarities between the vocational system relevant to Germany and South Africa. The thin line
between education and training becomes even thinner in diverse TVET systems, such as the "dual
system" in Germany, England's modern apprenticeships and Botswana's brigades (Pandor, 2008).
The Singaporean model, by using one central accrediting agency, supports the researcher’s point
of view that various institutions are likely to have differing interpretations of standard guidelines.
The model also supports the proposal for the inclusion of professional bodies in the accreditation
process.
However, in the quest for knowledge and data regarding country moderation models, the
researcher realised that the moderation systems of different countries are largely integrated
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within the existing accreditation systems. Therefore, the researcher has attempted to unpack this
understanding in more detail in the next section.
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3.7 Country moderation models
3.7.1 Introduction
As referred to in the above section, moderation processes have been integrated in most evolved
global systems. Of particular importance is the way in which moderation has been separated from
accreditation in the German and UK education systems. The reason being that the South African
education system mirrors similar. In this regard, the models as presented by Germany and the UK
have been discussed in more detail.
Singapore and Canada’s education systems are centred within the context of knowledge
economies. The value proposition they pose in occupationally directed education and training has
been outlined below, as systems move from over-regulation to addressing evolutionary market
demands. Pivotal to the accreditation andexternal moderation processes is the quality
management system and process. The South African moderation model included the role of
Quality Councils and the particular criteria specified by SAQA and ETQAs for the planning and
implementation of Quality Management Systems in occupationally directed educationaland
training.
A 2009 report on the mapping of the qualifications frameworks of Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation economies supports the position of a quality assurance framework and its link to a
qualifications framework. Importantly the quality assurance of qualifications must be linked to
meeting the requirements of the descriptors in the framework and of the providers awarding the
qualifications(Burke, 2009).
3.7.2 The German moderation framework
In line with the agreement to establish the EQF, Germany also moved towards the development of
a German qualifications framework for lifelong learning. The quality assurance in Germany as in
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the UK has been tracedto the structural and governance schedules for education and training.
Education and quality assurance is influenced by the geo-political and labour markets milieu. The
Copenhagen processes and the EQF intend tosupport the articulation and uniformity in quality
assurance among member country education systems(Commonwealth of Australia, 2009).
Tertiary education in Germany is segregated with providers that deliver qualifications that range
from degrees to apprenticeship. Quality assurance in higher education is vested in a strong sense
of industry involvement through professional bodies and oversight by accrediting agencies.
Institutional autonomy, peer review mechanisms and institutional self-evaluation mechanisms
play an important role in quality assurance. A credible higher education quality assurance system
exists in Germany (Commission of the European Communities, 2008).
In Germany VET is responsible for the quality of provision in the training regulations under the
influence of trade unions and employer associations, which are included in the Federal Institute
for Vocational Education and Training (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung). Furthermore, the
chambers control quality in the vocational training system in terms of examination results. For
those accrediting bodies in VET,quality models are austerely applied and include LQW, ISO 9000 or
EFQM. Social partners are active participants in the governance of theTechnical Vocational
Education and Training system that is influenced by 480 chambers in the occupationally directed
education and training framework.Governmentis largely involved in the funding of institutional
based training and determining regulations. The governance structure for post-school education
and training is not regional and is very formal(Young, 2008).
Technical Vocational Education and Training is a decidedlycontrolledandmultifarious process that
embroils the Lander governments and social partners in instituting apprenticeships, and other
qualifications, and regulations related to period and procedures for apprenticeships. Germany has
not embraced the move towards more competencies-of-outcomes based qualifications (Young,
2008).
Germany has a robust practice in relation to the roles of social partners in social and economic
policy. Industry and occupational communities play a critical role in quality assurance e.g. the
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German industry chambers. Ironically, the VET strategy has been controlled by the need for state
intervention to support the disaster of industry to deliver adequate employment for the school
leavers who want to enter the system of apprenticeships. The national Bundesinstitut für
Berufsbildung (BIBB) plays an active coordination and support role but its activities are essentially
at the behest of the social partners. The employer organisations effectively approve the training
programmes, conduct the assessments and issue the qualifications with the involvement of
unions(Commission of the European Communities, 2008).
The German theory of competence is not identical to Competency Based Training (CBT) systems in
the UK and Australia. There are inconsistencies between the levels and types of qualifications
issued through the apprenticeship based and the provider based systems. The perception of crisis
has been deepened by Germany’s persistently poor results in the OECD Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA), with many policy makers locating the early streaming of
students into vocational schools as a prime cause of these poor results(Commonwealth of
Australia, 2009).
3.7.3 The United Kingdommoderation framework
In liberal democratic states, the progressions of political formation of the modern nation states
were the basis for the intervention of government into education (Green, 1990). The increasing
interference of the UK Government in private education, notwithstanding legislation to the
contrary, has resulted in unhappiness from the private education sector (Henry, 2010).
� Qualification levels are contained in three qualification frameworks in the UK(Lester,
2001):
� National Qualifications Framework;
� Qualifications and Credit Framework (the new framework for vocational or work-related
qualifications);
� Occupation and Vocational Education and Training.
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Higher Education is centredin tradition and autonomy in universities in the UK. Moderation is
defined on two levels in higher education:(Irwin, M, 1994)
i. Assessment moderation in which the appropriateness of the proposed assessment
mechanism and regime is confirmed;
ii. Marks moderation, where the performance of students in that assessment is verified.
The Framework for Higher Education Qualifications (FHEQ) has been designed by the higher
education sector, and describes all the main higher education qualifications. It applies to degrees,
diplomas, certificates and other academic awards granted by a university or higher education
college (apart from honorary degrees and higher doctorates)(FHEQ-Portugal, 2011).
The UKoccupationally directed education environment is closely mirrored to the South African
framework. Assessors, moderators and verifiers perform similar functions in the VET system
against national outcomes of standards and qualifications(Qualifications and Curriculum Authority,
2006).
Assessors have the responsibility to agree to the best method of assessing a candidate in relation
to their individual circumstances. The methods agreed must be valid, reliable, safe,manageable
and suitable to the needs of the candidate. Only approved and qualified assessors (see Appendix
G–UK External Verifiers) may examine the evidence for the assessment of these qualifications. As
well as collecting evidence, candidates must record all their assessed evidence in their personal
Cumulative Assessment Record (CAR). The CAR is the candidate’s record of what evidence has
been accepted as proof of competence and where that evidence can be found. It can also be used
to record progress towards, and achievement of, units.
The system emphasis is on the assessment capability of assessors.The quality validation of
assessment practice is enhanced according to the UK NVQ by internal and external verification
processes that confirm the integrity and consistency of the occupational standards in the award
(Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 2006).
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Approved TVETcentresmust appoint an internal verifier to manage the internal verification
process. The purpose of internal verification is to make sure and show that assessment is valid and
consistent, through monitoring and sampling assessment decisions. Internal verifiers must agree
the use of simulated activities before they take place and must sample all evidence produced
through simulated activities(Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 2006).
Sector skills councils and a small number of other standards-setting organisations work with
employers and partners to develop the National Occupational Standards for the industries, sectors
and occupations they cover. The qualification regulators have agreed that individuals assessing
and verifying QCF qualifications based on NOS must reflect occupational competence. Individuals
must obtain the D 1 award. Assessors must confirm competence in an occupational role to the
standards required (City and Guilds, 2011).
The awarding organisation for the QCF qualification will determine the suitability of the
qualification for this purpose and may, if it wishes, add a statement to the National Database of
Accredited Qualifications (NDAQ) (Gerrard, S, 2010).
� External Verification in the UK
External Verification in the UK closely resembles the South African system. The premiseargued is
thatnational standards are uniformly applied; thatassessments are accurately and consistently
applied across all centresand levels and that constructive feedback is provided onassessment and
moderation judgments. Verification and systems verification is considered valuable in the
assessment and moderation improvements of providers and ensuring that centres have adequate
internal quality assurance systems that are well documented.
The UK assessment systems endorse the need for quality assurance and moderation in assessment
practice. Theimportance of a robust,valid system that is centred in fairness, is open and
transparent and that provides an opportunity for educators to participate in professional dialogue
is a central theme of this system. It is argued by participants to the system that it is important that
an evolving system that is fit for purpose across stages and sectorswill foster an environment of
mutual trust.
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3.7.4 The Singaporeanmoderation framework
In contrast to the country models discussed above the researcher also explored the notion of
moderation as being part of a more inclusive quality assurance system. The cases of Singapore and
Canada have been discussed in more detail.Singapore has nationally consistent systems in
comparison to the other countries.Variations to the central agency development and accreditation
model include provider, awarding body and industry/social partner development, and in some
cases accreditation.
Singapore offers national standardised assessments during a learner’s school career. Once a
learner enters the vocational or traditional higher education realm, professional bodies become a
quality partner in the delivery of programmes in respective industries. The primary determinant in
learner education is cognitive development and lifelong learning. All quality assurance processes
are designed to ensure continuous improvement strategies(Commonwealth of Australia, 2009).
In Singapore, VET is seen in part as a type of ‘social wage’ that acts as a substitute for the absence
of state regulated wages In Singapore. Initial VET, or really technical and vocational education and
training (TVET), is located in the schools sector, and a large element of continuing TVET is located
in the tertiary sector under the administration of the Ministry of Education(Afnan, 1958).
The norm of ‘self-regulation’ is commonly accepted in liberal market economies. The Singaporean
Government pursues philosophies of industry self-regulation and professional and occupational
standard-setting and regulation across professional occupations.The traditional concentration of
VET provision on state agencies has been moderated with the establishment of the Workforce
Development Agency and its agenda of demand-led VET. However, this leadership is located with
the workforce rather than enterprises(Commonwealth of Australia, 2009).
The benchmarks set by countries like Finland have resulted in themajority of Singaporean school
leavers enrolling in tertiary studies. Post school education in Singapore is built on the highest
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standard of secondary education among all countries. The country is moving towards another
stage of development with an emphasis on knowledge-intensive industries and the location of the
high-end elements of transnational companies in Singapore (Abeysinghe, 2007).
These strategies also are cluster based and Singapore typically has invested in institutional forms
with local and overseas technical institutes and universities. It is planned to build a high-level
education and training capacity that will both serve the high-end skill needs of the new industries
and build an international skills market (The Straits Times, 2007).
This strategy has two purposes: apart from establishing another industry, it builds a base capacity
for the knowledge economy. Singapore interestingly does not allow for offshore delivery of its
Universities. To obtain a qualification from a Singaporean University a learner is compelled to be
assessed in Singapore (Ministry of Education Singapore, 2004).
The skills programmes are also directed by central agencies (Standards, Productivity and
Innovation Board) in consultation with leading employers and employer groups (Kuruvilla et al,
2002). The WDA has encouraged the diversification of the training market through the provision of
funding and the establishment of a set of national VET qualifications and a VET based
qualifications framework (Singapore Workforce Skills Qualifications, 2009).
The Singapore model, therefore, has been built on a more traditional workforce planning
approach, which in turn has been built on an economic development model that has a high degree
of planning. It is a highly competitive system with students being allocated between the
universities, the polytechnics and the Institute of Technical Training. There are state supported
private schools, international colleges and private tertiary providers, some of which have used
international qualifications(Singapore Workforce Skills Qualifications, 2009).
The accreditation and quality assurance of these providers, and their curricula and qualifications,
is largely through self-accreditation and quality assurance, but under the careful supervision of the
Ministry of Education. The Workforce Development Authority (WDA) is also chartered with
strengthening worker training and access to qualifications. As the industries shift towards the high
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skills, which are more difficult to predict, there is a need to allow more flexibility and innovation to
develop across the education and training system. Typically, however, this is being achieved
through measures such as the implementation of quality systems that are linked to licenses for the
enrolment of students, including foreign students (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009).
The WDA’s approach to continuous improvement review is documented in the Singapore
Workforce Skills Qualifications (WSQ) system and National Skills Recognition System (NSRS) Guide
to continuous improvement review. The guide notes that all training organisations are subject to
audit during their registration period and that the focus is on the internal quality assurance
system, adult educator management system, outcome evaluation system, WSQ/NSRS related
administrative system, viability of organisation and confirmation of being free from breach of
terms and conditions(Singapore Workforce Skills Qualifications, 2009).
Emphasis is placed on training organisations to demonstrate that they practice continuous
improvement in ongoing delivery of training and assessment under WSQ and NSRS. Training
organisations are to undertake a self-assessment and develop an action plan for gaps identified.
This self-assessment and plan is submitted and provides the focus for the site visit, which takes
about half a day. If further action is required, then training organisations may need to submit an
additional action plan. Training organisations are scored according to the strength of the quality
management system and level of implementation by staff (Singapore Workforce Development
Agency, 2006).
3.7.5 The Canadianmoderation framework
The Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials (CICIC) defines quality assurance as
the achievement of educationalprogramme standards set by institutions, professional
organisations, government and standard-setting bodies established by government. TVET
standards are highly dispersed as in the USA(Canadian Information Centre for International
Credentials , 2002).
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Canada’s national government plays a limited role due to the cultural independence of the English
and French speaking provinces and the economic differences between the industrial eastern and
resource-rich western provinces. The basic structures of provincial and territorial education
systems across Canada are similar. Each has three sectors—elementary, secondary, and post-
secondary (Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials , 2002).
Canada has no federal department of education or training and no national VET system. While
Canada has tended towards the relatively free-market approach of most Anglophone countries,
there is a degree of variation across the provinces. Consequently the strength of the private
training market is variable.There are no national quality assurance agencies that monitor the
standards of community colleges, public colleges, private career colleges and institutes offering
technical and vocational programmes. All provinces have their own quality assurance
systems(Canadian Education and Training Accreditation Commission, 2010).
Canada has a diversified tertiary education sector that includes universities and degree-granting
institutions, tertiary colleges and institutes, career colleges, multi- and special-purpose colleges
and adult education providers. Canada also has an apprenticeship system. The Canadian provinces
are almost entirely autonomous in their education systems. There are commonalities in some
aspects of provision and the capacity for (Hueglin and Fenna, 1995)including cooperation among
government, industry and labour on interprovincial certification to increase worker mobility and
economic growth. Because of the virtual absence of the national government it is not possible to
identify a single Canadian VET system (Canadian Education and Training Accreditation
Commission, 2010).
However VET in Canada has depended to a considerable extent on federal funding, and this is a
pattern that has been familiar in Australia. Similarly,occupationally directed providers in the South
African SETA system have become overly reliant on grants and funding windows. There has been a
recent agreement among the provinces to establish a national qualifications framework. However,
with some provinces having already decided to establish their own qualifications frameworks it
seems likely that the Canadian framework will be designed to allow the regional frameworks to
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interlink and so perform a similar role to that of the EQF (Canadian Education and Training
Accreditation Commission, 2010).
Public colleges are audited on a five-year cycle. The academic quality audit process is based on a
self-study by the college and a site visit by an audit panel made up of professionals within the
sector. The audit process aims to emphasise the continual improvement based on self-reflection
rather than simply compliance with the standards. The self-study report is to be no more than 20
pages and the audit visit takes two days.
The report categorises the college’s quality assurance processes as falling within one of five
categories of maturity:(Ontario College Quality Assurance Service, 2010:28)
���� Minimal effort—means there are no organized quality assurances and improvement
processes in place within the college.
���� Reactive effort—means the college responds to problems mostly with ad-hoc methods. The
quality assurance and improvement criteria and processes receive little systematic attention.
���� Formal effort—means that individual initiatives and experimentations with improvements
may be seen in and around the college, and these are motivated explicitly by the key quality
criteria.
���� Organised effort—means that quality process initiatives begin to be planned and tracked,
work methods are systematically rooted in the quality criteria and the college has begun to
develop performance metrics and norms.
���� Mature effort—means quality processes have been embedded in the college’s culture,
continuousimprovement is a way of life and organisational learning about, and commitment
to, quality assuranceand improvement is fully established.
Ongoing monitoring through audit and site visits in the past was said to be undertaken annually
but is now taken on a risk management basis including student complaint, poor finances, hygiene
and health issues, large student population etc.(Ontario College Quality Assurance Service,
2010:28).
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Pubic training organisations in Ontario annually submit statistics on: (Ontario College Quality
Assurance Service, 2010:28)(Private training sector colleges are in the process of implementing
similar reporting requirements):
� Graduate employment;
� Graduate satisfaction;
� Employer satisfaction;
� Student satisfaction;
� Graduation sate.
Quality assurances in the Canadian Territories are centred on (Canadian Information Centre for
International Credentials , 2002):
� Legislation;
� External and internal review;
� Provincial/territorial registration/licensing;
� Accreditation of professional programmes (has professional regulatory bodies to which
institutions and their programmes must meet their requirements, for example, nursing or
engineering).
3.7.6 Conclusion
Numerous approaches for the quality assurance of training providers exist globally. The central
theme however are those countries having a mechanism for accreditation and registration and a
procedure to deal with monitoring and moderation. A further central theme is that autonomy,
self-regulation and peer review mechanisms are prevalent in university systems of higher
education. Quality assurance systems are generally emphasised for continuous improvement as a
key element of their quality assurance approach, and to varying degrees.
TVET providers are subject to a myriad of additional compliance and reporting procedures e.g. in
South Africa occupationally directed providers offering full qualifications between NQF 2 and 4 are
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compelled to register with the ETQA having jurisdiction over a qualification, Umalusi and DHET.
External moderation / quality audits are compliance focused and in more evolved countries and
where a sector has matured, the focus tends to shift to improvement of outcomes of quality
standards.
A common theme is that public Institutions are primarily self-regulated and accredited by virtue of
being state institutions. It is evident when interrogating the UK Vocational and Higher Education
Moderation framework that is closely mirrors the South African moderation process. The context
is imperialistic and overly regulated at the lower levels of the National QualificationsFramework.
Providers in the higher education realm are afforded greater self-regulation and institutional
autonomy, subject to peer review mechanisms, and universities make use of the services of
external examiners.
Singapore has nationally consistent systems in comparison to the other countries. Variations to
the central agency development and accreditation model include provider, awarding body and
industry/social partner development, and in some cases accreditation (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2009).
The more centralised systems of Germany and the UK have resonance with the researcher’s
proposals in that they support evolving and adapting systems open to improvement. The
decentralised models of Canada and Singapore support the researcher even more strongly in the
involvement of peer and/or industry review mechanisms.
3.8 The South African moderation model
3.8.1 Introduction
The Quality Council for quality assurance in General and Further Education and Training is known
as Umalusi and it is responsible for the standards of its general and further education and the
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quality assurance of results, including internal and external moderation systems in public and
private schools. Umalusi means ‘herder’ or ‘shepherd’ in Nguni culture: the person who is the
guardian of the family’s wealth (JUTA, 2011).
Umalusi is mandatedin terms of the National Qualifications Framework Act of 2008; and the
General and Further Education and Training Quality Assurance Act of 2001, amended in 2008. The
Umalusi Council is appointed by the Minister of Education and works within a three-year strategic
plan agreed with the Minister. Umalusi conducts a fundamental quality assurance role in the
assessment of learners. The quality assurance processes include moderation processes as set out
below (Rakometsi, 2011).
While maintaining the “old” and routine quality assurance work, Umalusi has also had to
accommodate development of functions to support the “new” and extended mandate. Certain
aspects in the macro environment that have affected Umalusi are as follows:(Rakometsi, 2011:6-7)
� The passing of the NQF Act in 2009; changes in the roles and responsibilities of the various
bodies in the quality assurance landscape;
� The amendment of the GENFETQA Act in 2008; the extended mandate which has required
more capacity and a review of Umalusi’s positions and approaches;
� The amendment of the Skills Development Act and the establishment of the QCTO with
mandates that impact on the mandate of Umalusi;
� Amendment of the HE Act with approaches that impact on Umalusi’s work;
� NQF Implementation Framework from DHET putting pressure on policy development in an
uncertain environment.
3.8.2 Umalusiquality assurance and assessment
Umalusi conducts standardised examinations at the exit point of qualifications for Schools, Adult
Education and Training and Vocational Education and Training. Umalusi confirms that the value of
external examinations resides in setting educationally sound standards of educational
accomplishment.(Rakometsi, 2011).
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The Umalusiannual quality assurance regime includes(Umalusi, 2006):
� Monitoring of systems development and improvement;
� Monitoring the annual conduct of examinations;
� External moderation of assessment instruments, marking and continuous assessment;
� Standardisation of assessment outcomes.
Umalusi quality assures assessment for the qualifications that they issue certificates for.Umalusi
judge at external examinations, and an internal assessment identified as continuous assessment
(CASS) in schools and ‘year mark’ in colleges.
Umalusi functions include:(The General and Further Education and Training Qualifications
Framework, 2011)
� Moderating question papers;
� Monitoring the conduct of the examinations;
� Moderation of marking;
� Standardising results.
Umalusiapproved assessment bodies
Quality assurance of centralised national assessment is an extensive factor of Umalusi quality
assurance management. Umalusi accredits private assessment bodies and monitors the standards
of assessment in the public assessment procedure of the qualifications it certifies. Accredited
private assessment bodies and the public assessment system are monitored yearly for
continuance of standards and development. (Umalusi Presentation to the Basic Education
Portfolio Committee, 2011).
Umalusi reports annually on the quality of the assessment for the following qualifications:
(Umalusi, 2006)
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� Senior Certificate (SC) and the new National Senior Certificate (NSC);
� National Technical Certificate (N3) and NSC (Occupational), as well as the new National
Certificate Vocational (NCV);
� General Education and Training Certificate (GETC) for adults.
Monitoring the conduct of examinations
� Umalusi monitors the execution of the exams that consists of three main functions:
� Auditing the assessment bodies’ monitoring systems;
� Monitoring the state of readiness to administer the examination; and
� Monitoring the administration and conduct of the examination itself.
Umalusiverification andmoderation of internal assessments(Umalusi, 2006):
Umalusi states that external moderators who are highly qualified and experienced professionals in
their particular subjects do the moderation of question papers. The moderation process
concentrates on making certain that question papers are of an adequate standard, cover suitable
content as prescribed in the syllabus and are presented in a professional manner.Statistical
moderation of examination marks consists of evaluating the current mark distributions with the
equivalent average distributions over the last three years. Standardisation meetings take place
between the achievement of marking and publication of results. Verification and moderation of
continuous assessment are performed at regular intervals.
School-based continuous assessments include the Senior Certificate examination results,
subsequently to 2001. Continuous assessment makes up 25% of a learners final mark. Statistical
moderation of CASS is undertaken per institution and per subject. The mean and standard
deviation of the examination mark is used. Consequent to the examination the mean scores of the
examination subject at a specificcentre is equated to the mean of the CASS score and is accepted if
it is within a certain range of the examination mean(Umalusi, 2008).
In the event the mean of the CASS score is too low or too elevated it is brought within a certain
range of the examination. The National Senior Certificate and the National Certificate year
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marksare standardised against the examination mark with a tolerance of between 5% and 10%
(Umalusi, 2008).
Umalusimoderation of themarking process;(Umalusi, 2008):
Umalusi moderates the marking of scripts by deploying external moderators to marking centres
during the marking process to ensure that:
� The memoranda are correctly interpreted;
� The standard of marking and internal moderation of scripts is maintained across all examining
bodies/marking centers and throughout the marking process;
� All the systems and processes that relate to marking are in place and effective;
� The product of marking is a true reflection of the performance of individual candidates.
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3.8.2.1 Conclusion
Notwithstanding significant challenges faced in assessment practice, Umalusi has established a
credible reputation for the functions that it performs in relation to quality assurance and
validating assessment standards and national results. Umalusi has a centralisedquality
management system. Umalusi has managed to perform beyond expectations and limited
resources.
Umalusi conducts centralised moderation of scripts and ensures that statistical moderation results
are available. Umalusi standardises examination marks and internal assessment scores.
Standardisation is required to address the variation in the standard of question papers and
marking that may occur from year to year and across examining bodies.
3.8.3 The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)
The South African Qualification Authority (SAQA) regulates moderation systems for ETQAs and
training providers. SAQA developedprovider and ETQA moderation guidelines for the assessment
of NQF registered unit standards and qualifications(Skills Development Act, 1998) and seminal
applicable legislative framework as set out(National Qualifications Framework Act, Act 67 of 2008).
SAQA states that moderation ensures that learners are assessed in a consistent, accurate and well-
designed methodology. It further ensures that all assessors are using comparable assessment
methods and are making similar and consistent judgments about learner accomplishments. The
external moderation process plays an important role in validating assessment and internal
moderation processes (South African Qualifications Authority, 2001).
Various ETQAs have not complied with the requirements set in the guidelines provided by SAQA,
primarily not ensuring that external moderators are industry experts and are appropriately
qualified. SAQA specifies that individuals directing external moderation should be skilled, know the
learning area well, have undertaken training for moderation and have reliability among assessors
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and within their area of knowledge and expertise. A high level of personal and interpersonal skills
is necessary(South African Qualifications Authority, 2000).
SAQA outlines that ETQAs will have to demonstrate that they have the competence to manage an
external moderation system(South African Qualifications Authority, 2001).
SAQA identified the main functions of a moderation system as(South African Qualifications
Authority, 2000):
� To verify that assessments are fair, valid, reliable and practicable;
� To identify the need to redesign assessments if necessary;
� To offer an appeals procedure for dissatisfied learners;
� To assess the performance of assessors;
� To provide actions for the de-registration of unsatisfactory assessors;
� To provide comment to SAQA on unit standards and qualifications.
SAQA specified components of a moderation system(South African Qualifications Authority ,
2000):
SAQA provides guidelines in relation to the required components of a moderation system (South
African Qualifications Authority, 2001).
The components of a moderation system include:
i. Appropriate timing
ii. The extent of the moderation
iii. Moderation materials
iv. Personnel
v. Moderation methods
The moderation system must be designed to advance and evolve. This will necessitate varying the
techniques used. The range, from which one or another combination of methods are applied,
might include (South African Qualifications Authority, 2001):
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� Revising exemplars of assessments and benchmarking materials against established criteria
� Conducting statistical moderation
� Conducting external assessments which will serve as a moderating instrument and could
perhaps justify less moderations
� General assessment activities and assessment guides
� Having external moderators undertake site visits
� Having external moderators perform panel meetings
� Establishing site consultative committees
SAQA requires that the moderation system be reviewed regularly to ensure that it meets
expectations and that the proposed arrangements are efficient, accessible and make optimum use
of resources.
� Internal moderation (South African Qualifications Authority , 2000):
Internal moderation is acknowledged in the SAQA guidelines as ensuring that assessments
achieved by a single learning provider are consistent, accurate, and well designed. The three core
phases to internal moderation are design, implementation, and review.
Accredited providers ought to have individuals that administer their internal moderation
procedures.Internal moderators ought to conform to the subsequent in line with the SAQA
guidelines:
� Institute procedures to standardise assessment, including the strategy for internal
moderation
� Examine uniformity of assessment records
Through sampling, ensure the design of assessment materials for appropriateness before use,
monitor assessment procedure, ensure candidates evidence, verify the results and decisions of
assessor for reliability, manage assessor meetings, liaise with external moderators and offer
suitable and essential support, advice and support to assessors.
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� External moderation(South African Qualifications Authority, 2000):
External moderation is a means to make sure that two or more providers delivering programmes
to the same unit standards and qualifications are assessing reliably to the same standard and in a
well-designed manner. External moderation systems are managed by the ETQAs.External
moderation involves the following in line with the SAQA guidelines:
� Impart advice and direction to providers
� Examine that the systems necessary to sustain the provision of learning programmes
transversely in the institution/learning site are suitable and working efficiently
� Sustain an overview of provision athwart providers
� Examine staff concerned in assessment are suitably qualified and experienced
� Examine the credibility of assessment methods and instruments
� Scrutinise internal moderation systems
� Conduct thorough sampling, monitoring and observing assessment processes and learners’
evidence to ensure reliability athwart providers
� Examine assessor decisions
ETQAs will have to demonstrate that they have the competence to manage an external
moderation system that facilitates and ensures that these activities can be done successfully and
resourcefully prior to them gaining accreditation (South African Qualifications Authority, 2001).
ETQAs must make certain that moderation systems established are reliable with capability and
means. The external moderation procedure could be centralised and directive or it could consist of
an arrangement of local networks.If a centrally directed system is set up by an ETQA, it could
allocate the moderation function to one or a permutation of agent/s (South African Qualifications
Authority , 2000).
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The following are examples of agents accountable to the appropriate ETQA(South African
Qualifications Authority , 2000):
� A panel established to oversee the assessment of unit standards or qualifications
� A national professional association
� An individual provider or consortium of providers
� Private consultants
Moderators use criteria as set out below(South African Qualifications Authority , 2000):
� Coverage of core syllabus;
� Presentation of question paper;
� Standard of question paper;
� Instructions to learners;
� Language usage;
� Competence of examiners;
� Internal moderation;
� Number of times question paper had to be externally moderated;
� Time allocation.
SAQA specifies that individuals conducting external moderation should be skilled, know the
learning area well, have undergone training for moderation and have credibility among assessors
and within their area of knowledge and expertise. A high level of personal and interpersonal skills
is also required (South African Qualifications Authority , 2000).
3.8.4 Sector Education and Training Authorities(SETAs) and Education and Training
Quality Assurance bodies (ETQAs)
Introduction
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The Skills Development Act (No. 97 of 1997) established SETAs. An ETQA is a body accredited in
terms of section 5(1) (a) (ii) of the Act(South African Qualifications Authority, 1995). ETQAs are
responsible for monitoring and auditing achievements in terms of national standards or
qualifications, and to which specific functions relating to the monitoring and auditing of national
standards or qualifications have been assigned in terms of section 5(1) (b) (i) of the Act(South
African Qualifications Authority, 1995).
SAQA has prescribed the same set of standards and reporting requirements to all ETQAs. Each
ETQA has latitude of interpretation to adapt the regulations to their requirements. This
interpretative value has resulted in a proliferated and fragmented approach of uncertainty to
occupationally directed providers. Providers must comply with different moderation percentages,
levels of reporting compliance and external moderation processes, notwithstanding a standard set
of guidelines having been issued (South African Qualifications Authority, 2001).
i. The following SETAs accreditation and external moderation systems are outlined in the
section below: Clothing, Textile, Footwear and Leather SETA (CTFL SETA);
ii. Media, Advertising, Publishing, Printing, Packaging SETA (MAPPP SETA);
iii. The Mining Qualifications Authority (MQA), Transport Education and Training Authority
(TETA),The Construction Education and Training Authority (CETA);
iv. Services SETA (SSETA);
v. The Bank SETA;
vi. Wholesale and Retail SETA (W and R SETA) and
vii. The Education, Training and Development Practices Sector Education and Training
Authority (ETDPSETA).
SETA ETQAs report directly to SAQA and DHET at the time of this research. SETA ETQAs will in
future report to the QCTO and DHET(Department of Higher Education and Training, 2012).As ETQA
staff are replaced or leave the organisation, providers often have to adapt to a new way of doing
things as processes are amended to suit new incumbents. SAQA should conduct regular ETQA
audits. Limited available research on the performance of specific ETQAs is available. ETQAs are
provided with guidelines for auditing by SAQA (South African Qualification Authority, 2001).
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� SETA establishment andmoderation policy confirmation
SAQA specifies that sub-regulation 9(1) (d) of the South African Qualifications Authority
Regulations 1127, 1998, promulgated underthe South African Qualifications Authority, 1995,
Section 14, requires ETQAs to “evaluate assessments and facilitation of moderation amongst
constituent providers”. The (National Qualifications Framework Act, 2008) replaced the(South
African Qualifications Authority, 1995).
SAQA’s ETQA regulations require all ETQAs to evaluate assessment and moderation among
constituent providers as a central part of its quality assurance function (South African
Qualifications Authority, 2001). All the evaluated ETQAs that formed part of this thesis study
mirror the requirements specified by SAQA in their policy framework. The ETQAs confirm in
available policy frameworks, that providers must ensure that learners are assessed in a consistent,
accurate and well-designed manner.
The Media, Advertising, Publishing Printing and Packaging SETA(MAPPP SETA) ETQA confirmsthe
MAPPP SETA’s responsibility for the verification and auditing of assessments. Central to the MAPP
SETA ETQA moderation process are the development, planning and review phases(Media,
Advertising, Publishing Printing and Packaging SETA, 2001).
The Clothing, Textile, Footwear and Leather (CTFL)SETA ETQA draws a division in the planning of a
moderation system amongst provider moderation (internal) and verification (external moderation)
at the level of the ETQA. The CTFL SETA ETQA evaluates assessment and moderation among
constituent providers as a central part of its quality assurance(Clothing, Textile, Footwear and
Leather SETA ETQA, 2005).The CTFL SETA commits to developing and enlarging its skills base of all
employed within the Clothing, Textiles, Footwear and Leather economic sector through the
promotion and implementation of effective learning programmes and skills planning which will
advance workplace security and productivity as part of this process (Clothing, Textile, Footwear
and Leather SETA ETQA, 2005).
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The Wholesale and Retail SETA ETQA confirms that the quality assurance of assessment and
moderation of providers, learnerships and/or qualifications includes a wide-ranging confirmation
of achievements and guarantees that a learner is given the greatest prospect to achieve
competence prior to external moderation (Wholesale and Retail SETA, 2007).
The Construction Education and Training Authority (CETA) ETQA embraces the principles that best
practice moderation will occur. The process of moderation encompasses an active interaction
between assessor and moderator to provide an opportunity to support consistency of assessment.
The accredited training education provider must have systems that lead to the appointment of
professional assessors with appropriate technical skills and relevant industry experience (The
Construction Education and Training Authority ETQA, 2007).
The BANK SETAconfirms that the quality assurance of assessment and moderation of providers,
learnerships, and/or qualifications includes a wide-ranging confirmation of achievements and
guarantees that a learner is given the greatest prospect to achieve competence prior to external
moderation (BANK SETA, 2009).The BANK SETAoutlines that their basic values and principles
governing public administration are enshrined in Section 195 of the Constitution (Constitution of
the Republic of South Africa, Act 108, 1996). In particular,the BANK SETA commits to use resources
in provider assessment and moderation processes economically, efficiently and effectively,and
that the administration of assessment and moderation processes shall be development-oriented,
especially regarding assessors who are registered through emerging and SMME providers(BANK
SETA, 2009).
The Mining Qualifications Authority (MQA) position on internal moderation articulates that the
developed assessment and moderation guidelines are applicable to providers who are within the
MQA’s primary focus jurisdiction. Training providers have to ensure that they have quality
assessment and moderation systems in place with a code of conduct for the registered assessors
against which the credibility of assessment decisions with regard to unit standards and
qualifications will be measured(Mining Qualifications Authority , 2003).
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Transport Educationand Training Authority (TETA) confirms its moderation guidelines are
applicable to all those involved in the moderation of assessments conducted by registered
assessors for specific nationally recognised qualifications and unit standards within the primary
focus of TETA(Transport Education and Training Authority , 2003).
The Services SETA (SSETA) articulates that moderation is the process of ensuring that assessments
conducted are fair, valid, reliable, consistent and practical. Moderation must confirm credibility
and quality of qualifications awarded within the National Qualifications Framework can be
maintained. The SSETA provides a moderation pack to providers who have been awarded
accreditation by SETQAA, (SSETA ETQA), outsourced partners and Services SETA constituent
registered moderators (Services SETA ETQA Moderation Pack QALA-G 002, 2007).
The Education, Training and Development Practices Sector Education and Training Authority (ETDP
SETA) confirms that since 2003 the ETDQA has had its own guidelines on assessment, moderation
and verification that have been revised and updated (the latest versions are from 2010). ETDQA
provides guidelines that must be used by stakeholders seeking more detailed guidance and advice
on good assessment practices. .The ETDP SETA is mandated to promote and facilitate the delivery
of education, training and development in order to enhance the skills profile of the Education,
Training and Development (ETD) sector and contribute to the creation of employment
opportunities especially for those previously disadvantaged (ETDP SETA , 2010).
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Internal moderation requirements
The functions of the internal moderators are specified by the ETQAs in line with SAQA
requirements as:
� Standardise workplace assessments;
� Embrace plans for internal moderation;
� Monitor consistency of assessment proceedings;
� Examine the design of assessment materials for appropriateness before they are used;
� Monitor assessment processes;
� Check learners' evidence and check the results and decisions of workplace assessors for
consistency;
� Use sampling process;
� Coordinate consultation of workplace assessors;
� Liaise with external moderating bodies (ETQAs); and
� Provide appropriate support, advice and guidance to workplace assessors.
All ETQAs evaluated confirmed compliance with the requirementsstipulating that internal
moderation processes endorse the provider’s assessment practices and that theymust be
accurate, reliable, well designed and consistent across learners as required by SAQA. External
moderation guarantees that providers assess reliably to the same unit standard or qualification.
CETA endorses that moderation activities confirm that correct decisions have been made with
regard to competencies assessed by assessors. It guarantees that all assessors who assess a
particular unit standard or qualifications are using comparable assessment approaches and are
making analogous and consistent judgments about learners’ performance and that strategies exist
to communicate improvements in the assessment process to enhance the consistency of
pronouncements in the future (Construction Education and Training Authority , 2002).
CETA prescribes that accredited training providers should have individuals to manage their
moderation systems. CETA specifies that internal moderators should establish systems to
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standardise assessment, including the plans for internal moderation, and monitor the consistency
of assessment records. Additionally, internal moderators must confirmthe design of assessment
materials for appropriateness before they are used; monitor assessment processes, check
candidates evidence and check the results and decisions of assessors for consistency. Internal
moderators play an important role in co-ordinating assessor meetings and reviewing moderation
systems and processes, and the liaison with external moderators/verifiers. Internal moderators
must provide appropriate and necessary support, advice and guidance to assessors and submit
quarterly reports to CETA (Construction Education and Training Authority , 2002).
The MQA ETQA specifies the need to be assured that robust, effective and consistent internal
moderation processes are operational. All assessed training submitted for credits are subject to a
process of internal moderation (Mining Qualifications Authority, 2003)
The BANK SETA specifies that the internal moderator is at the core of quality assurance in all
programmes, both within the national framework and within the quality and management
systems of each approved centre; the character of managing assessment is that it consistently
meets national standards specified by SAQA (BANKSETA, 2009).
Transport Education and Training Authority (TETA) confirms that moderations ensure that the
assessments conducted by registered assessors are credible, valid, fair, reliable and practical. It
also ensures that assessments are conducted in a consistent, accurate and well-designed manner.
The credibility of learner achievements is dependent on the assessment and moderation systems
and is an important element of the total TETA provisioning framework (Transport Education and
Training Authority , 2003).
� ETQA internal moderation sampling requirements
The CTFL SETA requires that twenty % of assessments areinternally moderated. The CTFL SETA
specifies that this percentage may be reduced to 10% depending on the capacity of the provider to
conduct reliable assessments and in performance with the moderating committee of the provider.
Prima facie, it appears that the CTFL SETA makes provision for the acknowledgement of mature
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providers that have successfully implemented tested internal assessment and moderation
processes. There is,however, no available policy framework to determine the criteria for said
evaluation and endorsement (Construction Education and Training Authority , 2002).
The MAPPPSETA ETQA regulation specifies a minimum of 10% of completed Portfolios of Evidence
when internal moderation reports are completed and assessment results forms are received from
the training provider. Assessors notify internal moderators when they are ready to be moderated.
Before assessment results are uploaded, assessors must ensure that an internal moderation is
done of at least 10% of the Portfolios of Evidence, based on the moderation report (Media,
Advertising, Publishing Printing and Packaging SETA, 2001).
BANKSETA ETQA specifies that the verification of providers and qualifications is a comprehensive
activity. The objective of the external moderation is to confirm learner achievement and ensures
that a learner is provided with support to achieve their best quality of work and therefore their
best overall competency.The BANK SETAexternal verification is directed at ETQA level by an
external organisation; the external verifier uses a random sample of 10% (BANK SETA, 2009).
CETA specifies that to enhance the credibility of the assessment CETA requires that a provider
conducts internal moderation of a minimum of 80% of all assessments. The selection of the 80% of
the Portfolios of Evidence must vary from learner to learner to include those who are “Not Yet
Competent”(Construction Education and Training Authority , 2002).
The MQA requires that 10% of assessments be internally moderated and the SSETA requires that
internal moderation is completed by the internal moderator on a random sample of 25% of
assessments (Mining Qualifications Authority, 2003).
Transport Education and Training Authority (TETA)internal moderation will, within the first year of
accreditation, be conducted on 75% of all assessments on a sampling basis as determined by the
accredited provider and agreed to by TETA ETQA on all batches of assessments conducted by the
provider (Transport SETA, 2003).
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The SSETA requires that 25% of assessments be internal moderated .The sample of 25% of
assessments must be random (Services SETA ETQA Moderation Pack QALA-G 002, 2007) and the
ETDP SETA requires 10% internal moderation (ETDP SETA , 2010).
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External moderation requirements
ETQA specification of the functions of verification / external moderation processes are highlighted
below.
The CTFL SETA outlines that the verification includes developing, planning and reviewing the
external moderation system, including the appointment of the external moderators by the ETQA
as specified by SAQA. The provision of advice and guidance to providers and the maintenance of a
summary of provision through providers is also established as an ETQA function. The ETQA will
further also verify that all providers’ assessors and moderators are suitably qualified and confirm
the reliability and validity of workplace assessment instruments supplied by the provider.
The ETQA is responsible for checking the provider’s internal moderation systems and maintenance
of a provider appeals procedure. The ETQA specifies that they have a further responsibility to
deliver comments to SAQA on unit standards and qualifications.The CTFL stresses that it will
examine all the staff involved in assessment, and ensure that they are suitably qualified and
experienced. The examination of the reliability of assessment methods and instruments and the
scrutiny of internal moderation systems is conducted by sampling, monitoring and observing and
learners’ evidence to guarantee stability across providers, and the inspection of assessors’
decisions(Clothing, Textile, Footwear and Leather SETA ETQA, 2005).
The CETA confirms that it manages the external moderation systems in line with SAQA
specifications. The CETA moderation/verification process involves the examination of the systems,
mandatory to support the provision of learning programmes through the institution/learning
site,as suitable and working meritoriously and substantiating advice and guidance to education
and training providers. The CETA further confirms that it will sustain a summary of provision across
education and training providers and maintain an overview of provision across education and
training providers (Construction Education and Training Authority , 2002).
The W and R SETA confirms that they appoint an external moderator to verify provider compliance
in relation to the developed structured curriculum, the application instruments of the provider’s
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QMS, elected workplaces, the required exposure to workplace learning as per the qualification
/learnerships / skills programme requirement and specifications. The W and R SETA further
confirmsthat developed learning material and the significance to the qualification / learnerships /
skills programme have been correctly completed. The constituent status of assessors and
moderators are also confirmed during external moderation processes. The provider is required to
present evidence that assessment guides are available and are compliant. The learner Portfolio of
Evidence (PoE) is evaluated and the training provider for verification must present the formative
assessments, summative assessments, progress and assessor reports, learner records database
and upload of enrolment / achievement. The provider is also required to present their moderation
guides and reports (Wholesale and Retail SETA, 2007).
The BANKSETA ETQA confirms that the verification of providers, and/or qualifications, is an
inclusive framework on accomplishment and safeguards that a learner is given the best chance to
achieve their best quality of work and consequently their best overall competency.The BANKSETA
outlines the external moderation activity will involve confirming provider accreditation status,
structured curriculum and the confirmation of the implementation mechanisms of the provider’s
QMS. BANKSETA places emphasis on the external moderation of elected workplaces providing
learners with the required exposure as per the qualification, including learnerships and skills
programme requirements. Additional areas for verification include confirmation of the learning
material and assessment instruments used by the provider and the relevance to qualifications,
learnerships, and skills programmes; and the use of constituent assessors and moderators (BANK
SETA, 2009).
The Services SETA provisionally accredited provider is not only required to conduct training that is
aligned to the NQF registered unit standards and/or qualifications, but to also conduct
assessments and internal moderation activities. Note that moderation of assessment, organised
and conducted by a provider, is a SAQA requirement for provider accreditation. Moderation
covers assessment instruments, assessment design and methodology, assessment records,
assessment decisions, reporting and feedback mechanisms. Where a training provider is
participating in a full qualification, including learnerships, or skills programme, the provider will be
required to conduct and participate in the moderation process. Providers will be subject to
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submitting four internal moderation reports for providers offering full qualifications and
learnerships. SETQAA will conversely conduct three external moderation visits for providers
offering full qualifications and learnerships. Providers offering skills programmes are required to
submit one internal moderation report. One external moderation visit will then be conducted by
the SETQAA.
The SSETA moderation pack still specifies, though defunct, that certification partners (outsourced
partners) are responsible for assisting SETQAAin promoting and maintaining quality within their
respective industries, in line with SETA’srequirements. The certification partnersare required to
have a clear understanding of moderation activities and systems. (Services SETA ETQA Moderation
Pack QALA-G 002, 2007). Ironically, the QCTO is inadvertently planning on implementing a
comparable model.
TETA ETQA specify that the ETQA conducts the planning and the preparation of external
moderation activities; conducts verification activities; appraises verification plans and processes;
records and reports verification conclusions and recommendations; and covers the advising and
provision of external moderators and providers (Transport SETA, 2003).
The MAPPPSETA ETQA conducts external moderation as part of the monitoring and auditing visits
to training providers. The ETQA conducts external moderation within one month of receiving the
relevant information from the training providers. If applicable, a development plan is agreed to,
which the assessors must comply with before assessments can resume (Media, Advertising,
Publishing Printing and Packaging SETA, 2001).
� ETQA external moderation sampling requirements
The CTFL SETA requires that the external moderator sample 10% of learner assessments and that
they be signed off by a designated external moderator. Prior to certification of a qualification, the
CTFL SETA ETQA will conduct a moderation of all assessment evidence of the learner. The CTFL
SETA ETQA will additionally moderate all assessment instruments. The topographies of the
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internal moderation scheme of the provider must be moderated annually as part of a quality
assurance visit (Clothing, Textile, Footwear and Leather SETA ETQA, 2005).
The MAPP SETA ETQA audits a minimum of 10% of completed portfolios of evidence as and when
internal moderation occurs, with a completed assessment. The ETQA conducts external
moderation within one month of receiving the relevant information from the training provider
(Media, Advertising, Publishing Printing and Packaging SETA, 2001).
The W and R SETA (Wholesale and Retail SETA, 2007)and ETDP SETA (ETDP SETA , 2010)require
that external moderation is conducted on 10% of learner portfolios. SSETA requires a 25% external
moderation sample (Services SETA ETQA Moderation Pack QALA-G 002, 2007) and the CETA
requirement is unclear. TheCETA reporting and storage of moderation results specify that registers
of accomplishments of learners (hard copies) must be kept and filled for 1 year, and thereafter a
summary of the learner assessment must be kept and learner Portfolio of Evidence (PoE) returned
to the learner. The provider must have control measures in place for returning of PoE files
(Construction Education and Training Authority , 2002).
TETA specifies that external moderation will be conducted on 50% of all assessments on a
sampling basis as agreed between the external moderator/moderation body and TETA ETQA in
terms of the contractual agreement (Transport Education and Training Authority , 2003).
� Moderator constituent registration requirements
The MAPPPSETA specifies that the ETQA is responsible for the verification of assessments results,
whilst the accredited training provider and registered assessors should ensure thata MAPPPSETA
registered internal moderator moderates their assessments. Assessors and moderators are
required to register with the MAPPP SETA against the relevant unit standards (for skills
programmes) or qualification (for learnerships) by submitting a form as part of the provider
application pack. The MAPPP SETA ETQA evaluates the application as part of the provider
accreditation / independent moderator registration process. The MAPP SETA confirms the
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requirement for assessors and moderators to register within their industry (Media, Advertising,
Publishing Printing and Packaging SETA, 2001).
The W and R SETA, ETDP SETA, CTFL SETA, CETA and SSETA confirm that constituent registration
will be confirmed during the provider’s external moderation process, and that registration is
required prior to conducting assessment and/or moderation activities.
The MQA requires that assessors, moderators and verifiers must be constituently registered
(Mining Qualifications Authority, 2003).
The BANK SETA states that moderators who are not subject-matter experts should establish
partnerships with others who are proficient to provide ratification of decisions relating to the
subject matter of an assessment. This may include another competent moderator (BANK SETA,
2009).
3.8.4.1 Conclusion
External moderation processes intend to confirm that the assessment practices in qualifications
are valid, authentic, current, reliable and practicable. The credibility of an external moderation
process is vested in the credibility of the external quality management processes, the assessment
process, endorsement by industry, realistic working environment and the occupational expertise
of assessors, internal moderators and external moderators. The South African national
occupationally directed education system must be effectively quality assured to confirm that
reliable and accurate quality standards are being implemented and maintained.
Prior to the SETA system being implemented in the late 1990’s, the accreditation of occupational
workplace providers was regulated by Industry Training Boards (ITB’s). This system presented
over-regulation and bureaucratic red tape distracted from providing workplaces with the skills
they required. SETA ETQAs perform inconsistently across industries. Limited ETQAs have built
reputations for excellence in customer service and ensuing quality standards in provision and
assessment. ETQAs have largely become bureaucratic, administrative vehicles that are
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predominantly reliant on consultants to perform most functions because of a basic lack of
capacity.
3.9 Conclusion of chapter three
The purpose for this chapter was to outline available literature and demonstrate the current state
of affairs that contribute to the logical models for accreditation and external moderation
frameworks. It is clear that occupational workplace-based education differs from traditional
academic models. The occupational framework is over-regulated and inconsistent notwithstanding
being governed by standard sets of regulations and legislation. Modernism and postmodernism
have been outlined and discussed in a broader context of societal influences. The writings of
prominent philosophers and respected educationalist have been outlined in relation to their
contribution to, and the importance of, cognitive development initiatives.
Available literature relating to quality assurance models for provider accreditation and external
moderation processes was provided for the South African, Canadian, German, Singaporean, U.S.A.
and UK education landscape, policy and legislative frameworks.
A baseline was provided to highlight the South African education and skills development arena and
the progress made in relation to employment creation. The current education system is failing the
South African population. It was conceded that South Africa is by no means the worst achiever in
the global economy. It was however clear that a holistic integrated strategy must be at the
forefront of the development agenda if a solution is to be implemented on the ticking social time
bomb of unemployed and unemployable South African youth.
The International Commission on Education for the 21st Century proposed four pillars of learning:
Learning to Be, Learning to Know, Learning to Do, Learning to Live Together (Kusumiadi, et al,
2010). In the global knowledge-based economy of the 21st Century, future affluence and security
as well as harmony, social coherence and cultivation of the environment will be contingent on
people’s admittance and competence to make choices, to acclimatizes, to prompt transformation
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and to find sustainable elucidations to challenges. Indeed, education and lifelong learning is key
(Yang and Liang, 2011).
“An important initiative proposed by the Green Paper is the establishment of a South African
Institute for Vocational and Continuing Education and Training (SAIVCET) as a key part of a long-
term strategy to build institutional capacity. A study will be done soon to further conceptualise
and make specific and concrete recommendations for the Institute. The Institute’s main function
should be to strengthen the occupational and continuing education sector by playing a supporting
role to existing institutions, especially the FET colleges and the Sector Education and Training
Authorities” (Nzimande, 12th January 2012).
This chapter has framed the underlying design and development of a strategic framework for the
accreditation and external moderation of occupationally directed providers in the South African
context.
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4. Chapter 4 Research Methodology
4.1 Introduction
Chapter 4 outlines the methodology chosen for this thesis and presents the underlying philosophy
relevant to the research. The respective protocols used for collecting and analysing the research
data are also outlined. The foundation for a qualitative approach has been investigated in this
chapter.
The research objectives outline a framework directing the research questions being investigated
and outline a consideration of the policy framework embraced for the research study referred to
as ‘policy sociology’. This was done after the research andis grounded in the contention that
research for policy analysis should be “rooted in the social science tradition, historically informed
and drawing on qualitative and illuminative techniques” (Ozga, 1987:14).
Critically the research presents the underlying paradigm that drew a nexus to the policy
framework relating to research approaches, and outlined the specific methods used to collect and
analyse data and conclude the specifics of the research design.The research is pragmatic in the
determination of the required foundation for the development of a generic framework for the
accreditation and external moderation of occupationally based education and training providers.
Critically the research methodology recognised current accreditation and external moderation
models, policies, approaches, philosophy and challenges that exist within the local and global
context.
Grounded theory endorsed the researcher soliciting imperative research questions that endorsed
for the formulation of a series of questions to inform this research.The research considered the
formulation of an effective accreditation andexternal moderation framework and reviewed
current accreditation andexternal moderation frameworks both globally and locally. The
establishment of groundwork towards the development of anexternal moderation and
accreditation framework for occupationally based education and training providers was crucial to
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the research process. The research process originated with the stating of the research problem
trailed by the research design
The final stages of the research i
desktop evaluations (Yin, 2003)
(Adapted from Yin; 2003)
Additional information that informed
Developing a research
problem
Formulating the research questions
Research design �
�
�
the research process. The research process originated with the stating of the research problem
trailed by the research design(Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996).
The final stages of the research involved the data analysis and the generalisation of the findings of
(Yin, 2003).
Figure 4.1: Research process
that informed the research outline is provided below
Formulating the research questions
Preliminary activities and pilot study
Literature review
Developing a theoretical framework
the research process. The research process originated with the stating of the research problem
nvolved the data analysis and the generalisation of the findings of
is provided below:
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� International evaluation of accreditation and external moderation
models
� Establishing preliminary information and background
� Investigation regarding research topic
� Scoping the research dimension and pilot study (Yin; 2003)
� Investigating conceptual models (Kamuzora; 2009)
� Measurement of variables (Ritchie and Lewis; 2006)
� Selection of qualitative research dimension
� Selection of case study / desktop methodology to evaluate accreditation
and external moderation reports (Yin, 2003 and Silverman, 2006)
Framework
development
� Literature review findings
� Research questions
� Alternative accreditation and external moderation framework
� First empirical findings
Measurement � Techniques for measurement defined
Data collection � Accreditation and external moderation reports
� Interviews
� Research questionnaires
Data analysis � Data management (Yin; 2003:109)
� Descriptive and exploratory analysis
Generalisation � Grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss; 1967)
� Analytical Generalisation (Yin, 2003)
Table 4.1: Research phases undertaken
4.2 Research objective
The research objective was confirmed as the formulation of an alternative accreditation
andexternal moderation framework for occupationally based education and training providers.
The researcher undertook an analysis of global and national accreditation andexternal moderation
frameworks. The conceptualisation and legislative policy analysis constructed a discourse
trajectory as the basis of this study. Research questions were settled in relation to different
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perspectives of the global and national legislative and operational policy practice, within the
contexts of influence, policy text production and the practice (Ball, 2003) and(Vidovich, 2002:86).
4.3 Research questions
� Context of influence
What value proposition will be created by the inclusion of the cognitive development construct in
occupational and experiential qualifications?
� Context of policy text production
i. What are the fundamental challenges faced by providers that result in their inability to obtain
provisional accreditation or programme approval with SETAs?
ii. What are the emergent trends that have resulted in learners being unable to exit at band and
unit standard level after external moderation activities have been conducted by SETAs?
� Context of practice
What is the optimal design framework for occupationally based education and training
provideraccreditation andexternal moderation activities?
The first question related to ascertaining the dynamics informing the processes important up to
the first set of results, to create a framework in relation to the context of influence (Vidovich,
2002:86).The perspective impact considered the macro level of the legislative policy framework
and encompassed factors of global, regional and national eminence.
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The second and third questions we
discourse and the instructions and denotati
the policy framework and the understanding
understand legislative and policy frameworks
Table 4.2:
The framework for analysis of policy as recapi
coherent principles to the environ
this research. The investigation of policy adaptatio
approach, to be able to pronounce and unravel “the complexities and messiness” of the process
and to gain considerations of the denotations that actors brought to, or had of, the process
(Taylor, 1997:24).
Discovering the implications for the tenacities of data collection and analysis, an interpretivist
paradigm ought to support the research methods. There are concerns of consistency and
legitimacy that recount to the investigation approaches engaged.
4.4 Qualitative research
The second and third questions were interrelated to the context of legislative policy context, their
discourse and the instructions and denotations. The fourth question relayed
the policy framework and the understandings of practitioners, and confirmed
understand legislative and policy frameworks.
A modified policy cycle incorporating macro
micro agency
Adapted from: (Vidovich, 2002).
The framework for analysis of policy as recapitulated in the Table 4.1 conveyed
coherent principles to the environment of the investigation and the selection of approaches for
this research. The investigation of policy adaptation to this framework necessitated
approach, to be able to pronounce and unravel “the complexities and messiness” of the process
and to gain considerations of the denotations that actors brought to, or had of, the process
Discovering the implications for the tenacities of data collection and analysis, an interpretivist
to support the research methods. There are concerns of consistency and
legitimacy that recount to the investigation approaches engaged.
esearch outline
re interrelated to the context of legislative policy context, their
The fourth question relayed the significances of
s of practitioners, and confirmed how practitioners
acro constraint and
tulated in the Table 4.1 conveyed numerous
ment of the investigation and the selection of approaches for
n to this framework necessitated a qualitative
approach, to be able to pronounce and unravel “the complexities and messiness” of the process
and to gain considerations of the denotations that actors brought to, or had of, the process
Discovering the implications for the tenacities of data collection and analysis, an interpretivist
to support the research methods. There are concerns of consistency and
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Two research methodologies exist within the social sciences (Creswell, 1994) and (Leedy, 1997):
i. Qualitative research
ii. QuantitativeResearch
Qualitative research varies from quantitative research as it scrutinises the understanding of the
position of the participant contrasting to forecasting what will ensue from the position of an
unfamiliar setting. The qualitative researcher attempts to present authentic analysis that is
sensitive to specific social-historical frameworks(Henning, Van Rensburg and Smit, 2004)
and(Patton and Appelbaum, 2003).
Qualitative research stresses inductive and practical methods that aim to figure a thick description
of the policy sequence (Punch, 1994).
The researcher explored denotations of the policy development that are more pleasingly provoked
by qualitative methods. “If you want to understand the way people think about their world and
how their definitions are formed, you need to get close to them, to hear them talk”(Bogdan,
1998). These contemplations are incumbent upon one for the adoption of performances of
qualitative research such as in-depth orsemi-structured interviews.
An evaluation comparing quantitative and qualitative research was possible by contrasting the
major approaches in the table below representing the differentiation in the research
methodologies. The table was presented by(Viljoen, 2001) and informed by the work of(Creswell,
1994), (Leedy, 1997)and (Maykut and Morehouse, 1994).
The principal purpose in conducting qualitative research is dependent on the understanding and
annotations of the participants. The anthology and accumulation of data during qualitative
research is less rigid, more open and flexible, and its analysis is not prescribed or based on
mathematical rules (Neuman, 2000).
Qualitative research relies profoundly on the prejudice and individual experiences or observations
of the participants(Adler, 1987). As such, a comprehensive understanding of subject matter or
context of research is essential when conducting qualitative research. It is also common cause that
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smaller groups participate in research conducted in a qualitative manner. Qualitative research
further relies on an in-depth understanding of human behaviour and the rationale for behavioural
expression(Morganand Gibson, 1979), whereas quantitative research in comparison requires a
comprehensive understanding of the underlying aspects of such behaviour (Taylor and Bogdan,
1998) and (Patton, 2002).
Qualitative research is a system of investigation, which characterises the researcher’s
understanding of a social or cultural phenomenon derived from a “holistic, largely narrative,
description”. Qualitative research takes place in natural settings and employs a combination of
observations, interviews and document reviews. It could consist of a number of research
strategies, namely case study, focus group, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory
and/or historical research perspectives (Strauss and Corbin, 1998).
Qualitative research Quantitative research
"All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding"- Donald Campbell
"There's no such thing as qualitative data. Everything is either 1 or 0"- Fred Kerlinger
The aim is a complete, detailed description.
The aim is to classify features, count them and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
Researcher may only know roughly, in advance, what he/she is looking for.
Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for.
Recommended during earlier phases of research projects.
Recommended during latter phases of research projects.
The design emerges as the study unfolds.
All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
Researcher is the data-gathering instrument.
Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment, to collect numerical data.
Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects.
Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.
Subjective - individual interpretation of events is important ,e.g. uses participant observation, in-depth interviews etc.
Objective - seeks precise measurement and analysis of target concepts, e.g. uses surveys, questionnaires etc.
Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and less able to be generalised.
Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.
Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed in the subject matter.
Researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter.
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Table 4.3: Features of qualitative and quantitative research: (Neil, 2007)
Qualitative research also refers to the process whereby there is an explanation of the what,
where, when and how of the reality that is being investigated (Anderson, 1998). A further
description outlines that “qualitative research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions,
characteristics, metaphors, symbols and descriptions of things” (Berg, 1995).
Qualitative research also intends to investigate and reconnoitre human experience, perceptions,
motivations, intentions and behaviour. Qualitative research is considered an interactive, inductive,
adaptable, holistic and reflexive method of data collection and analysis. Although qualitative
research was conventionally limited to participating through observation and interviewing,
photographic techniques (including video footage) and historical analysis, the analysis of
documentation and text and the social drama and ethnological research is seen as instances of
differentiations on the still developing qualitative research field(Berg, 1995).
Seen from a systematic perspective the choice of a research method indicates that a specific
perception, with reference to what is being researched, previously existed. It can be accepted that
each research method will unlock a different facet of the reality and,considering this, further
research could possibly lead to a more comprehensive and substantiated interpretation of what
the current reality is, that is being researched.
Qualitative research techniques for the anthology of data embrace interviews, observation,
documentation and analysis of documentation and text (Patton, 2002). The significance of
triangulation to improve the reliability and validity of the research is important in qualitative
research (Vidovich, 2002). Triangulation has two aspects in social science research as a ‘mode of
enquiry’ towards verification. These include “multiple sources and modes of evidence” and “an
appreciation of understandings and perceptions” (Huberman and Miles, 1994).
Throughout the research process the theory of triangulation, as derived from available literature
on qualitative research, was explored and was used in an attempt to obtain additional information
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for the establishment(Berg, 1995)of the groundwork in developing an accreditation and external
moderation framework.
The four basic triangulation types can be described as follows: (Berg, 1998)
i. Data triangulation – where various information sources are being consulted
ii. Investigator triangulation – where a variety of researchers and scientists are consulted
iii. Theoretical triangulation – where a variety of theoretical summaries pertaining to specific
data are dealt with and
iv. Methodological triangulation – where a variety of methods are applied, including
interviews, observations, questionnaires and documentation review.
Triangulation is commonly applied in geographical enquiry, diagrammes and navigation
procedures during military operations (Berg, 1995:05).Available literature for the development of
a qualitative research paradigm indicated that the phenomenology, as a streaming in the anti-
positivism, plays an important role in the development of qualitative research methodologies
(Goetz and LeCompte, 1984).
“The qualitative paradigm perceives social life as the shared creativity of individuals. It is this
shrewdness, which produces a reality perceived to be objective, extant, and knowable to all
participants in social interaction. Furthermore, the social world is not fixed but shifting, changing,
dynamic”(Filstead, 1979).
Phenomenologists initially held the view that the elimination of any deduction in the investigative
process is essential for the purposeful analysis of the occurrence being examined. The researcher
and the participant is an undivided total from which the “research process and the researcher
cannot be distinguished” (Huysamen, 1994:45).
The role of the qualitative researcher focuses on structural planning. The review of current
literature will be recurring to obtain a holistic and incorporated synopsis of the context and to
arrange this logically into unambiguous and embedded parts. “The researcher’s role is to gain a
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‘holistic; (systemic, encompassing, integrated) overview of the context under study: its logic, its
arrangements, and its explicit and implicit rules”
The figure below depicts the various elements of the research study and the relationship they
have with each other. The paradigm illustrated in here is “the entire constellation of beliefs”
(Kuhn, 1970).
Figure
Research data must consequently be construed at the termination of every phase. This will result
in important new stages of advancement where innovative objectives develop and new
information is acquired for further approval of the research study.
The significance of reflecting on the analysis of the research
explanation of the reality that is being investigated
the research development. Against this background, the meaning of the terms objectivity, validity
and reliability in qualitative research, have
Knowledge and meaningful reality is reliant on human practices being constructed in and out of
interaction between human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted within an
essentially social context (Crotty, 1998)
epistemology, having argued
connotations to articles or events.
‘holistic; (systemic, encompassing, integrated) overview of the context under study: its logic, its
arrangements, and its explicit and implicit rules” (Miles and Huberman, 1994)
picts the various elements of the research study and the relationship they
have with each other. The paradigm illustrated in here is “the entire constellation of beliefs”
Figure 4.2: Elements of aresearch study
Research data must consequently be construed at the termination of every phase. This will result
in important new stages of advancement where innovative objectives develop and new
d for further approval of the research study.
The significance of reflecting on the analysis of the research progression
explanation of the reality that is being investigated, is a reality notwithstanding the evolution of
lopment. Against this background, the meaning of the terms objectivity, validity
research, have been discussed.
Knowledge and meaningful reality is reliant on human practices being constructed in and out of
en human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted within an
(Crotty, 1998). The research was a qualified approach to this
having argued that reality does occur intrinsically, as a meaning
connotations to articles or events.
‘holistic; (systemic, encompassing, integrated) overview of the context under study: its logic, its
(Miles and Huberman, 1994).
picts the various elements of the research study and the relationship they
have with each other. The paradigm illustrated in here is “the entire constellation of beliefs”
Research data must consequently be construed at the termination of every phase. This will result
in important new stages of advancement where innovative objectives develop and new
rogression as one possible
is a reality notwithstanding the evolution of
lopment. Against this background, the meaning of the terms objectivity, validity
Knowledge and meaningful reality is reliant on human practices being constructed in and out of
en human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted within an
a qualified approach to this
as a meaning, as social ideas or
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4.4.1 Objectivity
Objectivity forms a fundamental element of any research study. Objectivity presupposes that a
certainty or sovereign authenticity exists external of the research. The opinion that a researcher
will stay unpretentious or uninfluenced by what is experienced cannot be dismissed and with
specific reference to qualitative research, it is imperative for the researcher to remain
unprejudiced and to concede one’s own presumption whilst functioning in an equitable way.
Qualitative research requires the researcher to consider dispassionately into the authenticity that
is being examined and the development is strictly controlled and equitable (Filstead, 1979).The
amorphous and sometimes deliberately biased temperament of the qualitative researcher reflects
a particular dialogue (Smaling, 1994).
The prejudice of the researcher in quantitative research is considered as qualified in nature
whereas the same intolerance within the qualitative realm of research is a significant factor in the
researcher’s views and incorporating their own understanding (Miles and Huberman, 1994).
Objectivity is in certainty an intellectually acquired progression of prejudice to find the underlying
cause of a case and not the escape thereof. This is based on the viewpoint of being in the world,
meaning that human behaviour cannot be understood or valued without taking into consideration
the context in which it took place (Smaling, 1994).
Objectivity is raised by the quantitative researcher making use of specific standardised research
instruments for the gathering of data. It implies that the researcher can function impartially and
separate from the research investigation and can, in essence, be replaced by a robot (Smaling,
1994). Qualitative researchers are of the opinion that independence is achieved through the
commitment of the researcher and the participants.
“If the scholar wishes to understand the action of people, it is necessary for him to see the objects
as they see them. Failure to see their objects as they see them, or a substitution of his meanings
for the objects of their meanings, is the gravest kind of error that the social scientist can commit”
(Blumer, 1969).
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In the case of this research, objectivity was maintained through the triangulation of data from a
variety of sources, including a questionnaire in which respondents compiled the data. Similarly,
the review of 250 accreditation and 250 external moderation reports was compiled against pre-set
criteria. In turn, the interviews were transposed in order to eliminate researcher bias or
interpretation.
4.4.2 Reliability
Qualitative research stresses thoroughness to endorse reliability and validity concomitant with
quantitative research methods. Reliability is generally concerned with the capability of the
research design to be duplicated to create the equivalent outcomes, whereas validity is concerned
with the magnitude of the researchers observing or determining what they think or wish they
were evaluating (Punch, 1998:100).
‘Reliability’ is a concept used for testing or evaluating quantitative research, however, it can also
be linked to all kinds of research. If the idea of testing is seen as a way of information elicitation
then the most important test of any qualitative study is its quality. A good qualitative study can
help us “understand a situation that would otherwise be enigmatic or confusing(Eisner, 1991:58).
Reliability is defined as the degree to which results are dependable over time.The precise
interpretation of the entire populace under study is referred to as dependability.When the results
of a study can be replicated under a comparable methodology, then the research instrument is
considered dependable. The construction of results that are continually comparable, are directly
linked to the dependability of the research (Joppe, 2003).
The following questions can be asked to validate consistency (Goetz, 1984):
� Is the research process consequently handled over a reasonable period?
� Did other researchers undertake a similar research process?
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� Are alternative data collection methods used in this research process?
The following steps can be taken to enhance the reliability in qualitative research: (Miles and
Huberman, 1994):
i. The terms of a justification of the theoretical framework and recognition thereof throughout
the research study
ii. A unambiguous description of the position and purpose of the researcher during the
performance of triangulation
iii. The employment of matching groups assessment and the use of audio and/or video recording
for the gathering of in sequence and the storage of all data, information, recording and
interpretation - important to the examination for the reason of authentication by
independent individuals
iv. The implementation of coding controls to establish if there are enough correspondence
connecting the data indicated
v. The performance of cross quality checks via the results of the analysis to contrast with that of
previous research
vi. The prologue of paradox/incongruity achieved from the composed data, to the participants,
for further clearance and the implementation of the principles of consensus by means of an
open conversation with all the participants regarding the findings of the investigation
Guidelines on managing the responsiveness to the quality of the data are necessary(Punch, 1994).
The effective handling of the abovementioned procedures will step up the reliability of the
qualitative research terms related to reliability and assessment validity (Miles and Huberman,
1994)where the researcher confirmed validity by embracing a locus of critical self-awareness at all
stages of the research and continuously applying a reflexive research approach.
In this research study, four different methods of data collection and triangulation were used,
including a focus group, to ensure the reliability of the data. The quantity of reports reviewed
(500) also supported data reliability.
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4.4.3 Validity
Validity has a number of descriptions in relation to qualitative studies. Validity involves that the
perception is not a single, fixed or general theory, but “rather a contingent construct, inescapably
grounded in the processes and intentions of particular research methodologies and projects”
(Winter, 2000).
Internal legitimacy in qualitative research investigates specific theory. The following descriptors
are applicable: (Miles and Huberman, 1994)
� Narrative (what occurred in specific situations during the investigation?)
� Analysis (what meaning did the research have to the participants?)
� Theoretical (which concepts are relevant, the hypothesis between concepts and the uses
thereof, to interpret the behaviour?)
� Evaluation (what is the nature of the decisions taken concerning the values and connotations
of specific behaviours/ conducts/ actions?)
� To ensure the external validity of qualitative research it would be necessary that the
researcher take the subsequent aspects into consideration (Miles and Huberman, 1994):
� The characteristic /qualities of the original participants
� The circumstances and the development, enlightened exclusively so that enough information
is available to compare with similar participants that participate in follow-up investigations
� The weighting of the theoretically diverse sample with the possibility of a broader application
� Whether the findings are identical with, connected to, or corroborative of existing theory
� Spelling out the application possibilities of the theoretical findings in the research
� Whether a recommendation can be made in a report concerning the suggestion for similar
investigations
Addressing the validity deliberation within qualitative research, one requires proficiency,
competence and robustness from the researcher as the spectator, as it is the researcher that
would be the influential aspect or become the measuring apparatus (Patton, 1990).
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For the solidification of the legitimacy of the assessment, the researcher should incessantly be
reminded of at least three imperative questions:
� Is the research being conducted a true reflection of the intended research?
� To what extent do other researchers test the discovery previously?(Goetz, 1984)
� “Are the events and settings studied uncontrived, (and) unmodified by the researcher’s
presence and actions?” (Miles and Huberman, 1994).
� The qualitative research paradigm confirms (Smaling, 1994):
� The research epitomises the substance or an occurrence that is defined as experience seen by
all the participants, in relation to the research procedure;
� The data compilation technique is open and accommodating;
� The method of data analysis does not compose as a prerequisite for a method where the
collected data automatically is articulated by numerical mathematical methodology;
� During the stage of research, a cyclical interface exists connecting data anthology and data
analysis, which can express the analysing of accrued statistics, and/or research problems, can
be edited.
This research study has proven valid in that the sources of data are accurate, concrete, clear and
varied. Much of the research included after-the-fact analysis, where the researcher could have no
influence on events. It is clear, too, from the researcher’s aims that this research has reflected the
intended research.
4.5 Grounded theory
Grounded theory is an approach for developing theory that is "grounded in data systematically
gathered and analysed" (Strauss, 1964)Grounded theory represents one of the six research
strategies included within the qualitative research approach. Grounded theory has been
extensively used as an apparent and cited qualitative research methodology in the social sciences
(Bryant, 2007).
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Grounded theory is a universal methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data,
methodically collected, and evaluated. Theory advances during actual research and it does this
through continuous interplay between analysis and data collection (Charmaz, 2000:509-536).With
little more than a research question, one can begin an investigation, and possible theories will
develop during and from the data collection process (Hutcheon, 1989)and (Glaser and Strauss,
2006). This is seen as an inductive method of researching where the theory resides in the data and
hence develops from the investigation that precedes it (Neuman, 2000).
In events where gaps of knowledge exist in a research domain, or a single theory exists whereby
human behaviour can be evaluated, the ‘grounded theory’ approach, is very suitable (Hutcheon,
1989). Grounded theory may therefore be defined as an inductive, comparative and interactive
approach that is flexible, non-restrictive and provides strategies to conduct emerging enquiries or
themes (Glaser and Strauss, 2006).
The research conducted in this study used a range of data, much of which was factual, and some
of which was narrative; all of it authentic and external to the researcher.
4.6 Research population and sampling
Population validity refers to “the degree to which findings obtained for a sample may be
generalised to the total population to which the research hypothesis applies” (Huysamen,
1994:45). Sampling is the process of selecting a number of study units from a defined study
population (Varkevisser, 2003).
The research objectives and the characteristics of the study population determine which and how
many participants to select. The pragmatic considerations, like the amount of information that has
to be processed and the time and cost that holds regard to the investigation play a role in
determining the amount of participants (Goetz, 1984).
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It is not wise to calculate the amount of participants of a qualitative investigation beforehand,
seeing that one must continue with the process of response and analysis until a theoretical
saturation point can be reached (Goetz and LeCompte, 1984).
Niemann describes theoretical saturation as the stage where no new confirmed or negative
information can be elicited at a particular stage of the research and that the data accumulation
may now be concluded and therefore no further participants are required. Niemann indicated that
striving towards theoretical satisfaction strengthens the validity and reliability of a research study
(Niemann and Kotzé, 1994).
The researcher initially “chooses interviewees with a broad knowledge of the topic” and therefore
purposeful sampling occurs. Grounded theorists use a narrower focused sample and “seeks out
participants who have experience, the most experience, in the topic of interest” (Cutcliffe, 2000).
Three of the most common sampling methods used in qualitative research are:
� Purposive sampling - a common strategy, participants are grouped according to pre-selected
criteria relevant to a particular research question
� Quota sampling - sometimes seen as a derivative of purposive sampling. When the study is
designed it is decided on how many people, with which characteristics, to include as
participants
� Snowball sampling – also referred to as “chain referral sampling”, is a subset of purposive
sampling. Social networks are made use of to broaden the researcher’s scope. “Hidden
populations” are accessed in this manner.
This narrow sampling is directed by the concept that the researcher intends to induce a theory
(Cutcliffe, 2000). If the researcher is interested in inducing a formal theory, he/she will have to
select dissimilar substantive groups from the larger class, and thus increase the theory’s scope
(Cutcliffe, 2000).
An adequate and appropriate sample is critical in qualitative research. The eventual quality of the
research is contingent on the appropriateness and adequacy of the sample (Morse,
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Dennerstein,Farrell, Varnavides, 1991). “Information is gathered through interviews and
observations, which generate documentation. This form of research is still developing, although it
enjoys preference to investigate social phenomena in society” (Filstead, 1979:43).
In systemic terms, qualitative research is recursive, and objectivity, reliability and validity could
become concerns within this form of research. There is more subjectivity and personal opinions
and perceptions and this method is often used to understand human behaviour and is mostly for,
but not restricted to, work situations.“Within the qualitative research design the researcher
wishes to explore and describe the meaning and promote the understanding of the human’s lived
experience”(Brink, 2007:113).
The sampling in this research was largely purposive in nature, and the population groups were in
part selected in order to elicit the most valuable and comprehensive sets of data, and in part
narrowly collected, as in the case of the accreditation and external moderation reports being only
from selected ETQAs, in order to ensure a broad spectrum of data.
4.7 Data collection methods
There exist various means of obtaining and collecting data during the qualitative research
approach. Within the qualitative research approach, there are specific data collection techniques,
which include interviews, observation, documentation and analysis of documentation and text
(Patton, 1980)and (Berg, 1995:05).
These methods can be divided into two distinct categories whereby either little or no interaction is
involved and whereby interaction takes place (Niemann and Kotzé, 1994). These categories are
labelled as “interactive methods” and “non-interactive methods”. Interactive methods imply that
there will be interaction between the researcher and research participants, and
information(Niemann and Kotzé, 1994).Non-Interactive methods therefore imply that there will be
little if any interaction, directly between either the researcher and research participants, or
information.
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� Interactive methods
The following provide an outline of collection methods, which are categorised as interactive
methods.
� Participant observation
Participant observation is a qualitative method frequently used in social science research. It is
based on a long tradition of ethnographic study in anthropology. In participant observation, the
observer becomes “part” of the environment, or the cultural context. The method usually involves
the researcher’s spending considerable time “in the field” (Savenye and Strand, 1989). In this
regard the researcher is involved with the everyday life of the participants, personally understands
the realities and minutiae of their daily lives (Patton, 1980). The researcher is therefore able to
reconstruct the interaction and activities with the assistance of the field notes (Goetz, 1984).
In instances where larger groups are involved, it could be difficult to be so directly involved with
the participants and distance with the participants is then unavoidable. With individuals and
smaller groups it is thus(Patton, 1987)of cardinal importance that the researcher is personally
involved with the participants. Irrespective of the procedure followed with regard to that of the
participants’ observation, Patton states that “Closeness does not make bias and loss of perspective
inevitable; distance is no guarantee of objectivity. The mandate of qualitative methods is to go
into the field and learn about the program first-hand”(Patton, 1987:17).
� Interviews
An interview is defined as a “face-to-face, interpersonal role situation in which an interviewer asks
participants questions designed to elicit answers pertinent to the research hypotheses” (Frankfort-
Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996:232).
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Interviews need not be face-to-face as it can be conducted by means of a through-the-telephone
or can even be computer-assisted (Sekaran and Wiley, 1992).
Interviews are normally defined as “simply a conversation with a purpose. Specifically, the
purpose is to gather information” (Berg, 1995) and (Gordon, 1995). Gordon is of the opinion that
any person can be trained in the recording of an interview, while (Berg, 1995)is of the opinion that
there is a difference between successful interviewers and general interviewers. Successful
interviewers will, according to Berg, be aware thereof that the qualitative research process must
be run in two distinctive phases; firstly, the enrolment to the research investigation and, secondly,
the analysis of the accumulated data.
� Interviews can further be described as a technique used to:
� Describe the meanings of central themes in the life and world of the research participants.
The primary objective is to understand the meaning of what the interviewees are saying
(Kvale, S, 1996);
� Obtain and gauge the story behind the research participant’s experiences by allowing the
interviewer to pursue in-depth information around the topic;
� Involve as a follow-up tool in respect of respondents’ responses to questionnaires, i.e. to
further investigate their responses (McNamara, 1999).
� Interviews can further be classified into either structured or unstructured (or non-directive
interviews). Others identified a third category- the focused interview, which is a variation of
the structured interview (Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996).
(Fitzgerald and Cox; 1987) also refer to only two types of interviews, namely, the formal and the
informal interview, whereas (Patton, 1990) and (Berg, 1995)refer to three types namely:
� The standardised or structured interview
� The un-standardised or unstructured interview
� The semi-standardised or semi-structured interview
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Standardised \
structured
Interview
Semi-standardised \
semi-structured
Un-standardised \
unstructured interview
Focus groups
Formal and rigid
approach
Informal approach No formal or
predetermined approach
A group interview
Requires
consistency in
behaviour across all
interviews
No consistency required
and additional questions
or points of clarification
may be asked
Conversational rather
than an interview
Researcher facilitates
conversation or debate
Pre-determined list
of questions
No pre-determined list
of questions
Researcher does not
know which questions to
ask
Questions are formulated
based on discussions in the
focus group
Question posed in
same order
No prescribed order No order, no script and
no limitations by
protocol
Most often by
quantitative
researchers
Most often by
qualitative researchers
Most often used in
ethnographies and case
studies
Examine experiences of
individuals and is effective
for exploring the attitudes
and needs of staff
Data collected is
concise, researcher
bias reduced
Researcher has the
ability to gain rapport
and participants' trust,
as well as a deeper
understanding of
responses
Researcher is able to
uncover information that
would not have been
exposed using structured
or semi-structured
interviews
Simultaneous collection of
data from several
participants encourages
participation from those
who are reluctant to be
interviewed on their own
Table 4.4: Correlations between the various types of interviews
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The structured interview assumes a more formal and rigid approach and that the researcher
knows exactly what information is needed. The researcher is able to formulate a list of pre-
determined questions. It is theoretically grounded and assumes that the researcher wants to
investigate specific aspects, which are established beforehand. An important pre-prejudice that
the researcher makes in this case, is that he/she is convinced that his/her formulation of the
question or questions, will be acceptable and understandable to all the participants of the
investigation (Berg, 1995). (Denzin, 1978:114)reacts as follows to the aforementioned: “these
assumptions remain untested articles of faith”.
The same questions are administered to all participants throughout the research study although in
certain cases, depending on the circumstances or participants’ responses, the researcher may
elicit additional information by asking additional questions. “Through this process new factors
might be identified and a deeper understanding might result” (Sekaran, 1992:92). In contrast to
the structured nature of the standardised interview, for the purpose of the un-structured
interview, no use is made of structured schedules.
An important presumption, with regard to the use of the un-structured interview, is that the
researcher does not know, beforehand, which question will be relevant for the participant and
that it would be accepted that the participants could differ in their understanding of the questions
being asked (Schwartzand Jacobs, 1979).
The semi-structured interview contains a number of pre-determined questions or themes, which
are in the same manner, continuously stated to each participant while the interviewer encourages
the participants to, as far as possible, expand on each question or subject being discussed (Berg,
1995).
In the non-structured interview, the questions are not posed in a specific order and research
participants are therefore encouraged to relate their own experiences and to reveal their attitudes
and perceptions on the topic of interest. The researcher therefore has an opportunity to probe
various areas and to raise specific queries during the interviews. Based on the preliminary
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discussions, it appears that the structuring of interviews is important to allow participants an equal
opportunity to express themselves in understandable terms.
As the manner in which the interview is conducted is of relevance and utmost importance to the
data accumulation and data analysis process, the interview must be structured in an effective
manner and followed through (McKillip, Moirrs and Cervenka, 1992).
In this regard, reference is made to table 4.5, where the so-called ten laws with regard to
interviewing are outlined (Berg; 1995: 57-58):
# Ten laws of Interviewing
1 Never begin an interview cold.
2 Remember your purpose.
3 Present a natural front.
4 Demonstrate aware hearing.
5 Think about appearance.
6 Interview in a comfortable place.
7 Do not be satisfied with monosyllabic answers.
8 Be respectful.
9 Practice, practice and practice some more.
10 Be cordial and appreciative.
Table 4.5: The ten laws ofinterviewing
Finally, the purpose of interviewing in qualitative research is combined. Patton states, “The
purpose of interviewing is to find out what is in and on someone else’s mind. Qualitative
interviewing begins with the assumption that the perspective of others is meaningful, knowable,
and able to be made explicit” (Patton, 1990: 278).
� Non-interactive methods
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The following provides an outline of a collection method that is categorised as a non-interactive
method:
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� Non-participating observations
This type of observation happens without the researcher participating in any activity whereby the
participant is concerned. The researcher will observe, though only from a distance, record what
happens and note it accordingly. Methods of recording the observation could include hidden
cameras, tape recordings, and one-way mirrors as aids during these non-participating observations
(Goetz and LeCompte, 1984).
Data collection methods used in this research were both interactive and non-interactive. After-
the-fact reports and literature reviews involved no involvement with participants and were merely
analytical in nature. Interactive data collection included a focus group and semi-structured
interviews. A questionnaire was also used for data collection purposes.
4.8 Data analysis
Data analysis necessitates the researcher to “find meaning using qualitative content
analysis”(Henning, E, 2004:104). According to Neuman “data analysis means a search for patterns
in data of recurrent behaviours, objects or a body of knowledge in order to uncover the meanings
attached to participants’ discourse by searching for clues to the multiple meanings inherent in
their discourse” (Neuman, 2000 : 426).
Two of the three central approaches of qualitative research data collection were applied in this
research study: document analysis and interviews. The data collection process of field observation
precluded the use of the third central technique. Data for the purpose of this research were
collected over a twenty-four month period and data reduction and analysis were at times almost
simultaneous with data collection.
Most analysis in qualitative research is facilitated through a process of continuous interaction
between the researcher and the participants involved in the investigation. The information is
interpreted and explained predominantly in terms of words without the use of standardised
instrumentation (Miles and Huberman, 1994).
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There is no prescribed approach for the analyses of data inqualitative research investigations
(Neuman; 1994). In extension thereof, Powney and Watts are of the opinion that there exists no
concrete structure for the analysis and interpretation of data as found in an interview: “… each
researcher will adopt and adapt particular methods to suit his or her own purpose” (Powney and
Watts, 1987:168).
According to (Miles and Huberman, 1994), qualitative data analysis can therefore be defined in
terms of three distinctive, possibly consecutive, but concurrent activities, namely:
� The reduction of data
� The display of data
� The verification or conclusion of data
The components of data analysis could be represented as follow:
Anticipatory
Data collection period
= Analysis Data reduction
Data displays
Conclusion drawing/verifying
Table 4.6: The components of data analysis
Huberman and Miles’ model of data analysis is denoted as analytical induction, and is based on
the theoretical assumption that there are “regularities to be found in the physical and social
world” (Miles, 1994:431) and(Neuman, 2000 : 426). Grounded theorists such as (Strauss,
1998),refer principally to the processes of coding as the primary means of data analysis. For the
purpose of this research, the processes of coding and decoding are identified separately. To
ensure high quality of analysis, methods were subject to an approach of “constant comparison”
and one of constant questioning (Glaser and Strauss, 2006).
� Documents as data
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The first source of data for this study was the evaluation of a range of appropriate documents in
the form of two hundred and fifty accreditation reports and two hundred and fifty external
moderation reports evaluated in a desktop case study process.
Records are those texts that are the formal transactions, such as contracts, legal documents,
official government gazetted statements and the like. “Documents are prepared for personal
rather than official reasons and include diaries, letters, field-notes and so on” (Hodder, 1994:394).
Hodder’s two categories are somewhat narrow, and additional written resources such as formal
reports have been included in this research study for data collection. Reports were nominated
randomly, and knowledge gained from literature reviews informed the analysis. There were also
cases in which interview respondents directed the researcher towards documents.
Data collected from documents and reports recognised the context for the data collected from
interviews, and allowed for a deeper understanding relating to the contexts by providing
additional information. Definite trends emerged during the course of the research.
� Interviewing
Interviewing was an important method for balancing data collection for this study and was the
principal means of determining the understandings of the key stakeholders involved in the
research trajectory.
Various types of interview methods that are available to the researcher are outlined by(Berg,
1998) and(Bogdan, 1998). Interview types are articulated as a variety from the structured, or
standardised, interview at one end, to the unstructured interview at the other end. For the
purpose of this research, the semi-structured interview was applied. Respondents were
encouraged to participate without reservation and to talk freely about their frame of reference
and experiences.
The sample of respondents for the interviews involved key actors or stakeholders identified in the
policy process, either from the literature and documents reviewed, or from the recommendations
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of other respondents. As such, it represented a deliberate, purposive sample. The respondents
included a variety of stakeholders including training providers, SETA representatives and
practitioners.
The researcher applied the advice obtained through literature and used a pilot interview with a
suitable candidate, to practice and familiarise the procedure, and identify possible difficulties
(Burns, et al., 1986:190-195)advised, and this was done with the help of a ‘critical friend’
(Vidovich, 2002:86).
Preparation of the respondent was imperative. Participants were formally invited by e-mail to
participate in the research study, which included a short written presentation about the interview
and the aims and nature of the research. Participants were advised on the importance of the
research data; the recording and analysis methodology; duration of the interview session and
reassurances provided in relation to confidentiality. Introductory discussions were undertaken to
the effect of reassuring the respondent and confirming that all information would be valuable. It
was the experience of the researcher that this technique valued significant results in terms of the
quality of the data generated.
Ensuring rapport with the respondent was influenced by the quality of preparation as described.
The researcher made a conscious effort to be well organised and knowledgeable when
participating in the Interviews.
� The reduction of data
Data reduction refers to a process of selection, focusing on simplification, abstraction and
transformation of available data as it appears on the research notes and transcripts(Miles and
Huberman, 1994). The process begins with the initial planning of the research investigation when
the researcher among others things, decides over the conceptual framework that shall be used,
who the participants will be, and in which circumstances the investigation will take place.
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Considering this, all the information as obtained in contact is recorded. This data, together with
the notes made during the contact occasion, is studied to identify possible themes. Where
possible codes of the identified themes and tendencies can be accounted for. Thereby, data
reduction becomes part of the data analysis process, according to (Miles and Huberman, 1994).
While listening to the insertions, codes must be allocated to the individual themes and a binding
summary of the data made at each key word. To ease cross-reference, the number on the
insertion is indicated next to eachof the key words(Miles M.B., 1984).
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� The display of data
Exhibition implies the presentation of the organised bound collection of evidence that gives the
observer the opportunity to make an observation and to formulate a plan of action. Miles and
Huberman advise that more attention is given to the presentation of the display, including graphs,
charts, networks and matrices. “All must be designed to assemble organised information into an
immediately accessible, compact form so that the analyst can see what is happening and either
draw justified conclusions or move on to the next step of analysis which the display suggests may
be useful” (Miles, 1994:11).
In this process, data is organised and grouped into manageable units. Miles and Huberman refer
to this phase as ‘matrix display and examination” (Miles and Huberman; 1984: 211– 213).
� The verification of conclusion of data
The final phase involved in the analysis of qualitative data is the verification of the data or the
drawing of conclusion phase. By this time, the researcher has already identified possible themes
and this process suggests the researcher has begun making notes with regard to the possible
similarities, patterns, connections and relationships between the data that has been collected. For
an experienced researcher this suggests that the process has an honest and ongoing critical
aptitude with regard to the investigation.
In case the data can eventually be verified, it is important that the meaning thereof is a true
reflection of the data (Miles and Huberman, 1994).
In figure 4.3, it is illustrated that (Miles and Huberman, 1994)interactive model is used for the
analysing of qualitative data as explained above. In view of these suggestions, all three processes
of data analysis function at equal levels during and after the data collection process.
It is emphasised, that the results that are gained are presented in a meaningful manner in the
research report. In this regard, (Miles and Huberman, 1994)put the following forward:
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� Count the amount of times a certain pattern appears;
� Determine which pattern is repeated;
� Investigate the acceptability of the results and if it can be logically explained;
� Classify and group the typical cases and persons;
� Use, if possible, analogues and metaphors to display certain information;
� If a lot of information about a specific aspect of the research is available, rather divide it into
sub themes to later indicate the relationships between the data;
� Group categories where there is not much information available;
� Take into consideration the relationships and differences between the collected data;
� Take note of the factors which can lead to specific relationships between data, and
� Try to determine the origin of specific responses.
Figure 4.3: Aspects of data analysis Interactive model (Adapted from Miles and Huberman; 1994: 12)
It was against this background, that the research design for the qualitative approach in the
formulation of a framework for accreditation andexternal moderation of occupationally directed
providers was developed.
4.8.1 Research rationale
Data Display
Data Reduction Conclusions: drawing/verifying
Data collection
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Grounded theory is a strategy employed within a qualitative research method and is used in
building naturalistic theory, which is rooted in sociology (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). In this study,
the researcher was aware of her preconceived ideas based upon her experience and was careful to
afford the interviewees the opportunity to give an account of their own experience. The
researcher could so formulate a hypothesis or theory(Berger, 1981)and (Hutchinson, S. A., 1993)in
(Cutcliffe, 2000)regarding personal preconceptions, values and beliefs, which must be held in
abeyance by the researcher.
Cutliffe concludes that the grounded theory researcher must acknowledge his/her prior
knowledge and tacit knowledge (Cutcliffe, 2000). The grounded theory approach was applied in
conducting this study as this approach allowed the researcher the flexibility of exploring a social
phenomenon based on own perspectives and observations. The emergence of a theory and
themes for this body of work was based on the construction of such knowledge due to cognitive
interpretation and linked to own experiences.
4.8.2 Purposive and narrow sampling
The qualitative sample was purpose-based, narrow, and not random. Narrow sampling is directed
by the concept that the researcher intends to introduce a theory (Cutcliffe, 2000).
The population included participants from SETAs, practitioners and training providers. The
qualitative sample was purpose-based and not random. Individuals and/or institutions were
explicitly recognised for inclusion.
4.8.3 Rationale for selected data collection methods in this research
The research chapter outlined the rationale, process and logic informing the collection of data
related to the research. Within the qualitative research approach, there are specific data collection
techniques that include interviews, observation, documentation and analysis of documentation
and text (Patton, 1990) and(Berg, 1995).
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In line with the discussions outlined in this chapter pertaining to data collection methods, the
researcher has confirmed that the following data collection techniques have been applied:
� Research questionnaire
� Interviews (personal histories, perspectives and experiences)
� Documentation (the review of literature or case studies)
� Focus groups (a group’s cultural norms and generating broad overviews of issues of concern
to the cultural groups or subgroups represented)
An interactive approach in the collection of data has been utilised. Interviews were scheduled
with the selected participants and took place accordingly. The researcher formulated a pre-
determined set of questions but did make provision for the inclusion of additional questions to
further gauge participants’ understanding.
Upon completion of the questionnaires by the research participants, face-to-face interviews and
telephonic interviews were scheduled with some participants to clarify collected data from the
research questionnaire. The research questions were formulated to enable self-administration and
clear guidelines were provided to participants on interpreting questions, completing the
questionnaire and returning the questionnaires. Participants were also advised on due dates for
submission and dates of face-to-face interviews if required.
The literature review was detailed and covered both global and local accreditation andexternal
moderation frameworks. Related topics such as unemployment rates and education policy were
explored to provide an informed perspective.
4.9 Conclusion of chapter four
Chapter 4 sought to outline the aims and research questions that guided the study, and to provide
an overview of the frameworks, perspectives and methods that informed the research. Attention
to the latter has been identified as essential for ensuring the quality of the research output.
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The next three chapters have outlined the outcomes of the research, in elaborating the findings
across four phases of the research journey. For the purposes of facilitating the data collection
process, the context of each phase was explored in an attempt to guide the researcher in
identifying emerging themes and how these could potentially inter-relate with each other.
The grounded theory research methodology was set out to meet the specified requirements of
this research project. The sample size as determined by the roles of the key stakeholders within
the occupationally directed education and training environment allowed for individual experiences
and perspectives to be accommodated. The groundwork for the research has validated the
principles, whichultimately informed the development of an alternative framework for
accreditation and external moderation of occupationally directed education and training
providers.
The following chapter reports on the findings and outcomes of the data-collection process as
based upon the literature review, the research questionnaire, desktop evaluations of accreditation
and external moderation reports, semi-structured interviews and the focus group discussions.
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5. Chapter 5–Research Report
“Education makes a people easy to lead, difficult to drive: easy to govern, but impossible to
enslave.”
Brougham
5.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 presents the research results of the extrapolated data. The researcher applied grounded
theory principles outlined in the preceding chapter. The research report contains details of the
research findings as referred to below. The purpose of this chapter was to present the discoveries
of the conductedresearch including the literature review, focus group discussions, the desktop
evaluation of 250 accreditation and 250 external moderation reports, research questionnaires and
semi-structured interviews.
5.2 The research design stages:
Stage 1 involved constructing ideas regarding “postmodernism”, “accreditation” and “external
moderation”, and exploring perspectives from both a conjectural context and conversely from a
practical context. The findings of this stage were presented in the literature review in chapter 2
and parts of chapter 3 of this thesis.
As part of Stage 1, the research study also involved a desktop evaluation of two hundred and fifty
accreditation evaluation reports that had been conducted in the preceding 24 months anda
further two hundred and fifty external moderation reports, which had been completed in the
preceding 24 months.During this stage, the researcher also identified experienced professionals
and practitioners within the occupationally directed education and training field to participateina
focus group that served the purpose of being an ongoing “reflective vehicle” within the research
process.
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Stage 2 involved the finalisation and dissemination of the research questionnaire that was
completed by thirty participants. Participants represented different constituencies, including
industry expert practitioners, training providers and current or former representatives from
regulatory bodies as well as respected academics. Participants were contacted after they had
received the research questionnaire to assess if they required additional information.
During stage 3, six questions which emerged from the data gathered during Stages 1 and 2 were
finalised and constructed in a research questionnaire. The questionnaire was then disseminated to
twenty providers, evaluators, external moderators and current or former ETQA employees. The
research questionnaire’s intent was to gain valuable insight into the perceptions and experiences
of industry stakeholders and to validate emerging trends. The semi-structured interviews were
conducted by means of a face-to-face interview, a telephonic interview or video conferencing.
Participants received an invitation by email and a follow-up telephone call was made to confirm
the interview as required. Participants confirmed consent by e-mail.
Stage 4 involved the interpretation and analysis of data gathered from participants in Stage 1, the
questionnaire data (Stage 2) and data gathered from the semi-structured interviews (Stage 3), as
well as discussing these findings with representatives of a community of expert practitioners
(focus group). The focus group included representatives of participants from Stage 1, 2, and 3.
During this journey, the researcher became involved in an iterative process of reflection and
identification of concepts, categories and emerging themes.
The research study sought to explore lucidity in provisos of epistemology, ontology and
methodology in current accreditation and external moderation models.
Chapter 5 presents the findings of this research and discusses the findings in relation to the
development of an alternative accreditation andexternal moderation framework. The researcher
has presented the findings in terms of specific concepts and categories. The themes resulting from
the research processare discussed in chapter 6.
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Figure
The researcher has provide
participated in the research.
5.2.1 Focus group
The researcher engaged with
confirm reflexive engagement, ensuring that
ongoing basis. The main purpose of the engagement with peers was to:
� Investigate topics where opinions or attitudes are conditional
� Provide insights into a new area of research
� Assist the researcher to source additional information
� Ensure that the research procedure was socially oriented
� Allow the researcher to probe flexi
•Focus group
engagement
•250 Site visit
reports
evaluated
•250 External
moderation
reports
evaluated
Stage 1 - Research
stage
•
•
Figure 5.1: Summary of the research process
provided more details regarding the different population groups who
The researcher engaged with industry experts (peers) as a focus group at regular intervals to
confirm reflexive engagement, ensuring that research results were validated and reviewed on an
The main purpose of the engagement with peers was to:
Investigate topics where opinions or attitudes are conditional;
vide insights into a new area of research;
Assist the researcher to source additional information;
Ensure that the research procedure was socially oriented;
Allow the researcher to probe flexibility to explore unanticipated issues.
•Compilation,
dissemination
and
completion of
research
questionnaire
•Clarification
and additional
information
sought
Stage 2 - Activity
description
•Conduct semi-
structured
interviews
Stage 3 - Data
collection stage
more details regarding the different population groups who
at regular intervals to
results were validated and reviewed on an
bility to explore unanticipated issues.
•Analysis of semi -
structured
interviews
•Reflection
Stage 4 - Data
analysis st/age
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Focus groups allow for high face validity, relatively low-cost, relatively fast results and the
relatively low amount of time and resource investment required to generate data in qualitative
research (Krueger, R. A, 1994)and (Stewart and Shamdasani, 1990).
5.2.1.1 Constituency of participants of focus group
Specific candidates were selected to participate in the focus group activity. The focus group
members included participants from the community of expert practitioners includingexternal
moderators and evaluators that have each been involved in the industry for a minimum of ten
years.
5.2.1.2 Suitability of participants
The participants were selected because of their extensive and strategic experiences within the
occupational education framework. Industry has confirmed these individuals as subject-matter
experts by means of their appointment within the structures of the occupationally directed
education and training fraternity.
5.2.1.3 Concepts that emerged from the focus groups
The focus group discussions confirmed 17 seminal concepts that emerged as important in the
accreditation and external moderation of occupationallydirected education and training providers.
A detailed list of these concepts is attached as Appendix B.
5.2.1.4 Categories Identified during the focus group discussions
The focus group discussions confirmed six pivotal categories that emerged from the identified
concepts. A detailed list of these categories is also included in Appendix B.
� Category 1: Quality Management Systems
� Category 2: Industry validation
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� Category 3: Social / economic policy
� Category 4: Limited capacity of ETQAs
� Category 5: Validating provider capacity
� Category 6: The impact of education policy and legislation
5.2.2 Desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation reports
The selected accreditation reports were completed within 24 months from the commencement of
the research study. The selected reports contained 250 accreditation reports
fromoccupationallydirected education and training providers.
5.2.2.1 Constituency of the 250 accreditation reports
Providers received an accreditation report from the jurisdictional ETQA after they had been
subjected to said activity. Various ETQAs have different processes that involve either a desktop
submission for evaluation or a site visit to the provider by an external moderator appointed by the
ETQA, or both.
5.2.2.2 Suitability of evaluation criteria of accreditation reports
Providers are evaluated in accordance with the SAQA eight core criteria articulated in Chapter 2
and 3 of this thesis, referenced as SAQA Criteria and Guidelines to Providers (see AppendixF for
details). SAQA formulated the policy directives that are implemented and monitored by the
respective ETQAs (SAQA guidelines for QMS for education and training providers; SAQA Decision
number: SAQA 0837/01).
5.2.2.3 Concepts that emerged from the desktop evaluation of accreditation
reports
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The desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation reports confirmed that 42 concepts developedwith
respect to the accreditation reports andthese are attached as Appendix D.
5.2.2.4 Categories Identified during the evaluation of accreditation reports
A logical clustering of the concepts confirmed eight emerging categories after the evaluation of
250 accreditation reports.
� Category 1: Policy statement
� Category 2: Quality Management System
� Category 3: Review mechanisms
� Category 4: Programme delivery
� Category 5: Staff policies
� Category 6: Learner policies
� Category 7: Assessment policies
� Category 8: Management system
5.2.3 Desktop evaluation of 250 external moderation reports
The selected external moderation reports were completed within 24 months from the
commencement of the research study. The selected reports contained 250 external moderation
reports from occupationallydirected education and training providers.
5.2.3.1 The constituency of the 250 external moderation reports
Providers received an external moderation report from the jurisdictional ETQA after they had been
subjected to said activity. Various ETQAs have different processes that involve either a desktop
submission for evaluation or a site visit to the provider by an external moderator appointed by the
ETQA, or both.
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5.2.3.2 Suitability of evaluation criteria of external moderation reports
Providers are evaluated in accordance with the external moderation process outlined in the SAQA
guidelines articulated in Chapter 3 of this thesis(South African Qualifications Authority , 2000).
5.2.3.3 Concepts identified during the evaluation of external moderation reports
The desktop evaluation of 250 external moderation reports confirmed 30 concepts.For more
details, see Appendix D.
5.2.3.4 Categories identified from the desktop evaluation of external moderation
reports
The following 8 categories were identified from the concepts, which emerged from the research
data related to the above reports on external moderation:
� Category 1: The provision of learning programmes
� Category 2: Provider support
� Category 3: Monitoring and review of provider performance
� Category 4: Staff capacity and qualifications
� Category 5: Credibility of assessments
� Category 6 - Internal moderation systems
� Category 7: Consistency of learner evidence across providers
� Category 8 Assessors’ decisions
5.2.4 The research questionnaire
The research questionnaire completion was preceded by an e-mail requesting respondents to
participate in the research activity. Participants were advised that they would be contacted in the
event thatthe researcher required clarity on submissions.
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The research questionnaire was completed by 32 participants. The first thirty returned to the
researcher were utilised for purposes of this research project. The ratio of completion was 79%.
The researcher sent a reminder e-mail and an e-mail thanking respondents for taking the time to
complete the research questionnaire.
The research questionnaire (Appendix A) was constructed to elicit comprehensive responses from
participants in relation to accreditation and external moderation in the occupationally directed
education and training environment. The questions were open-ended to confirm that detailed
information sharing was encouraged. Participants clearly demonstrated very specific group-think
on seminal topics such as the need for private providers to be allowed to operate in a less
regulated environment, the role of FET colleges and the need for an industry driven regulatory
framework as opposed to a cumbersome over regulated alternative that is unable to meet market
demands.
Five of the respondents contacted the researcher to request clarification on specific questions.
The points of clarity related to the numbers of learners enrolled and exited by the provider in the
preceding fiscal year.
5.2.4.1 Concepts that emerged from the research questionnaire
The research questionnaire confirmed 19 seminal concepts. A detailed list of these concepts is
attached as Appendix E.
5.2.4.2 Categories that emerged from the research questionnaire
The researcher has clustered the concepts into sixcategories:
� Category 1: Quality Management System;
� Category 2: Industry validation andpeer review mechanisms;
� Category 3: Legislative / political / social impact on policy formulation;
� Category 4: Limited capacity of ETQAs;
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� Category 5: Validation of provider capacity and record of accomplishment;
� Category 6: Maturity status validation;
5.2.5 The semi-structured interviews
The objective of this section was to present and discuss the data obtained during the analysis of
the interview transcripts derived from the semi-structured interviews. The semi-structured
interviews were conducted with practitioners involved in the occupationally directed educational
and trainingarena, current or former ETQA representatives, training providers and other
educational specialists, including evaluators and external moderators.
The semi-structured interviews allowed the researcher to acquire the research participants’ views
and perspectives whilst allowing personal bias to be tested. Pre-determined open-ended
questions guided the interview process. The researcher allowed for questions to flow as the
discussion evolved and questions were thus not necessarily posed in a regimented fashion. All
questions were dealt with, as research participants often volunteered additional information that
had direct bearing on the predetermined subsequent question set. The researcher adapted the
question accordingly to extract only the outstanding views, experiences and opinions of the
research participants.
The interview structure allowed for the abstraction of extensive insight and experiences from
research participants. The data yielded by the analysis of the semi-structured interviews is
qualitative and has been analysed using open coding methodology.
5.2.5.1 Concepts identified fromthe semi-structured interviews
The semi structured interviews stage confirmed 284 seminal concepts. A detailed list of these
concepts is attached as Appendix C.
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5.2.5.2 Categories identified during the semi-structured interviews
The researcher has clustered the identified concepts into five categories:
� Category 1: Quality Management System
� Category 2: Professional standards
� Category 3: Negative effect resulting from blanket accreditation
� Category 4: Peer reviewmechanisms
� Category 5: Maturity status validation
5.2.6 Conclusion
5.2.6.1 Concepts identified during the different stages of the research process:
� The focus group stage confirmed 17 seminal concepts. A detailed list of these concepts is
attached as AppendixB.
� The desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation and 250 external moderation reports confirmed
that 42 concepts developed from the accreditation reports and 30 concepts from the external
moderation reports. For more detail regarding these concepts please find attached
AppendixD.
� The semi-structured Interviews confirmed 284 concepts that emerged from the data. A
detailed list of concepts is attached as AppendixC.
� The research questionnaire confirmed 19 concepts that emerged. A detailed list of these
concepts is attached as Appendix E.
The researcher logically clustered similar concepts into categories that became evident during the
research process. Details of the clustering process are also captured in Appendices B to E.
5.2.6.2 Emerging categories identified during the different stages of the research
process
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� The focus group stage confirmed six seminal categories that emerged from the identified
concepts. A detailed list of these categories is also included as part of AppendixB.
� The desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation and 250 external moderation reports confirmed
that eight concepts exist for accreditation and eight concepts for external moderation. A
detailed list of the identified concepts is also included as part of AppendixD.
� The semi-structured Interview stage confirmed five categories that emerged from the
identified concepts. A detailed list of these categories is also included as part of AppendixC.
� The research questionnaire confirmed six seminal categories that emerged from identified
concepts. A detailed list of these categories is also included in Appendix E.
5.3 Conclusion of chapter f ive
The purpose of this chapter was to present a research report as it relates to the identified
concepts and categories related to occupationallydirected education and training providers. The
emerging themes have been discussed in Chapter 6.
The following influential aspects emerged during the research process. The focus group
engagements stressed the importance of a well-functioning quality management system that
supports excellence in academic standards in the occupationally directed education and training
environment. A further leitmotif that emerged was the need to reassess traditional models that
exclude industry and professional bodies from curriculum development and qualification
contextualisation.
The challenge of poorly performing ETQAs that do not support customer or market requirements
and low barriers to entry for new market entrants was also a consistent theme. Additionally, the
importance for an enhanced provider review process centred in industry and peer review
mechanisms, as opposed to worthless process confirmations by unqualified and unendorsed
industry representatives emerged as critical. Social and economic policy for the transformation
requirements in the redress of educational and economic imperatives also proved to be a theme.
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The evaluation of the research questionnaire confirmed the importance of quality management
systems, the role of industry validation and peer review mechanisms, and the importance of
legislative, political and social impact on policy origination in education and training. The potential
negative impact on the quality processes and operations of providers because of the limited
capacity of ETQAs within the occupational directed education and training environment was a
central theme. Additionally, the prominent theme of validating provider performance capacity
prior to awarding accreditation and programme approval status was highlighted. The research
questionnaire data further stressed the fundamental imperative for providers’ maturity status
validation corresponding to a process of industry validation in respect of the provider’s record of
achievement.
The evaluation of 250 provider accreditation reports confirmed the status of a well-developed
quality management system, compliance with industry specifications and requirements, provider
capacity as well as arguing for the prominence of addressing the requirements posed by market
demands and creating credible barriers to provider market entry. The evaluation of 250 provider
external moderation reports confirms the prominence of a functional quality management system,
entrenched peer review mechanisms and credible industry and maturity status validation against
industry validated quality criteria. The findings of the desktop evaluations of accreditation and
external moderation reports uniformly confirm the challenges faced by training providers and the
limited and unstructured support mechanisms that exist within most ETQAs.
The semi-structured interviews confirmed the astonishingly low barriers to entry for new
providers as well as the deficiency of credible peer review practices and industry validation
mechanisms. Of particular concern was the limited capacity of the majority of ETQAs to deliver on
their mandate. Research participants displayed frustration, disbelief and anger at the apparent
blatant apathy experienced by stakeholders, fringed by limited accountability and credibility of
ETQAs. Constituent providers, assessors and moderators whom engage first hand with ETQAs,
were ostensibly infuriated as they manifested feelings of marginalisation and a general lack of
basic customer service necessities.
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The research synthesis confirmed that providers that have successfully navigated the accreditation
system, despite challenges experienced because of ETQAs, have largely been able to positively
comply with specified external moderation requirements. Furthermore, the current SAQA
regulations for external moderation are not consistently applied across ETQAs. The capricious
levels of constituent external moderator and evaluator credibility, and the over-reliance by ETQAs
on consultants are magnificent in the context of commensurate under-performance.
A number of SAQA administrators and previous SAQA consultants have been contracted to
perform the preparation of the QCTO framework. A number of research participants objected
spontaneously to this phenomenon. It became apparent that providers and industry practitioners
felt that although SAQA was performing relatively well in respect of their mandate, a number of
SAQA staff were not productive or adequately qualified to be in oversight roles. A common theme
emerged praying for a common set of quality standards and guidelines that are both clear and
transparent and consistently applied and sustained by competent regulators.
A logical clustering of the all the concepts that emerged, informed the logical clustering of
categories. A further logical clustering of categories informed a logical clustering of themes by the
researcher. The themes that emerged, in turn, informed the development of an alternative
framework for the accreditation and external moderation of occupationally directed education
and training providers as set out in Chapter 6.
The iterative nature of the research allowed the researcher to identify emerging themes within
the different components of the research study; these being the focus group discussions, the semi-
structured interviews, the research questionnaire, the desktop evaluations of accreditation and
external moderation reports and the literature review.
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6. Chapter 6–Analysisand Interpretation
“Upon the education of the people of this country, the fate of this country depends.”
Disraeli
6.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 presented emerging data that informed the formulation of alternative frameworks for
accreditation and external moderation activities in the occupationally directed education and
training sector.
Chapter 6 proposes an alternative framework for accreditation and external moderation of
occupationally directed education and training providers. A multi-stakeholder-driven model for
excellence in occupationally directed education and training must centre on the premise of quality
and integrity.
Due to the multitude of emerging concepts and categories articulated in the research report, the
researcher was of the opinion that a further narrowing of categories and themes was required to
support the completed research process and validate the research findings and recommendations.
The alternative presented frameworks contemplate the “actual” capacity and quality management
systems as opposed to the “potential” capacity of occupationally directed education and training
providers, contained in the current accreditation system. ETQAs have deployed resources to
conduct standard unapprised processes, which add little or no value or commensurate return on
investment.
The African Union recommitted itself to TVET in 2007, as it provides a strategic framework for the
expansion of national policies to address the challenges of technical and vocational training to
maintain economic advancement. Additionally, TVET assists with the construction of national
wealth and contribution to poverty eradication. It is apparent that the African continent will focus
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on an amplified agenda in this regard, with additional resources being diverted to bolster the TVET
system (African Union, 2007).
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Themes that emerged from the research process
The iterative nature of the research allowed the researcher to identify emerging themes within
the different components of the research study; these being the focus group discussions, the semi-
structured interviews, the research questionnaire, the desktop evaluations of accreditation and
external moderation reports and the literature review. Common concepts were translated into
categories and the categories merged into obvious theme focuses as have been set out below.
6.2 The accreditation process
Provider accreditation reports confirmed the prominence of the following themes: Quality
Management system, industry specification and requirements, provider capacity, market demand
and barriers to entry.
6.2.1 Theme 1: Quality Management Systems
The literature review outlined in Chapter 2 confirmed the imperative requirement for providers to
have well developed Quality Management Systems. Respondents to the research questionnaire,
the semi-structured interviews and the desktop validation confirmed this hypothesis. The
existence of a well-functioning quality management system is critical in the excellence of higher
education (Harvey and Green, 1993) and(Hendell and Lewis, 2005).
The Quality Management Systems (QMS) of providers and respective ETQAs are critical in
implementing a credible and viable quality management process. ETQAs require a provider to
develop a QMS as part of the SAQA 8 core criteria requirements. Critically the QMS should be a
strategic and responsive framework for providers to enhance quality in service delivery. The QMS
is the axis that drives the credibility of the provider’s strategic focus and functional operations.
Providers must have a customised QMS that speaks to their respective personalised requirements.
It makes sense that an emerging provider entering the skills programme environment (delivery
against single unit standards) would not operate in the same way as a mature large provider that
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offers a myriad full qualification and learnerships across various ETQAs. The needs and operational
requirements of said institutions are vastly different as emerging providers require significant
mentoring and support services. The emerging concepts and categories enunciated the
importance of the QMS as a central theme. A number of indicators that relate to the requirements
and specification of the QMS in provider accreditation have been expressed during this research
process.
SAQA confirms in the inception guidelines for accreditation that ETQAs and constituent providers
may have to agree and negotiate commonly decided processes. The intent of the accreditation
process was thus always to involve industry providers and practitioners in the specific ETQAs of
respective sectors (SAQA; 2001). Providers have extensive experience in the occupationally
directed education and training framework and are in a position to positively contribute to the
setting of standards and the framing of an industry validated Quality Management System.
“…the quality of higher education has proven to be at the heart of the setting up of the European
Higher Education Area. Ministers commit themselves to supporting further development of quality
assurance at institutional, national, and European level. They stress the need to develop mutually
shared criteria and methodologies on quality assurance” (Berlin Communique, 2003).
Confirmation of provider’s quality assurance practices and procedures is of particular importance
in awarding accreditation, as this is fundamentally a front-end procedure to confirm minimum
specified standards. Professional bodies and industry regulators should be involved in determining
the prerequisite Quality Management Systems required for providers to offer occupationally
directed education and training at various levels and complexity in their sectors.
A one-size fits all approach is unproductive and counterproductive in relation to the setting and
advancement of quality standards. Constructive industry internal and external review mechanisms
are pivotal in the maintenance and application of quality assurance mechanisms. Policy
statements contained in standard QMS templates must be informed by industry specific
requirements and global academic standards of excellence.
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6.2.2 Theme 2: Industryspecifications and requirements
The National Qualifications Framework Act (No. 67 of 2008) provides the overarching context for
education and training provision, assessment, certification and quality assurance. Quality Councils
have been tasked with the qualifications, standards, quality, assessment and certification systems.
Industries are best positioned to ensure that their evolving needs are adequately addressed
through stakeholder consultation and structured research interventions. Professional bodies and
bargaining councils have a pivotal role to play in ensuring that industry training specifications and
requirements are addressed in preparing adequately skilled employees at all levels in respective
industries. Professional bodies can provide specialist and professional advice regarding a particular
profession, field, or sub-field (Gouda and Banks, 2006).
It is expected of practitioners and stakeholders to have a considered comprehension of the
industry they represent. This insight is contained in a collective knowledge repository applicable to
the industry by virtue of shared experience and a common history. Industries are well aware of the
challenges they face, and the strategic adjustments required in stimulating employment creation.
There is however little value in creating employment opportunities when prerequisite skills setsare
unavailable or substandard. The global economy makes it possible to simply outsource offshore at
a fraction of the local manufacturing and employment cost. The question that we must therefore
be mindful of is grounded in the opportunities to stimulate investor confidence and market
growth.
Industry specification and related requirements validates the pivotal need for sector involvement
and oversight in the accreditation of providers. Industry institutional knowledge and bespoke
requirements are best known by each specific industry that should be tasked with the preparation
and professional certification of practitioners and the oversight of providers as strategic partners
in each specific industry.
The principal obligation to retain organisational memory is to avert the loss and enhance the
accessibility of all types of organisational knowledge (Kuhn and Abecker, 1997). The researcher
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was therefore of the opinion that it stands to reason that organisations in a specific sector make
up the collective consciousness and it is industry institutional knowledge that frames the
acceptable norms and references. Industries will regulate acceptable standards and reject
standards that negatively influence their ability to self-regulate. The accounting, architectural,
legal and medical fraternity are prime examples in support of said argument. Where academic
institutions have failed to maintain the quality standards of academic excellence, professional and
regulatory bodies have simply withdrawn their endorsement of said institutions to the detriment
of the credibility of their programme offering and harsh public criticism from their mandated
university councils.
Information gained through lessons learnt and best practices, or other domain knowledge assets,
may be composed dynamically or impassively within an organisation, institution or environment
(Wiig, 1997). The research interviewees confirmed the prominence of industry specifications and
requirements in the accreditation process. This factor emerged during the analysis of the interview
transcripts. Industry credibility and uptake of prepared skills and labour into a specific sector is the
ultimate test of industry endorsement. The credibility and trust required by a constituency is of
paramount importance in formulating the prerequisite standards of performance, and resource
requirements commensurate with expected performance delivery.
Industry is faced with its limited input on the national budget allocation for education
notwithstanding the fact that they are critical stakeholders in the employment of the product of
the total investment and input taxation phase. The field of education is frequently the ideological
battlefield for political and social confrontation at the expense of Industry requirements.
6.2.3 Theme 3: Provider capacity
Unique themes emerged from the analysis of the interview transcripts in relation to provider
capacity in provider accreditation. The themes emerging from the analysis of the interview
transcripts were aligned to these sub-themes in order to verify their relevance to the factor that
has been identified as important in provider capacity in the accreditation process.
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Provider capacity is of paramount importance in the ability to deliver and exceed industry
standards and expectations. Providers must be in a position to be held accountable and constantly
improve service delivery standards in relation to industry expectations. High academic standards
are critical in the excellence of education (Guri-Rozenblita, 1992) and(Hendell and Lewis, 2005).
The research highlighted the relatively low qualifications (first degree / national diploma) held by
institutional and academic heads of occupationally directed education and training providers.
Facilitators, assessors and moderators as well as academic and administrative staff are required to
provide evidence of constituent status in relation to commensurate academic qualifications and
experience.
The current ETQA accreditation framework is incapable of adequately analysing accountability. A
number of research participants pointed out that ETQA staff require training and that processes
do not delineate against those with records of accomplishment of delivery and those without any
record of accomplishment. An artificially level playing field has been created that allows any
provider to carry the same accreditation status, fail to deliver and not be held accountable. This
process affects negatively on industry and learner views of general non-delivery against industry
standards.
The need for providers to be entrusted in relation to a proven record of accomplishment was
emphasised at regular intervals by the majority of the research participants. The current SETA
occupationally directed education and training ETQA system is not concerned if a provider has a
proven record of accomplishment prior to applying to offer on a myriad of qualifications. It would
appear that the DHET annual performance audit on FET providers will now become the review
mechanism to evaluate performance or under performance against enrolment and achievement
for every qualification the provider aims to maintain on their programme and accreditation status
listing.
Particular ETQAs perform better than others in ensuring that providers have access to physical
experiential application sites. The importance of qualified and experienced human capital,
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conducive and industry compliant physical infrastructure, is key to determining a provider’s ability
to deliver quality learning and teaching interventions.
The researcher was of the opinion that occupationally directed education and training private
provision is over-regulated by the state. Industry has little or no say at occupational level past the
development of qualifications. Industry must set specific accreditation requirements for validation.
DHET has introduced an annual performance audit on FET providers to evaluate performance
against enrolment and achievement per qualification. The current NLRD was developed as a
mechanism to validate learner statistics and performance.
6.2.4 Theme 4: Market demand and barriers to entry
In theories of competition in economics, barriers to entry are obstacles that make it difficult to
enter a given market (Sullivan, Sheffrin and Steven, 2003). From theresearch,market demand and
barriers to entryemerged as critical in the provider accreditation process. Market demand and
barriers to entry dictate the ease with which new entrants are able to enter the market, or the lack
thereof. New entrants must be assured of market uptake of their respective product offerings. In
the case of occupationally directed education and training provision, market demand is
contracting and barriers to entry are not significantly ridged to confirm quality provision and
assessment in the occupationally directed education and training environment.
A provider’s success is influencedby their reputation for quality. Meaningful skills transfer for
market uptake is pivotal in the fight for social and economic transformation.The current
occupationally directed education and training environment creates limited meaningless barriers
that are easily overcome or avoided.
The proliferation of provider entrants in occupationally directed education and training
development is of concern. Providers that are ill resourced are awarded the same accreditation
status, and available programme offering, as providers that have made significant investment into
developing refined systems. A general sentiment from the research study confirmed that providers
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should be rewarded commensurate to their proven record of accomplishmentin being afforded
the opportunity to expand on their programme offering.
The creation of realistic barriers to entry will assist with protecting incumbent providers and
restricting unfair competition in the marketplace. Emerging providers often under-quote in
desperation to secure business and togain market entry. The research confirmed that this practice
resulted in distortionary prices that are unrealistic and often lead to emerging providers being
unable to complete their contractual obligations.
This has a negative effect on mature providers that operate in the same market, as they are left to
clean up projects and are faced with a credibility challenge as employers have been subjected to
negative occupationally directed education and training experiences. Employers are compelled to
pay an additional premium for the services of mature providers to remediate failed projects. The
research acknowledges that whilst barriers to entry and market demand attempt to guarantee
that emerging providers are suitably qualified and have the capacity to deliver on a comparable
and credible footing, as is the case in the HET sector, the unfair competitive environment created
in the private FET sector must be addressed.
Providers are now required to register with Umalusi and DHET prior to enrolling learners on
qualifications from levels 2 to 4. The reality is that clients only request the SETA ETQA
accreditation report and, as the research confirms, have limited knowledge of residual registration
and reporting requirements that do not impact on their ability to claim levies and grants on their
WSP’s and ATR’s.
Not all ETQAs confirm provider legislative compliance in relation to Umalusi and DHET registration,
and are only concerned with their ETQA approval and accreditation endorsement of providers. The
cost of obtaining Umalusi and DHET registration, both from a financial and time investment
perspective, should create a natural barrier to entry and create preferential market demand from
employers. The research confirms that due to non-enforcement and a general lack of awareness of
legislative requirements anyone with a registered legal entity and the ability to provide basic
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compliance confirmation is able to enter the occupationally directed education and training
environment to the detriment of the market.
6.3 Theexternal moderation process
The external moderation framework confirms the prominence of the following factors: Quality
Management Systems, peer review mechanisms, industry validation, and maturity
statusvalidation.
6.3.1 Theme 1: Quality Management Systems
“Quality Management Systems means the combination of processes used to ensure that the
degree of excellence specified is achieved. A quality management system is the sum of the
activities and information an organization uses to enable it to better and more consistently deliver
products and services that meet and exceed the needs and expectations of its customers and
beneficiaries, more cost effectively and cost efficiently, today and in the future” (South African
Qualifcations Authority, 2001:06).
The research activities confirmed the prominence ofQuality Management Systems as a central
theme in developing an alternative external moderation framework. The researcher confirmed
that sufficient evidence existed to validatethe inclusionofQuality Management Systems as a
central theme. Of particular importance is SAQA confirmation that a developmental approach is
most appropriate in terms of the implementation of Quality Management Systems for providers
and ETQAs. The research further confirmed that a developmental approach had compromised the
quality of provision as no obvious mentoring and support framework had been developed to
provide a foundation for the monitoring and evaluating of progress in relation to identified areas
of development.
The SAQA documents: Quality Management Systems for ETQAs, Quality Management Systems for
Education and Training Providers and Criteria and Guidelines for Providers have been developed as
an integrated strategy by SAQA to enable the advance of Quality Management Systems among
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ETQAs and providers. The links between the three documents are important because of the nature
of the relationship between ETQAs and providers. SAQA places emphasis on the need for
providers to understand, andengage with, the mandated ETQA powers and resulting quality
management issues that directly affect them in quality provision and assessment(South African
Qualifications Authority, 2001).
A central theme that emerged in relation to Quality Management Systems is the requirements for
accountability and consequences in relation to non-compliance and the associated monitoring
processes that should be conducted on an ongoing and regular basis. Research participants
articulated the feeling that occupationally directed education and training providers were
subjected to Conformance to Specifications (CTS) in quality management evaluation and
implementation as opposed to a Total Quality Management (TQM) approach that considers all
levels of quality processes.
Quality is defined as “the combination of processes used to ensure that the degree of excellence
specified is achieved (South African Qualifications Authority Regulations, 1127, 1998). The
emphasis from the research confirmed that ETQAs are not focused on the quality development
and continuous improvement processes of providers, but rather focussed on the validation of
providers meeting minimum specified requirements in relation to their QMS obligations.
Of further importance is the research confirmation of internal and external quality management
review processes that must be subjected to industry and international quality standards. The need
for industry validation and informed criteriathat enhance TQM, as opposed to regimented CTS, is
identified as seminal in the development and evolution of Quality Management Systems for
occupationally directed education and training providers.
The lack of progress in relation to QMS development may be because of inexperienced new
incumbents constantly entering the market, and no differential QMS processes being available for
new market entrants versus mature providers.
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6.3.2 Theme 2: Peer review mechanisms
This broad definition has been used to generate sub-themes. Universities and private HET
providers place high value on peer review mechanisms. The defined Quality Management System
considers the capacity of institutions to run and manage assessment and certification, among
other functions.
The researcher found that in the outcome of the analysis of the research generated, sufficient
evidence emerged to show that this theme has been validated and should be included in the
external moderation framework.The collective knowledge of communities of expert practitioners
offers significant value in ensuring that providers are measured objectively by their peers and by
industry.
“Peer-review is a critical part of the functioning of the scientific community, of quality control, and
the self-corrective nature of science. Nevertheless, it is no panacea. It is helpful to understand
what it is, and what it isn’t, its uses and abuses” (Benos, Bashari, Chaves, Gagga, Kapoor, LaFrance,
Mans, McGowan, Polter, Qadri, Sarfare, Schultz,Splittgerbe, Stephenson,Tower, Grace, Zotov,
2007).
The HET system in South Africa is the most evolved system in relation to quality assurance and
management practice. Peer review mechanisms are broadly accepted, and considered an integral
part of maintaining and enchasing quality standards of provision and assessment.
Research participants articulated that in their opinion the FET system is less evolved and
consequently peer review was misunderstood and poorly defined. Research participants
articulated the opinion of ETQAs that frown upon peer review processes, as providers and
practitioners are prohibited from performing functions for other providers in relation to
facilitation, assessment and moderation, and are prohibited from being employed by constituent
providers and performing evaluation or accreditation activities on behalf of ETQAs. This rule has
evolved from unqualified ETQA staff members having limited understanding of the global peer
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review context and the policy formulation and encouragement of the peer review practice as
captured in the SAQA quality management guidelines.
A number of highly respected journals have begun experimenting with innovative peerreview
models (Solomon, 2007). Despite the fact that the acceptance of peer review mechanisms in the
occupationally directed education and training sector is likely to be a slow process, especially
against the backdrop of the current ETQA process, the research confirmed that the need
forindustry developed and monitored peer review mechanisms would bring tremendous
advantage in relation to transformation support and industry credibility.
The significance of peer review mechanisms was confirmed as a vital component in knowledge
emergence during the research study as it plays a key role in validating quality processes including
provision and assessment across a specific industry. Peer review mechanisms are a critical and
fundamental component in the validation of research output in Higher Education Institutions. We
must however also be mindful of the possible negative effect of disseminating new ideas and
methods through the peer review process (Kumashiro, 2005). The possibility of group-think is a
reality; the benefits that emerged from the research study however far outweighed the possible
negative effects of no credible industry peer review process.
Occupationally directed education and training providers must be educated on the meaning of and
benefits derived from peer review mechanisms. Fellow practitioners, learners and industry
stakeholders have valuable insight and experiences to share in the context and interest of an
evolving quality system that is subject to transparent informed review processes by peers.
The principle of peer review processes should be viewed in the context of experts’ value
propositions and contributions to quality assurance advancement of providers in the
occupationally directed education and training arena.
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6.3.3 Theme 3: Industry validation
This broad definition has been used to generate sub-themes. The theme emerged from the
analysis of the research and was aligned to these sub-themes to verify the relevance to the theme
that confirms industry validation in the development of an alternativeexternal moderation
framework.
Industry, in collaborationwithinstitutions of higher learning, is best geared to conduct specific
research into the industry requirements and the impact of educational interventions. Quality
standards and the preparation of skilled market entrants to the profession are after all the joint
responsibility of business, labour and government.
Whilst Quality Councils oversee qualifications, standards, assessment and certification systems
across three key sub-sectors of the NQF, sub-standard education and training in a specific Industry
will only serve to devalue the perceived significance of entering the respective industry.
Professional bodies and bargaining councils must work jointly with providers of education and
training in establishing acceptable professional norms and standards in all levels of their
profession.
The research participants confirmed the prominence ofindustry validation as a central theme in
developing the external moderation framework. Industry validation is a quality assurance
mechanism to ensure an informed evaluation of pre-determined criterion in a delivery construct.
The emerged theme validates the inclusion of this theme in the review of anexternal moderation
framework and takes into consideration the importance of how this theme is dependent on the
other themes contained in the framework.
A central conception throughout the research study has been that investing in education, without
the possibility of employment of learners at the end of the occupationally directed education and
training process, is not only a recipe for disaster but also a fundamental waste of fiscal resources.
Simply delaying or extending an individual’s unemployment is hardly a cause for celebration.
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The research further confirmed that the impact of low performing high school and university
graduates in the workplace, coupled to restrictive labour legislation, made business reluctant to
hire individuals without industry experience and a proven record of accomplishment. In the
absence of industry validation mechanisms associated with qualifications, employers have no
mechanism to validate the worth of a qualification.
“There is no reason whatsoever why some vocational courses could not be included in the list of
qualifications that are highly respected. On the contrary, they can and should. Vocational subjects
can develop all the skills above and other important ones as well. Nevertheless, if you proclaim
that everything is valuable, and that everything is worth the same, no one will believe you. ….
When people don't know which are worthwhile and which are not, they simply disregard them all”
(Wolf, 31 January 2012).
6.3.4 Theme 4: Maturity status validation
Providers that have a proven record of accomplishment of delivery and assessment excellence
must be afforded greater autonomy and self-regulation. Autonomy must be subject to increased
accountability to government and civil society. The importance of maturity status validation was
repeated and reinforced during the interviews conducted.
Research participants confirmed the need for provider review mechanisms that are appropriate to
the operations and functions of a specific provider. They also suggested that a one-size-fits-all
approach has already resulted in a degenerative system in South Africa that fails to validate quality
processes in the context of realistic evaluation criteria, thereby violating the notion of fit-for-
purpose provision.
Mature occupationally directed education and training providers must be recognised for the
excellent work they have done in maintaining quality delivery and assessments. Commensurate
trust processes should result in greater levels of self-regulation and the ability to respond more
appropriately to market and industry demands. The credibility and institutional knowledge of
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mature occupationally directed education and training providers in a defined system of operation
must be afforded the same levels of trust as HET providers. Mature providers with a record of
accomplishment for academic rigour must be classified in categories of capacity, and
commensurate trust levels must be assigned in relation to self-regulation in relation to their
validated quality education work.
Mature occupationally directed education and training providers have institutional customs and
practices that have been tested in relation to specific challenges. The way in which occupationally
directed education and training providers behave in unforeseen circumstances is important to
ensure that academic standards and the quality of classroom and workplace learning is not
compromised. The required support structures for learners are of paramount importance in
determining a provider’s ability to deal with complex challenges.
The validation of human capital and physical resources must be corroborated commensurate to
the providers programme mix and defined offering. The education quality audit must be rigorous
and validate maturity status confirmation and provider status level awards.
The apparent over reliance on contract capacity without adequate supporting contractual
evidence must be interrogated in the categorisation of provider maturity evaluation. The ability of
occupationally directed education and training providers to perform within nationally set
standards by regulators and professional industry bodies must be considered as a primal weighting
in the providers maturity status validation and record of accomplishment confirmation.
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6.4 An alternative accreditationframework
The resolution of the research study set out to formulate an alternative accreditation framework
for occupationally directed education and training providers. Identified concepts resulting in the
logical clustering of categories, which ultimately informed the emergence of specific themes, have
now been offered as an alternative framework for accreditation in future engagements with
occupationally directed education and training providers.
The alternative accreditation framework confirmed the prominence of the following themes,
resulting from the research process: industry specifications and requirements, provider capacity,
Quality Management Systems and market demand and barriers to entry.
Figure 6.1 Proposed occupationally directed education and training
provideraccreditation framework
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6.5 An alternative external moderation framework
The external moderation framework confirmed the prominence of the following themes, resulting
from the research process: Quality Management Systems, peer review mechanisms, industry
validation and maturity status validation.
Figure 6.2: Proposed occupationally directed education and training provider external
moderation framework
6.6 Conclusion of chapter six
The researcher embarked on the research journey by exploring the occupationally directed
education and training context in South Africa concerning accreditation and external moderation.
She also ventured into an understanding of global trends related to accreditation and external
moderation frameworks. Information was critically reviewed by means of triangulation of data as
gathered from the different stages during the research process. This allowed for the identification
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of concepts, categories, and themes, which informed the formulation of the alternative
frameworks as proposed in the previous section.
It is therefore clear in relation to the proposed alternative accreditation framework that ETQAs, in
the main, did not focus their efforts on validating the capacity of providers to deliver successfully
within the existing accreditation framework. Similarly, robust industry validation has been
included in the newly proposed accreditation framework as this omission by the relevant
stakeholders has resulted in a disconnected education and training system.
In relation to the QMS, a more customised engagement between stakeholders is proposed to
ensure a meaningful end-to-end delivery by providers in the occupationally directed education
and training domains. The inclusion of market demand and barriers to entry within the new
framework intends to curb the proliferation of programmes, resulting because of a lack of market
intelligence, and thereby contributing towards the development of a robust human capital
pipeline for South Africa, and Africa at large.
Taking into account the proposed alternative framework for external moderation, it was important
to highlight the prominence of peer review mechanisms and industry validation because of the
important shift it may bring in contributing towards the credibility of provision by occupationally
directed education and training providers. At the same time, it was appropriate to appreciate the
anticipated benefits resulting from the inclusion of maturity status validation in the proposed
external moderation framework, as this will enhance trust amongst the relevant stakeholders.
The confirmation of the importance of Quality Management Systems in the proposed framework,
and specifically the integration of review mechanisms, highlights the imperative to create a
dynamic and involved engagement process. This should ensure an improvement of Total Quality
Management (both strategically and operationally) for occupationally directed education and
trainingprovision.
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7. Chapter 7 – Recommendations for Practice and Further Research
7.1 Introduction
“Every person shall have the opportunity to have his or her experiences and skills, gained through
work, through society or through formal and non-formal training, assessed, recognised, and
certified. Programmes to compensate for skill deficits by individuals through increased access to
education and training should be made available as part of the recognition of prior learning
programmes.
Assessment should identify skill gaps, be transparent, and provide a guide to both the learner and
the training provider. The framework should also include a credible system of certification of skills
that are portable and recognised across enterprises, sectors, industries and educational
institutions, whether public or private” (ILO; International Labour Conference on Human
Resources Development and Training; 2000).
Global accreditation and moderation frameworks have been implemented to varying degrees of
control and self-regulation. Great philosophers, including Plato, Socrates and Osho, have
contributed to the debate of educational philosophy. Regulatory policies have formed both an
enabling and restrictive environment where limited innovation is evidenced. In a world where it is
impossible to contribute to a knowledge economy without information, many learners are still
deprived of access to technology and good learning practices.
Educational reforms are challenging in the face of historically established traditions that define
academic quality standards. Innovative learning and assessment practices that pose a defined
value proposition in reshaping traditional pre-defined academic standards are at the heart of the
researcher’s recommendations.
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In South Africa, established accreditation and external moderation frameworks are inconsistently
applied by various ETQAs. The researcher has highlighted a number of reasons for these
challenges and proposed changes to the governance structures and staffing requirements of
administration staff and management within ETQAs.
South Africa is at the dawn of the implementation of a QCTO. It has been the researcher’s opinion
that the process lacks political will and has been too grossly under-resourced to make any
meaningful contribution at this stage. The educational discourse relating to the dispersion of
standards, philosophies and ethics of accreditation and external moderation required the
implementation and creation of significant reforms.
The post-apartheid regulatory framework, relating to education philosophy, requires a decisive
commitment to transformation, to confirm the role of education in society. South Africa has
unfortunately fallen prey to an imitating and carbon copy mentality that mirrors global policies,
standards and norms of accreditation and external moderation policies.
It is important that innovative practices transcend what has been the historic norm. Forced
university throughput rates and lowering of academic standards to chase “pass rates” are of little
value in an economy that is steadily declining in meeting the measurements as set out in the
global competitive challenge. The days of producing a paper qualification and thereby securing
employment are long gone. Simply removing recalcitrant voices from the debate does little to
detract the derailed train from inevitable tragedy.
Private enterprise fuels an economy. It would therefore make sense that government ensures that
private enterprise is equipped with prerequisite skill sets and the necessary fiscal environment to
deliver what is needed to grow the economy and enable transformation and social cohesion.
NEDLAC was created as a platform for social engagement with labour, business, civil society and
government in South Africa.
The largest trade union federation in South Africa, COSATU, and the ANC in government are in a
tripartite relationship with the SACP. The current Minister of Higher Educationand Training and
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newly appointed officials into the Ministry of Higher Educationand Training are office bearers, or
long-standing members, of the SACP and the ANC. Educational policy is therefore driven within
this context and agenda.
The IEB examinations of 2011 demonstrate the need for quality educators and significant resource
investment in a comparative public educational structure that focuses on delivery in the fields of
mathematics and science, as a fundamental driver in innovative and expanding industries. High
levels of cognitive functionality, computer skills and functional numeracy and literacy are a basic
and fundamental requirement for workplace operational ability.
7.2 Recommendations for practice
The purpose of this chapter was to make recommendations for practice as related to data
gathered from theliterature review, the focus group, the desktop evaluations of the 250
accreditation and the 250 external moderation reports, theresearch questionnaire and the semi-
structured interviews.
With regard to the proposed accreditation framework, the following recommendations have been
proposed:
� The QCTO should interrogate the findings of the research and consider setting up a task team
to customise the findings for respective constituencies within industries;
� Individual occupationally directed education and training providers should be briefed about
the potential long term benefit of implementing the proposed accreditation framework;
� The ETQAs should understand the contextual education and training demand that could be
created with the implementation of the proposed accreditation framework;
� A review of the status quo as related to “over regulation” of privately owned occupationally
directed education and training providers.
With regard to the proposed external moderation framework, the following recommendations
have been proposed:
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� The QCTO should review the findings of the proposed external moderation framework with a
view to aligning productivity requirements of industry with services offered by occupationally
directed education and training providers;
� Individual occupationally directed education and training providers should align their strategic
objectives with the elements as contained in the proposed external moderation framework;
� The ETQAs should develop a more inclusive understanding of the construct of quality
management and how it impacts on service delivery;
� The ETQAs should create a system whereby each provider will be supported in terms of their
record of performance and level of capacity;
� The ETQAs should take a leadership role in balancing academic requirements and industry
needs for productivity;
� The ETQAs should reconsider the involvement of mature education and training providers in
formulating a peer review framework.
7.3 Proposed further research
The research highlighted the need for in-depth research studies on the following:
i. Return on Investment (ROI) on the national per capita spends on education versus prospects
of sustainable employment and employment creation, sustainable or self-employment;
ii. The perceived value of South African qualifications in the global arena and resulting
employment prospects;
iii. The efficiency and effectiveness of government in the quality assurance ofoccupationally
directed education and training providers within the private sector;
iv. The prospects of employment and perceived value of learners completing qualifications from
private institutions versus public institutions in the occupational arena.
7.4 Limitations of the study
The following limitations need to be noted:
i. The exclusion of learner experiences from the research study.
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ii. The study, though representative and reflective, does not include an evaluation of all ETQAs.
iii. The non-existence of the QCTO on the quality assurance processes of occupationally directed
education and training providers.
7.5 Conclusion of chapter seven
South Africa needs to radically integrate the national education strategy to address the
dysfunctional social transformation delivery deficits to adequately compete in the global economy
as a productive knowledge economy.
Government, industry and professional bodies are critical in the regulation and expansion of all
industries. The need for a social cohesive development agenda is of prime concern in the ability to
service the national agenda of sustainable employment creation and equitable redistribution of
wealth.
The value of private providers versus public institutions is globally evident. Institutional knowledge
and tradition does little to cater for an economic reality and market competitiveness. Singapore
and the Asian block are making significant strides in addressing the above. These countries are
creating a platform where markets dictate what is acceptable and required within an educational
framework.
Competencies are defined in the context of what is required to service the defined market and
industry requirements. The days of education and training providers operating within an ivory
tower are long gone. “A university (education and training provider) ceases to exist when the
intellectual project no longer defines its identity” (Jansen, 24 November 2004).
Accreditation of private providers in South Africa is dependent on quality assurance imperatives as
defined by the DHET and must be in line with the provisions of the South African Qualifications
Authority (SAQA). The research confirms that quality assurance in the occupationally and
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vocationally directed educational systems, for the accreditation and external moderation of
providers, are proliferated and inhibiting.
The notion of quality and quality assurance and a one-size-fits-all approach has become a
convenient truth to participants in the regulation and monitoring of occupationally directed
education and training providers. “There is such a thing called quality but as soon as you try to
define it, something goes haywire. You can’t do it” (Schubert, 1993:1).
Astonishingly the current accreditation and external moderation frameworks for occupational
providers draws no distinctions between the size or resource availability of private providers and
these “fly by night”(Nzimande, B, 7 December 2010)providers are allowed to operate as having
met the SAQA 8 core criteria. The criterion are very loosely defined and have no validation of
industry performance measurement or actual minimum standards, bar the interpretation of the
evaluator or ETQA administrator.
Much has been made of public providers not being able to access SETA funding. The reality is that
many public institutions have endeavoured to participate in the SETA qualification space with poor
results. Any public providers were, and currently still are, able to obtain programme approval if
statutory compliance requirements and MoU specifications were confirmed. Private provision was
intended as a complimentary service in bolstering public provision, and it is argued that DHET
should provide a supportive environment for private providers to assist in the over-stretched
public education environment.
Learners and organisations are none the wiser as to the ability of a provider to deliver
contractually, and have no meaningful process for industry record of accomplishment validation or
professional body confirmation. The EAAB andSAICA have done considerable work to ensure that
providers within their sectors meet minimum delivery standards. It has been the contention of the
researcher that professional and regulatory bodies would be in a far better position to regulate
their respective industries as licence holders of the regulatory body, being the QCTO, and funds
i.e. grants be dispersed for projects under supervision of DHET by regulators and professional
bodies.
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South Africa is on a major drive to increase educational opportunities to provide the required skills
sets for market demand. A critical consideration is whether those jobs are available to absorb
newly skilled individuals, so that education does not become the platform for skilled
unemployment. The urban myth of it being “better to be an unemployed lawyer as opposed to an
employed plumber” may not be completely devoid of the current reality facing South African
unemployed youth.
In the globally competitive environment, the role of quality assurance in accreditation and
external moderation of occupationally directed education and training providers cannot be
overstated. Achievement can only be accomplished through a highly skilled and motivated globally
competitive workforce (Rasool, 2006). South Africa does not have to focus on a western
orientated system, as Africa is radically dissimilar (Birkin, 2006).
The researcher is of the opinion that in these times of global recessionary pressures the role of
innovation, and advancement of nations, will have a perpetual confirmation of the role of
educational institutions in shaping the landscape for global competitiveness.
The debate has certainly not been exhausted in this research study, and the experiences and
systemic documentation of employment creation in relation to ROI on national budget capital
spend, will be the true measure of investment success and economic and social transformation.
7.6 Thesis conclusion
This thesis has provided a personal journey of development for the researcher which has enabled
the presentation of data collection, analysis and review, climaxing in the presentation of
alternative models for the accreditation and external moderation processes in the context of
South African occupationally direction training and development providers.
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Included in this thesis are a comprehensive list of works cited, acronyms and definitions of key
terms, 15 tables, 10 figures and 7 appendices. This thesis developed and concluded through the
stages as laid out below:
7.6.1 Contextualisation
The South African environment was discussed, highlighting the frustrations of a burgeoning youth
with little or no employment prospects, a future in poverty reliant on social grants and/or crime,
and few supportive structures for self-employment and/or future self-development.
The regulatory frameworks for labour and education were accessed and quality management
introduced into the dialogue. The research problem was laid out, with a focus on investigations
into the accreditation and external moderation processes of SAQA and Quality Council structures,
some of which have devolved to SETA ETQAs.
The purpose, objectives and questions relevant to this research were placed, together with the
theoretical framework relevant to this study. Population sampling and the quality of data was
discussed, as well as a delineations and limitations made.
The seven chapters of this thesis were framed.
7.6.2 Literature review
The modernist/postmodernist debate was dialogued, with both concepts being clearly introduced
and linkages made both between the two, as well as to this research study.
A literature review was undertaken of educational theorists and relevant arguments introduced
which resonated with this research topic. Philosophers reviewed were: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,
Avicenna, Descartes, Locke and Rousseau.
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The literature review was extended to engage with self-directedness in learning and viewpoints
were woven into the evolving discussion from: De Bono, Feuerstein, Piaget, Mehl, Montessori,
Steiner, Vygotsky, Jung, Da Vinci and Osho.
Approaches to learning were reviewed and relevant comments and inputs emboldened the
richness of the evolving context. These were from discussions related to: Behaviourism,
Cognitivism, Connectivism and Constructivism.
In addition, teaching and learning styles were researched and theories threaded into the discourse
from Kolb and Honey and Mumford.
7.6.3 Global educational context
As part of the global setting, the particular issues of South African youth, relevant South African
legislation and the South African qualifications framework was introduced. To further situate the
research, South African primary and secondary schooling was expounded upon, together with the
FET and HET systems affecting further and higher learning in the country. This was rounded off
with clarification of the role of NSDS III.
International comparisons were made possible through explanations being related of systems in
place in international and regional accreditation processes. Those discussed included:
UNESCO/OECD, INQAAHE, the Association of African Universities, APQN, GIQAC, the European
Higher Education Qualifications Framework and Technical and Vocational Education and Training.
Accreditation models which could be reviewed vis-a-vis the South African context were laid out.
The countries appraised included: South Africa, Germany, the United States of America, Canada,
the United Kingdom and Singapore.
External moderation models in place in various countries were also developed alongside each
other in order to enhance comparison. These were from: Germany, the United Kingdom,
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Singapore and Canada. In addition, some processes and regulations related to Umalusi, SAQA, the
SETAs and ETQAs in South Africa were elucidated.
7.6.4 Research methodology
Research methodologies were laid out in order to substantiate the selection of the qualitative
method for this thesis. Explanations were detailed of the necessity for, and adherence in this study
to, research that is objective, reliable and valid.
Grounded theory was discussed, as were relevant references to population and sampling, data
collection and data analysis.Purposive, selective sampling was utilised.
7.6.5 Research report
The report referred to the voluminous data recorded and reported on in the seven appendices
forming part of this thesis. A focus group was initiated and used as a reflexive mirror for the
researcher, for the duration of this process.
250 historical but recent provider accreditation reports, from selected ETQAs, were analysed. A
further 250 historical but recent provider external moderation reports, from selected ETQAs, were
analysed. Concepts, categories, and later themes, were drawn from the data.
A research questionnaire was addressed to relevant participants, and semi-structured interviews
were conducted with 20 respondents. All data was analysed using logical streaming to consolidate
resulting information.
7.6.6 Analysis and interpretation
From the review of data related to accreditation, the following four themes emerged: Quality
Management Systems, industry specification and requirements, provider capacity, market demand
and barriers to entry.
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From the review of data related to external moderation, the following four themes emerged:
Quality Management System, peer review mechanisms, industry validation, maturity status
validation. Based on the research conducted, and the analysis made, the inputs were interpreted
and alternative models proposed for both accreditation and external moderation in the area of
occupationally directed training and development in South Africa.
7.6.7 Recommendations for practice and further research
Recommendations were laid out as a result of the awareness created by this research study. These
included numerous recommendations for accreditation processes in the relevant arena, in South
Africa, as well as numerous recommendations for external moderation processes for the same
arena.
Further research has been recommended. These include: Return on Investment in Education and
Training; Global recognition of South African qualifications; Role of government in quality
assurance of private providers of occupationally directed education and training; and, A
comparison of prospects for graduates from private, and public, institutions offering
occupationally directed education and training. Limitations for this research endeavour were
outlined.
In conclusion, the research problem has been investigated thoroughly by this researcher, utilising
literature review and the data collection methods of: a focus group, semi-structured interviews, a
research questionnaire and the analysis of 500 reports related to providers in this arena. Four
themes each, for accreditation and external moderation enabled the researcher to propose
alternative models for each, for the relevant South African context. The research purpose was met
in that a platform was created for the proposal of alternative processes for accreditation and
external moderation, and that provider challenges in accreditation and external moderation were
expounded. It is hoped that this thesis will expand on the body of knowledge by enabling
discussions on education in its interpretation of a postmodern approach. This thesis closed with
recommendations by the researcher.
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9. Appendices
� Appendix A – Research questionnaire sample
� Appendix B – The focus group stage
� Appendix C – Semi-structured interview reports
� Appendix D – The desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation and 250 external moderation
reports
� Appendix E – Research questionnaire findings
� Appendix F – SAQA 8 core criteria for provider accreditation
� Appendix G – UK external verifiers (National occupational standards directory)
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10. Appendix A – Research questionnaire sample
Dear Research Participant,
Thank you for agreeing to participate in the Research Study.
Please complete the Research Questionnaire below within 5 working days from date of receipt.
The Research focuses on Accreditation and External Moderation of Providers.
Please e-mail the questionnaire back to [email protected] /
On submission, I will request a convenient time to follow up telephonically to complete a semi-
structured interview.
The purpose of the semi-structured interview will be to explore your initial written responses. The
semi-structured interviewing process is a form of guided interviewing and although the questions
are predetermined, new questions are usually generated during the interview process or as a
result of initial responses.
Research participants will be presented with a summary of the findings.
Your time and valuable input is highly appreciated.
Regards,
Linda Meyer
083 305 3005
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1. Why is your organisation involved in Education? 2. What is your vision for Education in South Africa? 3. Organisational Capacity a. Please indicate the number of academic staff in your
organisation.
Full time Part time
b. Please indicate the academic and experiential requirements for Lecturers / Facilitators in your organisation. (I.e. a related qualification one NQF level above etc.).
Full time Part time
c. How many academic staff members have obtained degrees? Full time Part time % academic staff
d. What is the academic profile of the Institutions Academic Head?
Academic Qualifications
Professional - Work experience
e. What is the academic profile of the Institutional Head (CEO / MD)?
Academic Qualifications
Professional - Work experience
4. Accreditation a. Please define your understanding of Learning and Teaching. –
(Continuous improvement process).
Learning Teaching
b. Please outline your organisations teaching and learning methodology with specific reference to: i. Cognitive enrichment
ii. Reflective competence (reflexive) iii. Assessment processes
c. What in your opinion is the need for an Accreditation Quality Assurance Framework for providers?(Formal Accreditation process
i.e. CHE, UMALUSIandSETAs, / (QCTO).
d. In what should this culminate in for providers? (The proposed requirements to be allowed to offer skills programmes and full qualifications).
i. Full qualifications ii. Skills programmes
e. Please outline an accreditation validation model that you would consider viable to ensure quality management systems for providers. (What process for accreditation is proposed?)
f. Why should all private providers be treated the same / or not / in the accreditation process? (Small and Large?)
i. Your comment / opinion? ii. Small iii. Large
g. What in your experience are the main challenges with the validity of accreditation framework in education? (Also explore International confirmed constraints.)
h. With reference to the occupational sector what in your experience are the challenges to provider accreditation?
i. How do you define what constitutes Quality Assurance in accreditation?
j. What are the nature of quality assurance policies and practices experienced by providers?
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k. What forces affected quality assurance policies, practices, and values in provider institutions?
l. Has your organisation been nominated / achieved any award or quality management process endorsement in the preceding five years? (I.e. Star grading, ISO etc.).
m. In view of the above processes, practice and methodologies, what contributions could you provide to validate accreditation. (Definition, Practice, Mythology, Process etc.)
5. External Moderation (Verification) a. a. Please define the External Moderation (Verification)
processes.
b. b. Are External Moderators / Evaluators adequately qualified and experienced in your opinion?
c. c. How have External Moderators / Evaluators contributed to quality processes in your organisation?
d. d. What is the relationship between Industry Involvement and Quality Assurance in Education? Please outline an Industry involvement / endorsement processes that contribute to Quality Assurance in education? (How are Industries ensuring quality education in respective sectors?)
e. Please provide statistical data (for the preceding 36 months) on the number of learners trained and assessed by sector / industry area of specialization in the 8 core emerging domains in Services Sector. (These domains include Management, Project Management, Marketing, Business Administration / Practice, Labour Recruitment and Payroll Services, Real Estate Practice and Contact Centre Support.
i. Please also confirm that said learners have been endorsed through External Moderation (Verification). – Against this background statically data – to what extent has the data been validated?
Field
#
learners
enrolled
#
learners
exited
Management Project Management
Marketing Business Administration / Practice
Labour Recruitment
Payroll Services, Real Estate Practice
Contact Centre Support
6. Public – Private – Partnerships (PPP) a. What is your understanding of Public-Private-Partnerships
(PPP’s) in Education?
b. Why would your organisation consider collaborating with an HET / FET institution? (Please provide details).
c. Reflecting on recent legislative and policy developments, does the Minister of Education position on PPP’s confirm your organisation consideration of a PPP’s?
i. Confirm Yes / No ii. Please explain your selected response.
7. General Comments. (Please include any additional comments you may have on Accreditation and External Moderation).
Table 10.1: Research questionnaire
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THANK YOU!
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11. Appendix B – Thefocus group stage
Focus groupemerging concepts.
The following seminal concepts developed from the focus group discussions:
i. Industry needs are not considered when ETQAs are chasing DOL/DHET/SAQA reporting
deliverables.
ii. It is detrimental to the occupationally directed provider arena that no valid peer review
mechanisms exist.
iii. Occupationally directed providers have a general culture of distrust towards ETQAs in the
context of customer service delivery and transparency of processes.
iv. The QCTO and OFO process is generally supported, though inadequately understood.
v. Companies are using tax rebates from learnerships as the principal driver of skills
development.
vi. Extensive research should be piloted to establish equitable funding models in the
occupationally directed education and training sector.
vii. South African qualifications have devalued in the global market place and standards of
excellence have been compromised for throughput reporting rates.
viii. South Africa is over-investing in a compromised education system that is systemically flawed
from the foundation level.
ix. Learners should not be compelled to attend public institutions of further or higher learning
and should have the choice to access the public bursary scheme to fund private education.
Learners should be in a position to access a voucher system and elect their institution of
choice.
x. Centralised application systems should not further compound bureaucracy and prejudice
learner prospects. The current delays in obtaining Grade 12 results are a prime example of
the knock-on effect of a constrained education system.
xi. In the absence of organisational / industry support for learning / skills interventions, no value
contribution will be realised as skills uptake will be compromised.
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xii. Industry (professional body) and regulator input is fundamental in creating a credible system
for occupationally directed education.
xiii. The high running costs of ETQAs and SETAs from the skills levies are unacceptable.
xiv. Qualified and competent ETQA staff should be appointed. An over-reliance on consultants is
prevalent in most SETAs and ETQAs.
xv. The QCTO should ensure that professional bodies and industry regulators are capacitated to
perform the functions that ETQAs are currently supposed to perform.
xvi. International benchmarking and industry performance reviews of ETQAs should be conducted
at regular intervals. A reliable reporting framework should be developed for valid and
credible data extraction.
xvii. Social transformation and accountability is ill-conceived in the South African education
system. Twenty percent of the national budget is spent on educational initiatives with no
significant evidence of ROI. A coherent integrated social transformation policy should be
designed and constructed to address employment creation objectives.
A logical clustering of the 17 categories that emerged from the focus group discussions have
resulted in the confirmation of the following sixcategories.
Categories from the derived concepts of the focus group engagement
i. Quality Management Systems
ii. Provider capacity / performance
iii. ETQA capacity / performance
iv. Industry validation / involvement
v. Social / economic policy
vi. Education policy and legislation
The clustering of concepts and the emerging categories are outlined in the table below:
Category Concepts
Quality
Management
Systems
� South African qualifications have devalued in the global market place and standards of excellence have been compromised for throughput reporting rates.
� It is detrimental to the occupationally directed provider arena that no valid peer review mechanisms exist.
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Provider
capacity /
performance
� Occupationally directed providers have a general culture of distrust towards ETQAs in the context of customer service delivery and transparency of processes.
� It is detrimental to the occupationally directed provider arena that no valid peer review mechanisms exist.
ETQA capacity /
performance
� International benchmarking and industry performance reviews of ETQAs should be conducted at regular intervals. A reliable reporting framework should be developed for valid and credible data extraction.
� Qualified and competent ETQA staff should be appointed. An over-reliance on consultants is prevalent in most SETAs and ETQAs.
� The high running costs of ETQAs and SETAs from the skills levies are unacceptable. � Industry needs are not considered when ETQAs are chasing DOL/DHET/SAQA
reporting deliverables. � Occupationally directed providers have a general culture of distrust towards ETQAs
in the context of customer service delivery and transparency of processes.
Industry
validation /
involvement
� The QCTO should ensure that professional bodies and industry regulators are capacitated to perform the functions that ETQAs are currently supposed to perform.
� Industry (professional body) and regulator input is fundamental in creating a credible system for occupationally directed education.
� In the absence of organisational / industry support for learning / skills interventions, no value contribution will be realised as skills uptake will be compromised.
� Industry needs are not considered when ETQAs are chasing DOL/DHET/SAQA reporting deliverables.
� It is detrimental to the occupationally directed provider arena that no valid peer review mechanisms exist.
� South African qualifications have devalued in the global market place and standards of excellence have been compromised for throughput reporting rates.
Social /
economic policy
� Social transformation and accountability is ill-conceived in the South African education system. Twenty percent of the national budget is spent on educational initiatives, with no significant evidence of ROI. A coherent integrated social transformation policy should be designed and constructed to address employment creation objectives.
� South Africa is over-investing in a compromised education system that is systemically flawed from the foundation level.
� Companies are using tax rebates from learnerships as the principal driver of skills development.
� Extensive research should be piloted to establish equitable funding models in the occupationally directed education and training sector.
� South African qualifications have devalued in the global market place and standards of excellence have been compromised for throughput reporting rates.
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Education
policy and
legislation
� Centralised application systems should not further compound bureaucracy and prejudice learner prospects. The current delays in obtaining Grade 12 results are a prime example of the knock-on effect of a constrained education system.
� Learners should not be compelled to attend public institutions of further or higher learning, and should have the choice to access the public bursary scheme to fund private education. Learners should be in a position to access a voucher system and elect their institution of choice.
� The QCTO and OFO process is generally supported, though inadequately understood.
� Industry needs are not considered when ETQAs are chasing DOL/DHET/SAQA reporting deliverables.
� Companies are using tax rebates from learnerships as the principal driver of skills development.
� Extensive research should be piloted to establish equitable funding models in the occupationally directed education and training sector.
� South African qualifications have devalued in the global market place and standards of excellence have been compromised for throughput reporting rates.
Table Appendix B 1:Categories that emerged from the focus group discussions
A logical clustering of all the concepts that emerged, informed the logical clustering of categories.
A further logical clustering of categories informed a logical clustering of themes by the researcher.
The themes that emerged informed the development of an alternative framework for the
accreditation and external moderation of occupationally directed education and training providers
as set out in Chapter 6.
The iterative nature of the research allowed the researcher to identify emerging themes within the
different components of the research study, these being the focus group discussions, the semi-
structured interviews, the research questionnaire, the desktop evaluations of accreditation and
external moderation reports and the literature review.
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12. Appendix C–Semi-structured interview reports
The following table provides information on gender, sector and length of experience of the
research participants who took part in the semi-structured interview phase of this research:
Interviewee Female (F) or Male
(M) Sector Duration of tenure in years
A. F Business / Education 30
B. F Business / Education 23
C. F Business / Education 11
D. F Business / Education 17
E. M Business / Education 23
F. F Business / Education 12
G. F Business / Education 15
H. F SETA 11
I. F SETA 15
J. F SETA / Umalusi 25
K. F SETA 20
L. F Business / Education 10
M. F Business / Education 09
N. M Business 24
O. M Education 24
P. M Education 19
Q. F Business / Education 15
R. F Education 15
S. M Business / Education 21
T. M Business / Education 30
Table C1: Interviewee profile of participants in the semi-structured interviews
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In order to align the the semi-structured questions with the purpose of the research, the
researcher reviewed emergingcategories and concepts from the research process. The following
six questions emerged during the research phase:
Question 1:
What is the relationship between Industry Involvement and Quality Assurance in education? Please outline Industry involvement / endorsement processes that contribute to Quality Assurance in education? (How are Industries ensuring quality education in respective sectors?)
Question 2:
What in your experience are the main challenges with the validity of accreditation frameworks in education? (Also explore International confirmed constraints.)
Question 3:
What in your experience are the main challenges with the validity of an external moderation framework in education? (Also explore International confirmed constraints.)
Question 4:
With reference to the occupational sector, what in your experience are the challenges to provider accreditation?
Question 5:
How do you define what constitutes Quality Assurance in accreditation?
Question 6:
Is there an equitable distribution of educational funds to assist with employment creation and real human capital talent development to address industry needs, in your experience?
Table C 2 Questions included In the semi-structured interviews
The analysis of each of the transcriptions aimed to identify pertinent concepts that were
generated during the interview. The concepts were then analysed and centred into categories,
after which they were related into themes.
A logical clustering of the all the concepts that emerged informed the logical clustering of
categories. A further logical clustering of categories informed a logical clustering of themes by the
researcher. The themes that emerged informed the development of an alternative framework for
the accreditation and external moderation of occupationally directed education and training
providers as set out in Chapter 6.
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Analysis - Interviewee A – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee A.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETDpractitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETDpractitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETDpractitioner views the current accreditation and external moderation
frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview A.
A Accreditation
1 Quality Management Systems and review mechanisms
2 Learning programmes applied for and contextualisation
3 Alignment matrix
4 Assessment instruments – formative and summative
5 Learning material – LG, FG, AG, MG
6 Registered assessors and moderators
7 Learner support and guidance
8 Legal entity
9 Training venue approval
10 Certification policy, procedure and application
B External moderation
1 Confirmation of accreditation of provider
2 Registration of assessors and moderators as constituent
3 Use of moderated / approved assessment instruments
4 Assessment process meets assessment key principles
5 Evidence meets VARCS
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Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview A.
A Accreditation
6 Learner has been assessed against: all outcomes, range statements, CCFOs,
embedded knowledge
7 Internal moderation has been conducted
8 Internal moderator has upheld or overturned the decision made by the assessor
9 Feedback given to learner
10 Internal moderator has upheld or overturned the decision made by the assessor
Emerging concepts – Interviewee A
Ten concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee A,
for accreditation,and a further ten concepts for external moderation. When analysing the
relationship of these concepts to each other, it is possible to cluster some of the categories
together. Emerging themes, as evident in the tables below,are discussed in Chapter 6 of this
thesis:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview A) -
Accreditation
Quality Management Systems and review
mechanisms
Quality Management Systems
Certification policy, procedure and
application
Quality Management Systems
Learner support and guidance Quality Management Systems
Alignment matrix Industry specifications and requirements -
Programme delivery
Assessment Instruments – formative and
summative
Industry specifications and requirements -
Assessment strategy
Registered assessors and moderators Provider capacity
Legal entity Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories – Interviewee A
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories(Interview A) – External
moderation
Constituent assessors are used Quality Management Systems - Provider capacity
Assessment process meets
assessment key principles
Quality Management Systems - Assessment and
moderation
Evidence of learner meets VARCS Quality Management Systems - Assessment and
moderation
Learner has been assessed against:
� all outcomes
� range statements
� CCFOs
� embedded knowledge
Quality Management Systems - Assessment and
moderation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories – Interviewee A
The responses from interviewee A focused on the importance of compliance within the areas of
provider capacity, market demand and barriers to entry, industry specifications and
requirementsand Quality Management Systems.
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Analysis - Interviewee B – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with intervieweeB.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis, it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview B
A Accreditation
1 Inconsistency in approach - needs to be standardised
2 Lack of capacity among evaluators
3 Lack of capacity within the provider itself - does not understand the implementation
and maintenance of practices
4 Accreditation used as marketing tool with no real commitment to quality of delivery
B External moderation
1 Inconsistency in approach - needs to be standardised
2 Lack of capacity among moderators
3 "Too little too late"- should be ongoing process to avoid major problems at the end
of a programme
4 Assessment / internal moderation / external moderation process flawed due to lack
of knowledge / experience among assessors, internal moderators
Emerging concepts – Interviewee B
Four concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee B,
for accreditation, and a further four concepts for external moderation. When analysing the
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relationship of these concepts to each other, it is possible to cluster some of the categories
together. Emerging themes, as evident in the tables below,are discussed in Chapter 6 of this
thesis:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview B) - Accreditation
Inconsistency Quality Management Systems
Lack of capacity (evaluator) Industry specifications and requirements
Lack of capacity (provider) Provider capacity
Lack of commitment Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories – Interviewee B
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview B) – External moderation
Inconsistency Quality Management Systems and industry validation
Lack of capacity (moderator) Peer review mechanisms and maturity status validation
Lack of capacity (internal
processes)
Peer review mechanisms, maturity status validation,
Quality Management Systems and industry validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories – Interviewee B
The responses from Interviewee B focused on the importance of compliance within the areas of
provider capacity, industry specifications and requirements, market demand and barriers to entry,
industry validation, peer review mechanisms, maturity status validation and Quality Management
Systems.
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Analysis – Interviewee C – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, and later categories,
during the interview with Interviewee C.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation andexternal moderation
frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis, it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview.
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview C
A Accreditation
1 Standards
2 Quality
3 Barriers to entry
4 Industry validation
5 Capacity to deliver
B External moderation
1 Standards
2 Quality
3 Assessment Instruments
4 Industry validation
5 Capacity to deliver
Emerging concepts – Interviewee C
Fiveconcepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee C,
for accreditation, and a further five concepts for external moderation. When analysing the
relationship of these concepts to each other, it is possible to cluster some of the categories
352 | P a g e
together. Emerging themes, as evident in the tables below,are discussed in Chapter 6 of this
Thesis:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview C) - Accreditation
Quality processes and
procedures
Quality Management Systems
Sector specific needs Industry specifications and requirements
Ability of provider to deliver
adequately in relation to size
and requirements
Provider capacity
Providers must be judged on
performance and not everyone
should just be able to set up as
a training provider
Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories – Interviewee C
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview C) – External moderation
Quality processes and
procedures
Quality Management Systems
Experts in the field must be
recognised and screened
Peer review mechanisms
Accountability Industry validation
Proven track record Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories – Interviewee C
The responses from Interviewee C focused on the importance of compliance with in the areas of
Quality Management Systems, provider capacity, market demand and barriers to entry, industry
specialisations and requirements, peer review mechanisms, maturity status validation and
industry validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee D – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, and later categories,
during the interview with Interviewee D.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis, it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interviews:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview D
A Accreditation
1 Bureaucratic
2 Time-consuming
3 Illogical
4 Irrelevant to encourage quality learning
5 Expensive
B External moderation
1 Procedural
2 Structured
3 Time-consuming
4 Not concluded with certification speedily
Emerging concepts – Interviewee D
Five concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee D,
for accreditation, and a further four concepts for external moderation. When analysing the
relationship of these concepts to each other, it is possible to cluster some of the categories
together. Emerging themes, as evident in the tables below, are discussed in Chapter 6 of this
thesis:
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview D) - Accreditation
Structured Market demand and barriers to entry
Inhibiting Quality Management Systems – ETQA and provider capacity
Thorough Industry specifications and requirements
Bureaucratic Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee D
Emerging Concepts Emerging Categories (Interview D) – External Moderation
Quality Quality Management System
Verification Peer review mechanism s
Checking Industry Validation
Procedures Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee D
The responses from Interviewee D focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems in both ETQAs and providers, industry
specifications and requirements, peer review mechanisms, maturity status validation and industry
validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee E – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, and later categories,
during the interview with Interviewee E.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis, it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview E
A Accreditation
1 Requires uniform standards across SETAs and providers
2 ETQA staff should be qualified and act professionally
3 Victimisation and unfair processes
4 Evaluators should be trained and apply the same standards
5 Should be transparent
6 SAQA is of no help if you complain – always have a different story
7 SETAs should operate like the CHE
8 Why is everyone treated the same – new or old?
9 Providers should be involved in monitoring the SETAs and each other
10 No assistance provided from the SETAs and everyone makes up their own rules as they
go along
B External moderation
1 Waste of time – tick-box exercise
2 Verifiers know nothing about the industries and want to tell us what is acceptable for
our clients and what the content of qualifications should be
3 SETA staff offer no assistance - very few have any clue
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Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview E
A Accreditation
4 The same set of rules should be used by all SETAs
5 Providers have to wait months, sometimes years (sometimes 30 months), for SETAs to
complete their processes to certificate learners
6 Bureaucratic and problematic
7 Industry should be involved and monitor what is happening at providers
8 Providers must be treated based on their performance and record of performance
9 Quality is unreliable
10 Assessments and moderation practices should be confirmed throughout – not only at
the end as a means to an end
Emerging concepts – Interviewee E
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other, it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview E) - Accreditation
Requires uniform standards across
SETAs and providers
Quality Management Systems
Providers should be involved in
monitoring the SETAs and each other
Industry specifications and requirements
Why is everyone treated the same –
new or old?
Provider capacity
Why is everyone treated the same –
new or old?
Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee E
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview E) – External
moderation
Quality is unreliable Quality Management Systems
Verifiers know nothing about the
industries and want to tell us what is
acceptable for our clients and what
the content of qualifications should
Peer review mechanisms
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview E) – External
moderation
be
Industry should be involved and
monitor what is happening at
providers
Industry validation
Providers must be treated based on
their performance and record of
performance
Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee E
The responses from Interviewee E focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, provider capacity, industry validation, industry specifications and
requirements, Quality Management Systems in both ETQAs and providers, peer review
mechanisms and maturity status validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee F – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee F.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis, it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview F
A Accreditation
1 Constituent registration of assessors and moderators a complete mess - try the re-
registration process for punishment
2 Learning material – standard material should be supplied
3 The QCTO – (new) processes must bring a common set of standards
4 SETAs are bureaucratic
5 Lack of transformation
6 Quality management is critical
7 Assessors and moderators must be trained properly
B External moderation
1 Peer review is ignored
2 Quality management is critical
3 Industry rules should mean something
4 SAQA role unclear
Emerging concepts – Interviewee F
Seven concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee
F, for accreditation,and a further four concepts for external moderation.
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When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other, it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emergingconcepts Emerging categories (Interview F) - Accreditation
Quality management is
critical
Quality Management Systems
Lack of transformation Industry specifications and requirements
Assessors and
moderators must be
trained properly
Provider capacity
Lack of transformation Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee F
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview F) – External moderation
Quality management is
critical
Quality Management Systems
Peer review is ignored Peer review mechanisms
Industry rules should
mean something
Industry validation
Who is who Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee F
The responses from Interviewee F focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems in both ETQAs and providers, industry
specifications and requirements, provider capacity, industry validation, peer review mechanisms
and maturity status validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee G – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee G.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis, it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview G
A Accreditation
1 SAQA 8core criteria not properly applied
2 Incompetent SETA staff
3 Difficult to find assessors and moderators that are registered with the SETA
4 Very expensive process
5 Clients only want accreditation to claim their money back
6 Money making racket
7 If universities cannot give people qualifications for jobs, what do SETA qualifications
mean?
8 Waste of time and over-regulated
B External moderation
1 This is just a “joke” for show
2 Industry should be doing this – not some paid consultant
3 Bureaucratic
4 Money making racket
5 My history of doing good work counts for nothing
6 They (the SETA) make the rules up as they go along
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Emerging concepts – Interviewee G
Eight concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee G,
for accreditation,and a further six concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other, it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emergingconcepts Emergingcategories (Interview G) - Accreditation
SAQA 8core criteria not
properly applied
Quality Management Systems
Difficult to find assessors
and moderators that are
registered with the SETA
Industry specifications and requirements
Difficult to find assessors
and moderators that are
registered with the SETA
Provider capacity
Difficult to find assessors
and moderators that are
registered with the SETA
Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee G
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview G) – External moderation
They (the SETA) make the
rules up as they go along
Quality Management Systems
Industry should be doing
this – not some paid
consultant
Peer review mechanisms
Industry should be doing
this – not some paid
consultant
Industry validation
My history of doing good Maturity status validation
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview G) – External moderation
work counts for nothing
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee G
The responses from Interviewee G focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems in both ETQAs and providers, industry
specifications and requirements, provider capacity, industry validation, peer review mechanisms
and maturity status validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee H – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee H.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis, it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview H
A Accreditation
1 Standardisation of quality training
2 Reputable training providers
3 Providers meet minimum criteria
4 Quality training material
5 One standard for assessments
6 Qualifications acknowledged by industry
7 Qualifications are fit for purpose (meet industry requirements)
8 Quality Management Systems
9 Financially viable providers (will still be there in a few years)
10 Current in respect of industry requirements
B External moderation
1 Quality control of standardisation of level of assessment
2 Standardisation of skills development processes
3 Monitor and verify validity of qualifications attained
4 Verification of accreditation requirements
5 Quality gate-keepers
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Emerging concepts – Interviewee H
Ten concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee H,
for accreditation,and a further five concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging categories Emerging concepts (Interview H) - Accreditation
Standardisation of quality training Quality Management Systems
Current in respect of Industry
requirements
Industry specifications and requirements
One standard for assessments Provider capacity
Qualifications acknowledged by
industry
Industry specifications and requirements
Reputable training providers Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories – Interviewee H
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview H) – External moderation
Monitor and verify validity of
qualifications attained
Quality Management Systems and peer review mechanisms
Quality control of standardisation
of level of assessment
Quality Management Systems
Standardisation of skills
development processes
Industry validation
Verification of accreditation
requirements
Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee H
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The responses from Interviewee H focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems in both ETQAs and providers, industry
specifications and requirements, industry validation, provider capacity, peer review mechanisms
and maturity status validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee I – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee I.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis, it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview I
A Accreditation
1 Cumbersome and problematic and expensive assessors and moderators must be used
2 QMS is just for show
3 Qualifications are restrictive and often the unit standards are irrelevant
4 Costly and punitive
5 Every SETA has its own process and no one cares how long you have been in the game
6 SETA staff do nothing to help – why do they not run workshops?
7 My clients don’t care about the accreditation – I provide them with programmes they
need – not just for show
8 Our industry is the call centre / BPO industry, and anyone that has been through our
training stands a much better chance of getting the job or promotion
9 Just another government process - to prevent business from making money
10 Not transparent
B External moderation
1 One size fits all
2 SETAs are not interested in quality, they are interested in processes
3 Certification of learners by the SETA is long and painful - ETDP SETA and FoodBev SETA
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Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview I
A Accreditation
are OK. I work with 5 other SETAs and I dread every moment I have to deal with them
4 SETAs don’t trust anyone – and really I don’t trust most of them
5 Who do you complain to? – they just ignore you when they have no idea what should
be done to improve delivery and support to providers and learners
6 Politics around every corner – it is not about education – it is all about the money
7 Universities don’t have any of this rubbish to deal with – they review each other’s
performance and are objective for the best possible delivery and qualifications
8 No feedback provided that has any value – just a compliance exercise
9 Competition should count for something, whether I am good or bad in the SETAs
opinion means nothing
Emerging concepts – Interviewee I
Ten concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee I,
for accreditation,and a further eight concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview I) -
Accreditation
QMS is just for show Quality Management Systems
Our industry is the call centre / BPO industry,
and anyone that has been through our
training stands a much better chance of
getting the job or promotion
Industry specifications and requirements
Cumbersome and problematic and
expensive assessors and moderators must
be used
Provider capacity
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview I) -
Accreditation
Every SETA has its own process and no one
cares how long you have been in the game
Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee I
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview I) – External
moderation
SETAs are not interested in quality, they are
interested in processes
Quality Management Systems
Competition should count for something,
whether I am good or bad in the SETAs
opinion means nothing
Peer review mechanisms
Competition should count for something,
whether I am good or bad in the SETAs
opinion means nothing
Industry Validation
One size fits all Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee I
The responses from Interviewee I focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems in both ETQAs and providers, industry
specifications and requirements, provider capacity, industry validation, peer review mechanisms
and maturity status validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee J – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee J.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview J
A Accreditation
1 Bureaucratic paper-based application form, which does not add any value to the ETQA
or the provider, as it is not engaged with until the site visit.
2 A one-size fits-all approach is adopted. Whilst a minimum base line is required the
system should be fit-for-purpose
3 The QMS is checked on paper and then on the implementation thereof: however these
documents are not logged or tracked, therefore the person conducting the monitoring
visits and/or external moderation does not know if they are using the correct document
as the accepted point of departure.
4 Providers tend to get a consultant to develop the QMS for application foraccreditation
purposes, do not know what it contains and therefore do not apply it. Therefore this
becomes a compliance issue as opposed to a live working tool which adds value.
5 No check/evaluation is conducted on the transfer of skill/delivery of content(in the class
room).
6 There is no requirement for the facilitator to be a qualified educator. In some cases the
rule of minimum requirements for assessor registration are applied. However, this does
not appear to be documented anywhere or consistently applied.
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Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview J
A Accreditation
7 There are long delays between application and site visit, which hampers the prospective
provider as huge amounts of money are tied up during this lead-time.
B External moderation
1 Subject-matter experts are used; however external moderation is conducted after the
fact and could disadvantage the learners if the provider/assessor does not meet the
minimum requirements of the ETQA.
2 The assessment instruments and the internal moderation thereof is not logged or
controlled in any way, therefore there is no check that the instrument being used is the
one which was a) internally moderated and b) accepted by the ETQA.
3 Difficulty with getting constituent registration as assessor and moderator and the
lifespan of said consistency registration.
4 The ETQA does not necessarily supply the learner list and/or the internal moderation
report as submitted by the provider to the person conducting the external moderation.
5 There is minimal industry input as they do not understand and/or are not interested in
the educational component; they merely want suitably trained and qualified entrants to
the market. This is a huge gap in the process.
Emerging concepts – Interviewee J
Seven concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee J,
for accreditation,and a further five concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other, it is possible to cluster some of
the categories as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview J) - Accreditation
Bureaucratic Quality Management Systems
One size fits all Provider capacity
Long lead times Market demand and barriers to entry
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview J) - Accreditation
No qualification required
from facilitators
Industry specifications and requirements
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee J
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview J) – External moderation
No proof that instrument
being used is version
approved by ETQA
Industry validation
QMS is a compliance
document and adds no
value
Quality Management Systems
Long lead times Maturity status validation
Length of time for
constituency registration
Quality Management Systems ETQA
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee J
The responses from Interviewee J focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems for providers and ETQAs, provider capacity,
industry specification and requirements , industry validation and maturity status validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee K – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee K.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis, it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview K
A Accreditation
1 Some SETAs better than others with assisting in the process
2 Helps small providers get business from levy-paying companies
3 Companies prefer you to partner with a university than offer a SETA qualification for
higher levels on the NQF
4 Works well for lower-level qualifications – higher levels not very functional
5 Low entry levels should be beefed up to ensure providers have capacity
6 SETA staff must be trained – that includes the SETA evaluators and verifiers
7 The QMS should be a living document – not just developed and presented for
compliance
8 Providers should be capped on the number of programmes they get approval to offer
in relation to their ability to deliver
9 Constituent registration process is very cumbersome
B External moderation
1 QMS compliance
2 Should be better supported by the SETA
3 Verifiers should support the external moderation process and be part of planning and
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Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview K
A Accreditation
preparation
4 Learners should not be prejudiced with lengthy delays in securing external moderation
dates
5 ETQAs should be held accountable and staff should be well qualified and experienced
6 Providers that are more senior and have proven themselves must be afforded greater
opportunity in relation to self-regulation and peer review
7 A development path should be managed by the ETQA concerned
8 Non-compliance should have consequences
Emerging concepts – Interviewee K
Nine concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee K,
for accreditation,andfurther eight concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other, it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview K) -
Accreditation
The QMS should be a living document – not just
developed and presented for compliance
Quality Management Systems
Constituent registration process is very
cumbersome
Provider capacity
Helps small providers get business from levy-
paying companies
Market demand and barriers to entry
Providers should be capped on the number of
programmes they get approval to offer in
relation to their ability to deliver
Market demand and barriers to entry
Companies prefer you to partner with a Market demand and barriers to entry
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview K) -
Accreditation
university than offer a SETA qualification for
higher levels on the NQF
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee K
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview K) – External
moderation
QMS compliance Quality Management Systems
Providers that are more senior and
have proven themselves must be
afforded greater opportunity in
relation to self-regulation and peer
review
Peer review mechanisms
Providers that are more senior and
have proven themselves must be
afforded greater opportunity in
relation to self-regulation and peer
review
Industry validation
Providers that are more senior and
have proven themselves must be
afforded greater opportunity in
relation to self-regulation and peer
review
Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee K
The responses from Interviewee K focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems for providers and ETQAs, provider capacity,
industry validation, peer review mechanisms and maturity status validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee L – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee L.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview L
A Accreditation
1 Permission to train on certain standards or qualifications
2 Stressful process
3 Able to certify learners
4 Aligning training material with unit standards
5 Improving quality in your organisation in order to be accredited
6 Following standards
7 Evaluate an organisations image
8 Provider of choice
9 Approval
10 Meeting criteria
B External moderation
1 Inspection
2 Confirmation
3 Developmental process to ensure the quality of delivery, assessment and moderation
4 To standardise things
5 To improve systems
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Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview L
A Accreditation
6 Control and monitor
7 Neutral
Emerging concepts – Interviewee L
Ten concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee L,
for accreditation,and a further seven concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview L) - Accreditation
Permission to train Provider capacity
Meeting criteria Industry specifications and requirements
Improving quality in-
house
Quality Management Systems
Stressful process Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee L
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview L) – External moderation
Inspection Quality Management Systems
Monitor Industry validation
Develop Peer review mechanisms
Confirmation Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee L
The responses from Interviewee L focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems for providers and ETQAs, provider capacity,
industry specifications and requirements, peer review mechanisms, industry validation and
maturity status validation.
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378 | P a g e
Analysis – Interviewee M – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee M.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview M
A Accreditation
1 Material alignment
2 Difference between formative and summative assessment
3 How to create a structured curriculum
4 Importance of moderator guide
5 Importance of accurate model answers
6 Remembering VARCS principles
B External moderation
1 Ensuring remediation took place
2 Consistency from portfolio to portfolio
3 Use of marking memoranda
4 Ensuring model answers have been used in marking
Emerging concepts – Interviewee M
Sixconcepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee M,
for accreditation,and a further fourconcepts for external moderation.
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When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview M) - Accreditation
Aligned Curricula Quality Management Systems
Assessor, learner,
facilitator and moderator
guides
Industry specifications and requirements - assessment strategy
Program and assessment
strategy
Industry specifications and requirements - programme delivery
Model answers Industry specifications and requirements - assessment and
moderation
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee M
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview M) – External moderation
Moderator and assessor
guides
Industry specifications and requirements - assessment and
moderation
Learning and assessment
process
Industry specifications and requirements - assessment strategy and
Quality Management Systems
QMS Quality Management Systems
Model answers Industry specifications and requirements - assessment and
moderation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee M
The responses from Interviewee M focused on the importance of compliance with Quality
Management Systems for providers and industry specifications and requirements.
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Analysis – Interviewee N – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee N.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview N
A Accreditation
1 Alignment
2 Unit standards
3 Qualifications
4 Assessment tool(s)
5 Assessment
6 Moderation
7 Assessor
8 Moderator
9 Certification
10 Quality
B External moderation
1 Portfolios of evidence
2 Assessment process followed
3 Moderation process followed
4 Quality management implemented
5 Consistency amongst assessors and moderators / processes followed
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Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview N
A Accreditation
6 Continuous improvement
Emerging concepts – Interviewee N
Ten concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee N,
for accreditation,and a further six concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together. Emerging categories are evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview N) - Accreditation
Learning programme
alignment
Industry specifications and requirements - programme delivery
Assessment tools Industry specifications and requirements - assessment strategy
Quality assurance Quality Management Systems
Assessors and
moderators
Industry specifications and requirements - assessment and
moderation
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee N
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview N) – External moderation
Assessment process
followed
Industry specifications and requirements - assessment strategy
Moderation process
followed
Quality Management Systems;industry validation
Quality implementation Quality Management Systems;industry validation
Consistency Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee N
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The responses from Interviewee N focused on the importance of compliance with maturity status
validation, Quality Management Systems for providers and ETQA and industry specifications and
requirements.
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Analysis – Interviewee O – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee O.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview O
A Accreditation
1 Should be a faster process
2 Too many providers – resulting in rock bottom pricing
3 Many providers have under qualified staff, to be in a position to cut prices
4 Professional bodies and regulators e.g. the EAB should be involved in the process of
accreditation to ensure industry standards are met
5 Train the ETQA staff that deal with these issues, to be in a position to assist providers
6 Overly reliant on the services of consultants (ETQAs and providers)
7 Assessors and moderators are expensive to train and even more expensive to contract
8 ETQAs must update their QMS template and supply standard material
B External moderation
1 Standard rules should apply to all SETAs
2 Time delays are not acceptable
3 Certification process must be streamlined
4 Standard national exam / assessment should apply to ensure consistency and
professional body / regulator endorsement
5 QMS should be taken seriously
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Emerging concepts – Interviewee O
Eight concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee O,
for accreditation,and a further five concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview O) - Accreditation
ETQAs must update their QMS
template
Quality Management Systems
Professional bodies and regulators
e.g. the EAB should be involved in
the process of accreditation to
ensure industry standards are met
Industry specifications and requirements v
Assessors and moderators are
expensive to train and even more
expensive to contract
Provider capacity
Too many providers – resulting in
rock bottom pricing
Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - IntervieweeO
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview O) – External moderation
QMS should be taken seriously Quality Management Systems
Standard national exam /
assessment should apply to
ensure consistency and
professional body / regulator
endorsement
Industry Validation
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Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee O
The responses from Interviewee O focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems for providers and ETQAs, provider capacity,
industry specification and requirements and industry validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee P – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee P.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview P
A Accreditation
1 Market legitimacy as a provider as opposed to performance measurement
2 Quality confirmation
3 Expensive in relation to Return On Investment (ROI)
4 Information asymmetry from various ETQAs
5 Lack of service delivery and accountability from ETQAs
6 Levy-payers and industry should have significant more input in the process of
accreditation
7 Professional bodies should perform the functions of ETQAs as they have industry
credibility and accountability
8 International benchmarking e.g.European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS), ACSB
International, EFMD etc. is significantly more valuable for market credibility that
statutory accreditation
9 Retards innovation and flexibility and promotes institutionalisation
10 Total Quality Management does not generally yield improvements
11 Reputational validation in market place is not confirmed as performers and non-
performance carry the same accreditation status – i.e. either provisional or full
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Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview P
A Accreditation
12 Students prefer accredited institutions over non-accredited institutions
B External moderation
1 Reputational validation in market place is not confirmed as performers and non-
performance carry the same accreditation status – i.e. either provisional or full
2 No support offered by ETQAs
3 Extreme delays and frustration
4 Processes should be standard and transparent
5 Administration costs are high and staffing cost to administer the process is expensive
6 No comparative benchmark offered for quality improvement
7 No international benchmarking or international industry validation considered
8 Mimic process – nothing else
Emerging concepts – Interviewee P
Twelveconcepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee
P, for accreditation,and a further eight concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview P) -
Accreditation
Total Quality Management does not generally
yield improvements
Quality Management Systems
Quality confirmation Quality Management Systems
Reputational validation in market place is not
confirmed as performers and non-performance
carry the same accreditation status – i.e. either
provisional or full
Industry specifications and requirements
Retards innovation and flexibility and promotes
institutionalisation
Provider capacity
Market legitimacy as a provider as opposed to Market demand and barriers to entry
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview P) -
Accreditation
performance measurement
Retards innovation and flexibility and promotes
institutionalisation
Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee P
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview P) – External
moderation
No comparative benchmark offered
for quality improvement
Quality Management Systems
Reputational validation in market
place is not confirmed as performers
and non-performance carry the
same accreditation status – i.e.
either provisional or full
Peer review mechanisms
No international benchmarking or
international industry validation
considered
Industry validation
Reputational validation in market
place is not confirmed as performers
and non-performance carry the
same accreditation status – i.e.
either provisional or full
Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee P
The responses from Interviewee P focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems for providers and ETQAs, provider capacity,
industry specifications and requirements, peer review mechanisms, maturity status validation and
industry validation.
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Analysis – Interviewee Q – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee Q.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging Concepts from semi-structure interview Q
A Accreditation
1 Best practices
2 Delivery solutions
3 Integrated assessments
4 Measurement of impact on business
5 Productivity
6 Quality
B External moderation
1 Systematic approach and model
2 Capacity and expertise of moderators
3 Upfront moderation
4 Industry measures
5 Best practices
Emerging concepts – Interviewee Q
Sixconcepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee Q,
for accreditation, and a further five concepts developed in relation to external moderation. .
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When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview Q) - Accreditation
Delivery solutions Industry specifications and requirements - programme delivery;
provider capacity
Industry needs Industry specifications and requirements
Quality Quality Management Systems
Certification Market demand and barriers to entry; industry specifications and
requirements - assessment strategy
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee Q
Emerging concepts Emerging Categories (Interview Q) – External moderation
Benchmarking Quality Management Systems
Certification Industry specifications and requirements - assessment strategy
Communication Communication strategy
Benchmarking Maturity status validation; industry validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - IntervieweeQ
The responses from Interviewee Q focused on the importance of compliance with maturity status
validation, Quality Management Systems for providers and ETQAs, provider capacity, industry
specifications and requirements, communication strategy and requirements and market demand
and barriers to entry.
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Analysis – Interviewee R – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee R.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview R
A Accreditation
1 Quality
2 Management
3 Standard/benchmark
4 Learner-centred
5 Onerous
6 Slow
7 Time-consuming
8 Subjective
9 Manipulative
10 Frustrating
11 Expensive
12 Exclusionary
B External moderation
1 Monitoring
2 Process
3 Equality
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Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview R
A Accreditation
4 Too late in the process (EM)
5 Non-comprehensive (EM)
6 Certification (EM)
7 Delaying (EM)
8 Subjective (EM)
9 Manipulatible (EM)
10 Necessary (EM)
Emerging concepts – Interviewee R
Twelve concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee
R, for accreditation,and a further ten concepts for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview R) - Accreditation
Quality Management
Systems
Quality Management Systems
Personnel Provider capacity
Learning
material/programme(s)
Industry specifications and requirements - programme delivery;
provider capacity
Logistics Provider capacity
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee R
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview R) – External moderation
Process Quality Management Systems
POE file review Peer review mechanisms
Techno-legal issues Industry validation
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Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview R) – External moderation
Internal
assessment/moderation
Industry validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories – Interviewee R
The responses from Interviewee R focused on the importance of compliance with Quality
Management Systems for providers and ETQAs, provider capacity, industry validation, peer review
mechanisms and industry specifications and requirements.
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Analysis – Interviewee S – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee S.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structure interview S
A Accreditation
1 Learner protection
2 Set standards must be met
3 Overkill on paper and administration
4 Predetermined quality standards
5 Costly to maintain qualified staff
B External moderation
1 Leads to certification
2 Costly
3 Internal and external process
4 ETQAs are a frustration
Emerging concepts – Interviewee S
Fiveconcepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee S,
for accreditation,and a further four concepts for external moderation.
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When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview S) - Accreditation
Learner protection Quality Management Systems
Overkill on paper and
administration
Industry specifications and requirements
Set standards must be met Market demand and barriers to entry; industry specifications and
requirements - assessment strategy
Predetermined quality
standards
Quality Management Systems
Costly to maintain
qualified staff
Provider capacity
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee S
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview S) – External moderation
Leads to certification Quality Management Systems
Costly Industry validation
Internal and external
process
Maturity status validation
ETQAs are a frustration Industry validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee S
The responses from Interviewee S focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, provider capacity, Quality Management Systems for providers and ETQAsand
industry specifications and requirements.
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Analysis – Interviewee T – Semi-structured interview
The open-coding methodology allowed for the emergence of concepts, categories and themes
during the interview with Interviewee T.
The responses from this interviewee focused on the role of ODETD practitioners, their personal
experience and how it relates to the knowledge, insight and skill of the ODETD practitioner;
furthermore, how the ODETD practitioner views the current accreditation and external
moderation frameworks within the occupationally directed education and training sector.
From this analysis it is evident that the concepts presented in the table below emerged during the
interview:
Emerging concepts from semi-structured interview T
A Accreditation
1 Integrity
2 Reputational importance
3 Public perception not education system
4 Regulatory framework
5 Societal structure – people vote with their feet
6 Institutional history
7 Societal accreditation – the products do something worthwhile
8 FET accredited, the state building them and giving them a building. The product
produced is substandard - accreditation is not a formula to access funding – it has a
place but we must build on historical reputation
9 When the SETA started, they did the same – impact assessment must be done –
national body must do this. Society is the nationalbody - in the USA the ivy league
universities produce social benefit
10 Credibility in the system
B External moderation
1 Credibility
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58: Emerging concepts – Interviewee T
Ten concepts developed during the analysis of the transcript of the interview with Interviewee T,
for accreditation,and a further one concept for external moderation.
When analysing the relationship of these concepts to each other it is possible to cluster some of
the categories together as is evident in the tables below:
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview T) - Accreditation
Regulatory framework Quality Management Systems
Integrity Industry specifications and requirements
Institutional history Provider capacity
Credibility in the system Market demand and barriers to entry
Clustering of emerging accreditation categories - Interviewee T
Emerging concepts Emerging categories (Interview T) – External moderation
Credibility Quality Management Systems
Credibility Peer review mechanisms
Credibility Industry validation
Credibility Maturity status validation
Clustering of emerging external moderation categories - Interviewee T
The responses from Interviewee T focused on the importance of compliance with market demand
and barriers to entry, Quality Management Systems for providers and ETQAs, provider capacity,
industry specifications and requirements, peer review mechanisms, maturity status validation and
industry validation.
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13. Appendix D– Thedesktop evaluation of 250 accreditation and 250
external moderation reports
The desktop evaluation of 250 accreditation reports.
Criteria Elaboration Number
compliant
Number
non –
complaint
Policy Statement The organization’s aims, objectives and purposes need to be spelt out.
246 4
Quality management systems
Identify processes and outline procedures that implement quality management in the organisations.
231 19
Review mechanisms Outline the ways in which the implementation of policies would be monitored.
197 53
Programme delivery Outline how learning programmes would be developed, delivered and evaluated.
169 81
Staff policies Outline policies and procedures for staff selection, appraisal, and development.
203 47
Learner policies Policies and procedures for the selection of learners are outlined, and learners are given guidance and support.
241 09
Assessment policies Outline policies and procedures for forms of assessments that are used and how they are managed.
237 13
Management system and policies
Indicate the financial, administrative and physical structures and resources of the organisations, as well as procedures of accountability within the organisations.
219 31
Desktop research of accreditation reports
Criterion 1: Policy Statement
Providers have generally met the requirements for criterion 1 and have been in a position to
articulate their aims, objectives and purpose as specified by SAQA. 246 providers were compliant
and 4 providers were noted as non-compliant. Providers that were non-compliant were poorly
prepared all round and failed to meet the majority of the specified SAQA 8 core criteria.
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The concept which emerged from evaluating criterion 1 from the 250-accreditation reports is
recorded as:
i. Providers comply with criterion 1, but it does not validate the provider’s capacity to deliver
quality occupationally directed education and training.
Criterion 2: Quality Management Systems
The majority of providers have observed the SAQA specified minimum compliance criteria for QMS
development. Providers have been in a position to identify processes and outline procedures that
implement quality management. 231 providers were compliant and 19 providers were noted as
non-compliant. Providers that were non-compliant were poorly prepared all round and failed to
meet the majority of the specified SAQA 8 core criteria.
The provider’s QMS is considered an integrated and holistic blueprint. A number of free ETQA
QMS templates are available online. Occupationally directed education consultants sell the
modified QMS adapted template to providers. It appears that the availability of standard
templates have been beneficial to providers.
SAQA provides guidelines for the development of the provider QMS in the Quality Management
Systems for education and training providers, approved as a guideline document (SAQA; 2001).
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating criterion 2 from the 250accreditation reports,are
recorded as:
i. Established providers (providers with a proven record of accomplishment for delivery and
assessment excellence) have a greater sense of the value proposition offered by a functional
QMS in relation to operational and strategic excellence;
ii. The QMS is poorly defined and misunderstood by emerging providers;
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iii. The QMS is dealt with as a compliance requirement as opposed to a framework for quality
management and validation of the emerging occupationally directed training provider’s
operations;
iv. Limited supporting policies and procedures have been developed to inform the QMS
framework of emerging providers;
v. A “one-size-fits-all” approach is evident in the evaluation of established and emerging
providers by ETQAs. The compliance measurement fails to validate the bespoke requirements
of provider operations and measures a generic minimum standard of compliance.
Criterion 3: Review mechanisms
Providers seeking accreditation must present a framework for the use of policies and offer
confirmation of how said policies will be monitored, researched, audited and/or reviewed and
indicate how often this will be done. Providers may articulate compliance in relation to external
evaluations, the use of internal moderators, the provider’s internal review and monitoring
systems, assessments, employee performance reviews, research and auditing processes.
197 providers were compliant and 53 providers were noted as non-compliant. Providers that were
non-compliant largely fell short on adequately addressing external review mechanism and how
said criteria would be complied with.
The concepts that emerged from evaluating criterion 3 from the 250 accreditation reportsare
recorded as:
i. Evaluators rely on the minimum specified the standards for provider QMS policy statement
compliance. Providers are required to confirm their willingness to implement review practices
as a central theme. Limited supporting policies and procedures have been referenced in
support of operational process validation.
ii. Providers are not evaluated in relation to their capacity to conduct internal or external review
processes and resulting remedial activities, but rather on a policy statement committing to
comply with said activity.
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iii. No validations or confirmations of independent review processes are required from the
provider. Providers are required to articulate commitment without presenting tangible
evidence of capacity to implement and monitor review activities.
Criterion 4: Programme delivery
SAQA requires a provider to outline how learning programmes are developed, delivered and
evaluated. 169 providers were compliant and 81 providers were noted as non-compliant.
Providers that were non-compliant largely fell short on providing the following documentation in
the appropriate format in relation to programme evaluation as opposed to policy compliance:
i. Learner guides
ii. Assessment guides
iii. Moderation guides
iv. Facilitator guides
v. Structured curricula
vi. Model answer guides
vii. Alignment matrices
viii. Notional hour compliance matrices
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating criterion 4 from the 250accreditation reports,are
recorded as:
i. Established providers (providers with a proven record of accomplishment for delivery and
assessment excellence) invest significant resources into the development of innovative and
market differential programmes;
ii. Emerging providers rely on buying off-the-shelf training material and curricula construct
solutions that fail to measure the provider’s capacity to deliver a specific programme;
iii. Emerging providers have a limited understanding of programme delivery strategies and
curriculum design, and are not in a position to validate compliance of the purchased
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solutions. Emerging providers also do not have a proper understanding of the range of
compliance documentation required (as listed above);
iv. Emerging providers make use of ETD consultants in the majority of instances where
programme approval / accreditation were recommended;
v. Emerging providers have a limited understanding of the importance of lifelong learning and
residual NQF principles that should inform their delivery ethos and methodology;
vi. Emerging providers are ill-equipped to prepare workplace delivery and assessment
constructs.
Criterion 5: Staff policies
SAQA requires providers to outline the policies and procedures for staff selection, appraisal and
development.Providers are required to provide evidence that their staff members are competent
in their positions as facilitators. Assessment of competence to NQF principles must also be
demonstrated.
203 providers were compliant and 47 providers were noted as non-compliant. Providers that were
non-compliant largely fell short on providing sufficient information regarding assessors and
moderators and, in limited instances, facilitators that would be utilised to implement programmes
in the organisation.
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating criterion 5 from the 250 accreditation reports,are
recorded as:
i. Emerging providers contract independent consultants in the majority of instances to
demonstrate internal capacity;
ii. A significant number of the same consultants have been contracted as facilitators, assessors
and moderators. The capacities of the consultants to realistically perform professional
services for the extended number of providers are questionable;
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iii. Providers are not limited to the number of programmes they are able to offer, irrespective of
size or capacity. The only obvious criterion is that a constituent assessor and moderator have
been contracted;
iv. Limited emphasis is placed on administrative and academic staffing requirements in relation
to provider capacity validation;
v. Continued professional development of full and part-time capacity is not measured;
• Employment equity and transformational processes of compliance are not measured;
• Performance measurement is only validated in relation to a developed policy, and no
meaningful engagements with performance processes are validated.
Criterion 6: Learner policies
Policies and procedures for the selection of learners are outlined, and learners are given guidance
and support.
Learner policies include the selection of learners, the extent to which their needs are met and
what support and guidance they are given. 241 providers were compliant and 9 providers were
noted as non-compliant. Providers that were non-compliant largely fell short on providing
sufficient information regarding learner entry guidance and support within their organisation.
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating criterion 6 from the 250accreditation reports,are
recorded as:
i. Providers have opted for a generic set of compliance policies that articulate a learner-
centeredness approach;
ii. Providers largely confirm an open access approach to learner enrolments in line with the
specified requirements in the unit standard and/or qualification;
iii. Emerging providers make use of a generic learner grievance procedure and disciplinary
code;
iv. Emerging providers offer limited opportunity for learner engagement and representation,
including student councils, alumni programmes etc.
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v. Providers are generally extremely cautious to commit to learner support in excess of the
minimum compliance requirements;
vi. Limited internal provider performance criteria and processes are available to validate
learner support.
Criterion 7: Assessment policies
These outline the policies and procedures for the forms of assessment used and how they are
managed.Assessment policies include assessment practices applied by the provider. 237 providers
were compliant and 13 providers were noted as non-compliant. Providers that were non-
compliant generally failed to adequately address assessment and moderation processes and
practices.
Assessment policies describe the approaches that are used by an organisation in its assessment
practices. For example, are assessment approaches mainly examination-based? Do assessment
policies recognise principles of lifelong learning, recognition of prior learning and integration of
theory and practice? Are assessment policies informed by understandings of notions of failure and
deficits or do they work in developmental, supportive and continuous ways? As such, assessment
policies need to indicate what approach the organisation adopts with regard to assessment and
whether this approach is in line with NQF principles.
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating criterion 7 from the 250accreditation reports,are
recorded as:
i. The majority of providers’ assessment and moderation capacity is contracted out;
ii. Emerging providers have limited understanding of assessment and moderation requirements
outside of the context of standard policies and procedures;
iii. Workplace-based practical competence assessments pose the greatest challenge to emerging
providers;
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iv. The majority of unit-standard-based providers (not offering full qualifications) do not intend
to assess learners, and require the accreditation statussimply to allow their clients to claim
back on their Annual Training Report.
v. Emerging providers lack internal capacity to deliver and administer assessment and
moderation activities and develop coherent assessment strategies.
vi. Providers are evaluated against their QMS policy statements and assessment and moderation
policies. The actual capacity to deliver adequate assessment processes horizontally, in
relation to knowledge and skill, and vertically, including being able to implement and measure
the integration of practical, foundational and reflexive competence, is measured ineffectually.
Criterion 8: Management system andpolicies
The provider must provide evidence of managerial capacity of the provider to carry out its
functions. The provider would need to indicate their capacity to deliver the programme effectively
and efficiently and in an accountable manner. 219 providers were compliant and 31 providers
were noted as non-compliant. Providers that were non-compliant generally failed to adequately
address required management processes and practices.
Providers are required to indicate the financial, administrative and physical resources of the
organisation, as well as procedures of accountability within the organisation.
SAQA acknowledges that provider capacity differs significantly. The SAQA Criteria and Guidelines
for providers reference diverse types of providers, i.e. ‘delivery only site’,‘assessment only site’,
and ‘delivery and assessment site’. SAQA also references there are SMME providers and their
particular needs and elevated support requirements. The reality is however that ETQAs have dealt
poorly with the various categories of providers identified by SAQA and have made little allowance
for the unique support requirements of emerging and SMME providers.
Desktop evaluation of accreditation reports: - Emerging concepts, categories and themes:
Themes Category 1 Policy statement
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i. Market demand and
barriers to entry /
ii. Quality Management
Systems
iii. Industry Specification and
Requirements
Concepts:
i. Providers comply with criterion 1, but it does not validate the provider’s capacity to deliver quality occupationally directed education and training.
Themes Category 2 Quality Management Systems
i. Quality Management
Systems
ii. Market demand and
barriers to entry
iii. Industry specifications and
requirements
Concepts:
i. Established providers (providers with a proven record of accomplishment for delivery and assessment excellence) have a greater sense of the value proposition offered by a functional QMS in relation to operational and strategic excellence;
ii. The QMS is poorly defined and understood by emerging providers; iii. The QMS is dealt with as a compliance requirement as opposed to
a framework for quality management and validation of the emerging occupationally directed training provider’s operations;
iv. Limited supporting policies and procedures have been developed to inform the QMS frameworks of emerging providers;
v. A “one-size-fits-all” approach is evident in the evaluation of established and emerging providers by ETQAs. The compliance measurement fails to validate the bespoke requirements of providers’ operations and measures a generic minimum standard of compliance.
Themes Category 3: Review mechanisms
i. Quality Management
Systems
ii. Industry specifications and
requirements
Concepts:
i. Evaluators rely on the minimum specified standards for provider QMS policy statement compliance. Providers are required to confirm their willingness to implement review practices as a central theme;
ii. Limited supporting policies and procedures have been referenced in support of operational process validation;
iii. Providers are not evaluated in relation to their capacity to conduct internal or external review processes and resulting remedial activities, but rather on a policy statement committing to comply with said activity;
iv. No validations or confirmations of independent review processes are required from the provider. Providers are required to articulate commitment without presenting tangible evidence of capacity to implement and monitor review activities.
Themes Category 4: Programme delivery
i. Provider capacity /
performance
ii. Quality Management
Systems
Concepts:
i. Established providers (providers with a proven record of accomplishment for delivery and assessment excellence) invest significant resources into the development of innovative and
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iii. Market demand and
barriers to entry
iv. Industry specifications and
requirements
market differential programmes; ii. Emerging providers rely on buying off-the-shelf training material
and curriculum construct solutions that fail to measure the providers’ capacity to deliver a specific programme;
iii. Emerging providers have a limited understanding of programme delivery strategies and curriculum design, and are not in a position to validate compliance of the purchased solutions. Emerging providers also do not have a proper understanding of the range of compliance documentation required;
iv. Emerging providers make use of ETD consultants in the majority of instances where programme approval / accreditation was recommended;
v. Emerging providers have a limited understanding of the importance of lifelong learning and residual NQF principles that should inform their delivery ethos and methodology;
vi. Emerging providers are ill-equipped to prepare workplace delivery and assessment constructs.
Themes Category 5: Staff policies
i. Provider capacity /
performance
ii. Quality Management
Systems
iii. Market demand and
barriers to entry
iv. Industry specifications and
requirements
Concepts:
i. Emerging providers contract independent consultants in the majority of instances to demonstrate internal capacity;
ii. A significant number of the same consultants have been contracted as facilitators, assessors and moderators. The capacities of the consultants to realistically perform professional services for the extended number of providers are questionable;
iii. Providers are not limited to the number of programmes they are able to offer, irrespective of size or capacity. The only obvious criterion is that a constituent assessor and moderator have been contracted;
iv. Limited emphasis is placed on administrative and academic staffing requirements in relation to provider capacity validation;
v. Continued professional development of full and part-time capacity is not measured;
vi. Employment equity and transformational processes of compliance are not measured;
vii. Performance measurement is only validated in relation to a developed policy, and no meaningful engagements with performance processes are validated.
Themes Category 6: Learner policies
i. Provider capacity /
performance
ii. Quality Management
Systems
iii. Market demand and
barriers to entry
iv. Industry specifications
and requirements
Concepts:
i. Providers have opted for a generic set of compliance policies that articulate a learner-centeredness approach;
ii. Providers largely confirm an open-access approach to learner enrolments in line with the specified requirements in the unit standard or qualifications;
iii. Emerging providers make use of a generic learner grievance procedure and disciplinary code;
iv. Emerging providers offer limited opportunity for learner engagement and representation as articulated, including student councils, alumni programmes etc;
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v. Providers are generally extremely cautious to commit to learner support in excess of the minimum compliance requirements;
vi. Limited internal provider performance criteria and processes are available to validate learner support.
Themes Category 7: Assessment policies
i. Quality Management
Systems
ii. Provider capacity /
performance
iii. Industry specifications and
requirements
Concepts:
i. The themes which emerged from evaluating 250 accreditation reports can be defined as follows:
ii. The majority of providers assessment and moderation capacity is contracted out;
iii. Emerging providers have limited understanding of assessment and moderation requirements outside of the context of standard policies and procedures;
iv. Workplace-based practical competence assessments pose the greatest challenge to emerging providers;
v. The majority of unit-standard-based providers (not offering full qualifications) do not intend to assess learners, and require the accreditation status simply to allow their clients to claim back on their Annual Training Report;
vi. Emerging providers lack internal capacity to deliver and administer assessment and moderation activities and develop coherent assessment strategies;
vii. Providers are evaluated against their QMS policy statements and assessment and moderation policies. The actual capacity to deliver adequate assessment processes horizontally, in relation to knowledge and skill, and vertically, including being able to implement and measure the integration of practical, foundational and reflexive competence, is measured ineffectually.
Themes Category 8: Management system and policies
i. Quality Management
Systems
ii. Market demand and
barriers to entry
iii. Provider capacity /
performance
iv. Industry specifications
and requirements
Concepts:
i. Providers are not adequately measured in relation to their
sustainability and ability to deliver against the programmes they are registered for;
ii. Providers are required to present a tax clearance certificate, proof of being a legal entity and letter from an accountant / bank manager to validate financial viability. Providers are required to present a business plan and five-year budget projection. No strategic context is offered by the provider in relation to capacity to deliver;
iii. Providers contract venue space and produce a letter from a hotel or conferencecentre to confirm that they have available venues for hire. No physical on-site inspection of the proposed delivery sites are undertaken to validate OHSA compliance;
iv. Third party insurance is viewed by most ETQAs as a nice to have, as opposed to a necessity to protect learners and corporate clients;
v. DHET requires surety validation to secure learner fees for providers that offer full qualifications above NQF level 1. No requirement exists for providers that are not required to register with DHET to
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confirm that learner fees are held in trust or that a surety is available to secure learner fees.
vi. Provider’s administrative capacity to report on learner achievements and keep adequate records is evaluated in a cursory manner, with no meaningful capacity validation;
vii. OHSA compliance is only evaluated by DHET in most instances. Certain industries have insisted from a professional body requirement that an OHSA certificate is available on site;
viii. Limited differentiation is made by ETQAs to address the various categories of providers as identified by SAQA. No inimitable compliance standards / guidelines are evidenced to assist providers in opting for identified SAQA permutations of delivery.
Themes emergingfrom desktop evaluation of accreditation reports
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Desktop research of external moderation reports
The results depicted below represent the responses provided and extracted from the desktop
reports. The themes discussed below resulted as a consequence of the interpretation by the
researcher of the data reflected in the external moderation reports of providers.
Criteria Number of
compliant
instances
Number of non–-
compliant
instances
Checking that the systems required to support the provision of
learning programmes across the institution/learning site are
appropriate and working effectively
244 6
Providing advice and guidance to providers 197 53
Maintaining an overview of provision across providers 244 6
Checking that all the staff involved in assessment are
appropriately qualified and experienced
246 4
Checking the credibility of assessment methods and
instruments
241 9
Checking internal moderation systems 244 6
Thorough sampling, monitoring and observing of assessment
processes and learners’ evidence to ensure consistency across
providers.
244 6
Checking assessors’ decisions
244 6
Desktop research of external moderation reports
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating the 250 external moderation reports, can be
recorded as follows:
i. Providers are not adequately measured in relation to their sustainability and ability to deliver
against the programmes they are registered for;
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ii. Providers are required to present a tax clearance certificate, proof of being a legal entity and
a letter from an accountant / bank manager to validate financial viability. Providers are
required to present a business plan and five-year budget projection. No strategic context is
offered by the provider in relation to capacity to deliver;
iii. Providers contract venue space and produce a letter from a hotel or conferencecentre to
confirm that they have available venues for hire. No physical on-site inspection of the
proposed delivery sites are undertaken to validate OHSA compliance;
a. Third party insurance is viewed by most ETQAs as a nice to have, as opposed to a necessity to
protect learners and corporate clients;
iv. DHET requires surety validation to secure learner fees for providers that offer full
qualifications above NQF level 1. No requirement exists for providers that are not required to
register with DHET to confirm that learner fees are held in trust, or that a surety is available to
secure learner fees.
a. Provider’s administrative capacity to report on learner achievements and keep adequate
records is evaluated in a cursory manner, with no meaningful capacity validation;
b. OHSA compliance is only evaluated by DHET in most instances. Certain industries have
insisted from a professional body requirement that an OHSA certificate is available on site;
v. Limited differentiation is made by ETQAs to address the various categories of providers as
identified by SAQA. No inimitable compliance standards / guidelines are evidenced to assist
providers in opting for identified SAQA permutations of delivery.
Categories and concepts developed from the desktop evaluation of the 250 external moderation
reports:
The results depicted below represent the responses provided and extracted from the evaluation of
desktop reports in a case study format of the specified SAQA external moderation criteria. The
SAQA “Criteria and Guidelines for Assessment of NQF Registered Unit standards and
Qualifications” specify the required compliance requirements for internal and external
moderation. The desktop evaluation of reports confirmed that providers are able to exit learners
with significant success.
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Providers that failed to receive endorsement for their learner achievements during the external
moderation process fell short in the validation and collection evidence of skills application as
required and specified in the exit level outcomes of a specific qualification.
Providers are able to submit a remedial plan and remedy the shortfalls in the collected
evidence,which is then subjected to a further external moderation activity. ETQAs may institute
de-accreditation proceedings against providers that have failed to address required remedial
action.
Criterion 1: The systems required supporting the provision of learning programmes
acrosstheinstitution/learning site are appropriate and working effectively.
Criterion 1 requires confirmation that the provider’s systems required to support the provision of
learning programmes across the institution/learning site/s are appropriate and working
effectively. This criterion is subjective and unless regular monitoring is undertaken by the
respective ETQA, it is not possible to adequately determine adequate learning programme support
in isolation of unregulated learner and facilitator feedback forms that may or may not be
authentic. 244 providers were compliant and 6 providers were non-compliant.
The concepts that emerged from evaluating criterion 1 from the 250 external moderation reports
are recorded as:
i. Limited validation systems exist to measure the support of provision of learning across
institutions. Established providers have developed sophisticated systems to validate
compliance as they are required to report to DHET.
ii. Where providers are not required to report to DHET this criterion is inadequately managed
and evaluated.
iii. Limited value is placed by most ETQAs on provider record of accomplishment to measure
the support of provision of learning across institutions.
iv. No differentiation is made between established and emerging providers. No delineation is
made in relation to the required support and monitoring dimensions for each category of
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provider during delivery, assessment and moderation processes, to measure the support of
provision of learning across institutions.
v. Limited industry validation / involvement is evident during delivery, assessment and
moderation processes, to measure the support of provision of learning across institutions
operating in respective industries.
Criterion 2: Providing advice and guidance toproviders
Criterion 2 requires confirmation that external moderators and the relevant ETQA provide advice
and guidance to providers. 197 providers received advice in their reports whilst fifty-three 53
providers did not receive any meaningful advice and guidance in their external moderation
reports. ETQAs have done little to institute CPD activities and a structured process to provide
advice and guidance to providers.
No ETQAs measured have instituted a voluntary or mandatory mentoring programme for
emerging / new providers. No level of differentiation is noticeable in relation to established and
emerging / new providers.
External moderation should not be considered a policing activity but rather an activity to ensure
support and consistent achievement of predetermined criteria. The process should be enabling
and not punitive in nature. Very little pre-emptive preparation and limited advice and guidance
was noticeable in the content of external moderation reports. Findings in some instances were not
validated and the reports merely served as a tick-box exercise for some external moderators.
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating criterion 2 from the 250 external moderation
reports,are recorded as:
i. Limited if any meaningful support and guidance is offered to providers during the external
moderation process by ETQAs.
ii. Most ETQAs have applied a punitive, as opposed to an enabling and supportive, environment
for delivery and assessment practice.
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iii. Limited CPD activities are undertaken by ETQAs as a pre-emptive measure to enhance
provider capacity and excellence in assessment and moderation practice.
iv. Established and emerging providers are subject to the same systems bureaucracy and
administrative delays in most instances. Limited ETQAs (e.g. ETDP SETA) have explored
alternative trust recognition models to streamline certification processes.
v. No formally defined and resourced mentoring system exists for emerging providers.
Criterion 3: Maintaining an overview of provision acrossproviders
Criterion 3 requires confirmation of an overview of provision across providers. Limited official
research is available to determine if ETQAs have maintained an overview of provision across
providers. The NLRD reporting requirements and SETA annual reports appear to provide only a
general summary in a numerical context with limited empirical validation.
244 providers were compliant and 6 providers were non-compliant in relation to external
moderation endorsement. The measure applied is “consistent standards and interpretations were
applied when endorsing or rejecting assessment” and internal moderation reports and the quality
and standard of provision across providers should be addressed once the QCTO national
assessments for occupational qualification endorsement are introduced.
The Services SETA implemented a national assessment across its qualifications, commonly referred
to as the Final Summative Assessment for qualifications at NQF 4 and above. The assessment was
a standard assessment administered where possible by professional bodies or certification
partners. The system became extremely cumbersome and costly and was eventually abandoned.
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating criterion 3 from the 250 external moderation
reports, can be defined as follows:
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i. No empirical research data is available to provide an informed perspective on comparable
delivery across providers. ETQAs have limited data available to inform compliance
standards.
ii. SAQA reporting related squarely to the NLRD process, with little other tangible data. DHET
has resorted to compelling providers to report to them directly as a secondary performance
measurement.
iii. Peer review mechanisms are not operational within the occupationally directed realm.
Comparative performance reviews are limited to provider monitoring reports completed as
a tick-box compliance requirement.
Criterion 4: Confirmation of staff involved in assessment as appropriately qualified and
experienced
Limited information is extracted during external moderation activities in relation to management,
facilitators and administrative staff. The current external moderation system appears to be
focused on confirming that assessors and moderators are constituently registered with their
relevant ETQA. Inadequate measurement of a provider capacity to deliver teaching and
assessment activities are validated in relation to the prerequisite qualifications or experience
required from staff, as would be the case with the CHE.
Reference must be made to ETQA staff and their respective qualifications and industry experience
that should be commensurate to the level of imposition required from an academically run
institution. Qualified and experienced staff must be available. A number of SETAs are extensively
reliant on the services of consultants, due to the lack of basic skills sets.
246 providers were compliant and 4 providers were non-compliant in relation to external
moderation endorsement.
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The concepts, which emerged from evaluating criterion 4 from the 250 external moderation
reportsare recorded as:
i. The majority of facilitation, assessment and moderation staff is independent contractors.
ii. No additional requirement in the absence of constituent registration as an assessor and
moderator is of any relevance in the performance measurement of this criterion of said
practitioners.
iii. Validation of the capacity of provider facilitator, management and administrative capacity is
inadequately measured.
iv. No performance measurement criteria, bar assessment and moderation activity performance,
is evaluated. Capacity development and performance compliance is largely ignored by
providers and ETQAs.
v. Limited accountability measures have been instituted for assessors, moderators and
facilitators. Some ETQAs now require providers make a signed service level agreement and
code of conduct available to demonstrate compliance.
Criterion 5: Checking the credibility of assessment methods and instruments
241 providers were compliant and 9 providers were non-compliant in relation to external
moderation endorsement. The major challenge experienced by providers in this criterion related
to workplace assessment instrument application.
i. Theoretically, all assessment strategies and instruments are vetted during the provider’s
programme approval phase. Providers are however subjected to external moderators that are
not constituently registered and approve instruments that clearly should not have been
approved in the first place. A number of ETQAs have resorted to supplying assessment
instruments and model answer guides for programmes that will be implemented as
learnerships, to avoid challenges at a later stage.
ii. Certain ETQAs such as with FoodBev SETA have implemented a supervised assessment and
moderation process to ensure a structured mentoring process for optimal quality standards.
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iii. SAQA audits are conducted on an ad-hoc basis in relation to general performance criteria. In
the absence of a structured peer review process that contains the regulator and industry
experts it is the opinion of the researcher that the reliance on external moderators to
complete, in some instances, three external moderation activities per day for three different
providers, poses a number of quality challenges.
iv. ETQAs should do considerably more to regularly monitor the credibility of assessment
methods and instruments of providers. It is further inconceivable that the opinions of
regulators e.g. individuals at SAQA and any specific ETQA are open to their exclusive
interpretation in the absence of clear and uniform guidelines. The researcher has had
personal experience where individuals at both SAQA and ETQAs have interpreted and made
pronouncements and have unilaterally made pronouncements on topics such as primary
focus, deviations from assessor and moderation registration criteria published in
qualifications and qualifications rules, that has left the researcher astounded.
The lack of consultative forums and valid appeal platforms for provider, assessor, moderator and
learner representation in the validation of assessment and moderation processes is of great
concern to the researcher. Administrators should be adequately qualified and guidelines should be
clear and uniformly applied.
The CHE and Umalusi are, in the opinion of the researcher, light years ahead of any other ETQA.
This may well be because of the academic validity they offer and the level of professional
accountability they enjoy. Key to the success of both of the aforementioned intuitions is the
unwavering commitment to quality of education and unrelenting confirmation of compliance with
policy requirements.
The researcher has experienced the frustrations echoed by research participants relating to the
diverse and often unfair treatment by occupationally directed ETQAs that fail to conform to any
comprehensible standard and uniform fairness. Numerous research participants have elected to
operate in specific sector ETQAs to avoid subjected and anticipated delays and frustrations.
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i. The QCTO will bring a number of uniform standards. The proliferation of ETQAs across
SETAs is incomprehensible.
ii. The concepts which emerged from evaluating Criterion 5 from the 250 external moderation
reports can be defined as follows:
iii. Inconsistent levels of performance by evaluators and ETQA staff.
iv. The lack of Industry input in the assessment and moderation design, especially by
professional bodies, influences the credibility of the achieved programme.
v. Assessment and moderation practices must be supported by ETQAs as opposed to being
implemented as a punitive process of compliance.
vi. All providers, irrespective of record of accomplishment and performance measure, are
supported in the same way. Providers with a proven credible record of accomplishment are
subjected to the same arbitrary performance measurements and bureaucratic processes to
exit learners. No communities of trust are evident in most ETQAs.
Criterion 6: Internal moderation systems
The importance of a credible and evolving internal moderation system cannot be overstated.
Pivotal to the quality monitoring of internal assessment and moderation practices is the reliance
on a valid internal moderation system. Providers often contract assessment and moderation
capacity. The challenge experienced in this process is that assessors and moderators are often
contracted after the fact, and are not part of the planning or implementation phase.
244 providers were compliant and 6 providers were non-compliant in relation to external
moderation endorsement.
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating Criterion 6 from the 250 external moderation
reports,are recorded as:
i. The performance levels of experienced internal moderator/s and assessor/s (contracted or
not) is a more reliable indicator of probable success, as opposed to the level of performance
and record of accomplishment of the provider.
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ii. Internal moderators that have experience as external moderators perform significantly
better. The performances of internal moderators are linked to an in-depth understanding of
compliance requirements and having streamlined assessment and moderation processes.
iii. Providers that use experienced assessors and moderators have a significantly higher success
rate in assessment and moderation practice validation by an ETQA.
Criterion 7: Monitoring and observing assessment processes and learners’ evidence to ensure
consistency across providers
ETQAs have varying standards and percentages that are required for internal and external
moderations. The ETDP SETA requires 10% internal moderation, whilst TETA requires 20% and
SSETA 25%. External moderation requirements also vary across ETQAs. Remarkably the
moderation process is not based on a system of credibility and record of accomplishment across
providers or experience of assessors and moderators, but rather on an arbitrary percentage
registered with SAQA.
Monitoring activities are undertaken by ETQAs as a compliance requirement and varies across
ETQAs in application and frequency. The QCTO has a planned construct of reliance on professional
bodies conducting monitoring activities across specific qualifications for validation and consistency
of assessment practice. Remarkably no system of peer review forms part of the monitoring
construct. The more evolved Umalusi and CHE processes have a strong impetus on professional
practitioner input.
244 providers were compliant and 6 providers were non-compliant in relation to external
moderation endorsement.
The concepts, which emerged from evaluating Criterion 7 from the 250 external moderation
reports,are recorded as:
i. Consistency of assessment and moderation practice across providers is dependent on the
level of performance by practitioners.
ii. No peer review process is available to inform variances in performance practice.
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Criterion 8: Checking assessors’ decisions
External moderation focuses on the validation of assessment decisions by constituent assessors as
endorsed by internal moderator/s. Assessors are required to confirm that the evidence presented
by the learners comply with the principles of Validity, Authenticity, Reliability, Currency and
Sufficiency (VARCS). In the experience of the researcher, the issues of non-compliance in most
instances involve the deficiency of workplace / skills application.
244 providers were compliant and 6 providers were non-compliant in relation to external
moderation endorsement.
The categories, which emerged from evaluating Criterion 8 from the 250 external moderation
reports,are recorded as:
i. Some providers experience challenges when applying workplace assessments.
ii. Assessors and moderators that have limited industry experience, have better VARCS success
when mentored by an experienced assessor and/ormoderator.
iii. The SAQA guidelines on assessment are interpreted differently by various ETQAs.
Conclusion
Providers that have successfully navigated the accreditation system have largely been able to
successfully comply with external moderation requirements. The current SAQA informed external
moderation process does not appear to be consistently applied by all ETQAs.
Varying percentages for internal and external moderation, inconsistent confirmation of industry
credibility of external moderators and inadequate qualified administrators are major challenges
that must be addressed in the new QCTO framework. A number of SAQA administrators and
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historic SAQA consultants have been contracted to perform the preparation of the QCTO
framework.
The lack of CPD activities for constituently registered assessors and moderators, and the distinctly
restricted involvement of industry and professional bodies to monitor quality and industry
standards, are of particular concern.
A common set of standards and guidelines that are clear and transparent and which includes
industry involvement is of paramount importance in formulating a credible and valid external
moderation system.
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Themes from the desktop evaluation of external moderation reports
The themes discussed below resulted as a consequence of the interpretation by the researcher of
the data reflected in the external moderation reports of providers. Providers cannot exit learners if
their external moderation activity has not been upheld by the ETQA.
External moderators (verifiers) conduct an external moderation visit and make a recommendation
to the ETQA to uphold or reject provider assessment and moderation results.
The research findings emerging from the desktop evaluation of external moderation reports
should contribute towards the development of a proposed quality assurance and external
moderation framework. The reports evaluated confirmed that 244 external moderation activities
upheld assessment and moderation practices and 6 activities rejected the assessment and
moderation results submitted by providers.
Common themes
The researcher has clustered the common theme categories into the following four logical themes:
i. Maturity status validation
ii. Quality Management Systems
iii. Provider capacity / performance
iv. ETQA capacity / processes
The researcher has clustered the categories into four logical themes as laid out below:
� Theme 1: The importance of Quality Management Systems in assisting providers to deliver
satisfactory levels of performance as related to both accreditation and external moderation in
the occupationally directed education and training environment.
� Theme 2: The potential negative impact on the quality processes and operations of providers
as a result of the limited capacity of ETQAs (capacity / processes) within the occupationally
directed education and training environment.
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� Theme 3: The importance of determining and validating provider capacity / performance
prior to awarding accreditation and programme approval status.
� Theme 4: The need for providers to be recognised in relation to their maturity status
validation. The needs of emerging and small providers and the prerequisite support structures
they require differ fundamentally.
Categories from the evaluation of external moderation reports:
� Category 1: The systems required supporting the provision of learning programmes
acrosstheinstitution/learning site are appropriate andworking effectively
� Category 2: Providing advice and guidance toproviders
� Category 3: Maintaining an overview ofprovision acrossproviders
� Category 4: Confirmation staff involved inassessment areappropriately qualified and
experienced
� Category 5: Checking the credibility of assessment methods and instruments
� Category 6: Internal moderation systems
� Category 7: Monitoring and observing assessment processes andlearners’ evidence to
ensure consistency acrossproviders
� Category 8: Checking assessors’ decisions
Desktop evaluation – 250 external moderation reports - the clustered concepts, categories and
themes which emerged are as follows:
Themes
i. Quality Management
Systems
Category 1: The systems required supporting the provision of
learning programmes across the institution/learning site are
appropriate and working effectively
Concepts:
i. Limited validation systems exist to measure the support of
provision of learning across institutions. Established providers
have developed sophisticated systems to validate
compliance, as they are required to report to DHET.
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ii. Where providers are not required to report to DHET this
criterion is inadequately managed and evaluated.
iii. Limited value is placed by most ETQAs on provider record of
accomplishment to measure the support of provision of
learning across institutions.
iv. No differentiation is made between established and emerging
providers. No delineation is made in relation to the required
support and monitoring dimensions for each category of
provider during delivery, assessment and moderation
processes to measure the support of provision of learning
across institutions.
v. Limited industry validation / involvement are evident during
delivery, assessment and moderation processes to measure
the support of provision of learning across institutions
operating in respective industries.
Themes Category 2: Providing advice and guidance to providers
Concepts:
I. Limited, if any, meaningful support and guidance is offered
to providers during the external moderation process by
ETQAs.
II. Most ETQAs have applied a punitive, as opposed to an
enabling and supportive, environment for delivery and
assessment practice.
III. Limited CPD activities are undertaken by ETQAs as a pre-
emptive measure to enhance provider capacity and
excellence in assessment and moderation practice.
IV. Established and emerging providers are subject to the
same systems, bureaucracy and administrative delays in
most instances. Limited ETQAs (e.g. ETDP SETA) have
explored alternative trust recognition models to
streamline certification processes.
V. No formally defined and resourced mentoring system
exists for emerging providers.
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Themes Category 3: Maintaining an overview of provision across
providers
Concepts:
I. No empirical research data is available to provide an
informed perspective on comparable delivery across
providers. ETQAs have limited data available to inform
compliance standards.
II. SAQA reporting relates squarely to the NLRD process, with
little other tangible data. DHET has resorted to compelling
providers to report to them directly as a secondary
performance measurement.
III. Peer review mechanisms are not operational within the
occupationally directed realm. Comparative performance
reviews are limited to provider monitoring reports
completed as a tick-box compliance requirement.
Themes Category 4: Confirmation thatstaff involved in assessment are
appropriately qualified and experienced
Concepts:
I. The majority of facilitation, assessment and moderation
staff are independent contractors.
II. No additional requirement, in the absence of constituent
registration as an assessor and/or moderator, is of any
relevance in the performance measurement of this
criterion of said practitioners.
III. Validation of the capacity of provider facilitator,
management and administrative capacity is inadequately
measured
IV. No performance measurement criteria, bar assessment
and moderation activity performance, is evaluated.
Capacity development and performance compliance are
largely ignored by providers and ETQAs.
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V. Limited accountability measures have been instituted for
assessors, moderators and facilitators. Some ETQAs now
require a signed service level agreement and code of
conduct be made available by providers to demonstrate
compliance.
Themes Category 5: Checking the credibility of assessment methods and
instruments
Concepts:
I. Inconsistent levels of performance by evaluators and ETQA
staff.
II. The lack of Industry input in the assessment and
moderation design, especially by professional bodies,
influences the credibility of the achieved programme.
III. Assessment and moderation practices must be supported
by ETQAs as opposed to being implemented as a punitive
process of compliance.
IV. All providers, irrespective of record of accomplishment
and performance, are supported in the same way.
Providers with a proven credible record of
accomplishment are subjected to the same arbitrary
performance measurements and bureaucratic processes
to exit learners. No communities of trust are evident in
most ETQAs.
Themes Category 6: Internal moderation systems
Concepts:
I. The performance levels of experienced internal
moderator/s and assessor/s (contracted or not), is a more
reliable indicator of probable success, as opposed to the
level of performance and record of accomplishment of the
provider.
II. Internal moderators that have experience as external
moderators perform significantly better. The
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performances of internal moderators are linked to an in-
depth understanding of compliance requirements, and
having streamlined assessment and moderation processes.
III. Providers that use experienced assessors and moderators
have a significantly higher success rate in assessment and
moderation practice validation by an ETQA.
Themes Category 7: Monitoring and observing assessment processes and
learners’ evidence to ensure consistency across providers
Concepts:
I. Consistency of assessment and moderation practice across
providers is dependent on the level of performance by
practitioners.
II. No peer review process is available to inform variances in
performance practice.
Themes Category 8: Checking assessors’ decisions
Concepts:
• Some providers experience challenges when applying
workplace assessments.
• Assessors and moderators that have limited industry
experience have better VARCS success when mentored by
an experienced assessor and/ormoderator.
• The SAQA guidelines on assessment are interpreted
differently by various ETQAs
Themes emergingfrom desktop evaluation of external moderation reports
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14. Appendix E – Research questionnaire findings
The research questionnaire confirmed 19 seminal concepts that emerged. A detailed list of the 17
focus group seminal concepts can be found in Appendix B.
Concepts fromtheresearch questionnaire:
� The research questionnaire was preceded by an e-mail requesting respondents to participate
in the research activity. Participants that confirmed their willingness received the research
questionnaire to complete. Participants were advised that they might be contacted to obtain
clarity or be requested to meet with the researcher to obtain clarity on responses.
� 32 participants completed the research questionnaire. The first thirty received were utilised.
The ratio of completion was 79% of the invited participants. The researcher sent a reminder
e-mail and an e-mail thanking respondents for taking the time to complete the research
questionnaire.
� The research questionnaire (Appendix A) was constructed to elicit comprehensive responses
from participants. The questions were open-ended to ensure that detailed information
sharing was encouraged.
� Participants clearly demonstrated very specific group-think on seminal topics such as the
need for private providers to be allowed to operate in a less regulated environment, the role
of FET colleges and the need for an industry driven regulatory framework, as opposed to a
cumbersome regulated alternative that is unable to meet market demands.
� The researcher was contacted by 5 of the respondents to request clarification on specific
questions. The points of clarity related to the numbers of learners enrolled and exited by the
provider in the preceding fiscal year.
Concepts that emerged from the research questionnaire:
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i. 72% of research participants confirmed that their reason for being involved in skills
development is to contribute to skills development and sustainable employment creation for
economic growth.
ii. 57% of research participants commented on the failure of the public FET school system in
developing human capital that contributes to the South African business development goals.
iii. 100% of research participants felt that the current occupational accreditation system was
cumbersome and should allow for greater self-regulation and extended periods e.g. five years
for re-application. A sentiment to of an “erosion of professional autonomy” and
accountability was argued.
iv. 84% of research participants confirmed that they felt that government’s policy of prejudicing
private providers when accessing funding was unfair, and that education should be driven in a
free market economy. Diminishing grants and the allocation of funding in a skewed model to
favour public providers was a particular cause of disagreement from respondents.
v. 69% of research participants confirmed that their academic staff was graduates with at least
five years working experience.
vi. 75% of research participants confirmed that the average qualification of the academic heads
of their institution was a degree and at least ten year’s working experience.
vii. 100% of research participants confirmed the need for an accreditation framework for both
full qualifications and skills programmes.
viii. 63% of research participants were unable to provide textbook definitions for basic concepts
tested such as learning and teaching, reflexive competence and cognitive enrichment. The
definitions provided were self-interpreted and constructed.
ix. 81% of research participants confirmed the view that large and small providers should be
treated the same in the accreditation process, and that capacity to deliver and resource
requirements should be a key determining factor in programme approval.
x. 87% of research participants confirmed a common trend that different ETQAs have different
processes that over-complicated and confused consistent quality management in
accreditation and external moderation processes.
xi. 66% of research participants confirmed that limited guidance, support and development
opportunities were afforded to providers by ETQAs, and especially the ETDP SETA.
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xii. 87% of research participants confirmed that the current accreditation process is viewed as
caged and “non-transparent”. The process was confirmed as poorly managed by ETQAs.
xiii. 57% of research participants confirmed that the level of professionalism of evaluators and
external moderators are generally confirmed as professional.
xiv. 87% of research participants confirmed that the occupational arena includes cost
implications, cumbersome time periods, constrained access to qualifications, over-regulation,
inefficient ETQAs, bureaucratic red tape, unqualified ETQA staff and incomprehensible
processes.
xv. 81% of research participants confirmed a comprehensive submission that validated the need
for a standardised set of rules that is consistently and fairly applied across ETQAs.
xvi. 100% of research participants confirmed that they are currently over-regulated by ETQAs with
no system of recognition for achievement and record of accomplishment.
xvii. 69% of research participants confirmed the punitive, as opposed to developmental, approach
instilled by ETQAs as a bureaucratic non-responsive system.
xviii. 100% of research participants confirmed they were unimpressed with the NSDS III
requirements that compel private providers to work with public providers to access skills
levies.
xix. 78% of research participants confirmed the low barrier to entry results in problematic over-
regulation on legitimate providers.
The Research Questionnaire Findings
The objective of this section is to present and discuss the data obtained during the analysis of the
semi-structured research questionnaires completed by 30 stakeholders within the occupationally
directed education and training environment
The research questionnaires allowed the researcher to acquire the research participants’ views
whilst allowing personal bias to be tested.
i. Maturity status validation 100% of research participants confirmed that they are currently
over-regulated by ETQAs with no system of recognition for
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achievement and record of accomplishment.
ii. Quality Management Systems 100% of research participants confirmed the need for an
accreditation framework for both full qualifications and skills
programmes.
iii. Provider capacity /
performance
100% of research participants felt that the current occupational
accreditation system was cumbersome and should allow for
greater self-regulation and extended periods e.g. five years for
re-application. A sentiment to of an “erosion of professional
autonomy” and accountability was argued.
69% of research participants confirmed that their academic
staff were graduates with at least five year’s working
experience.
75% of research participants confirmed that the average
qualification of the academic heads of their institution was a
degree and at least ten year’s working experience.
63% research participants were unable to provide textbook
definitions for basic concepts tested such as learning and
teaching, reflexive competence and cognitive enrichment. The
definitions provided were self-interpreted and constructed.
81% of research participants confirmed the view that large and
small providers should be treated the same in the accreditation
process, and that capacity to deliver and resource requirements
should be a key determining factor in programme approval.
iv. ETQA capacity / processes 87% of research participants confirmed a common trend that
different ETQAs have different processes that over-complicated
and confused consistent quality management in accreditation
and external moderation processes.
66% of research participants confirmed ETQAs, and especially
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the ETDP SETA, afforded limited guidance, support and
development opportunities to providers.
87% of research participants confirmed that the current
accreditation process is viewed as caged and “non-
transparent”. The process was confirmed as poorly managed by
ETQAs.
57% of research participants confirmed that the level of
professionalism of evaluators and external moderators is
generally confirmed as professional.
87% of research participants confirmed that the occupational
arena includes cost implications, cumbersome time periods,
constrained access to qualifications, over-regulation, inefficient
ETQAs, bureaucratic red tape, unqualified ETQA staff and
incomprehensible processes.
81% of research participants confirmed a comprehensive
submission that validated the need for a standardised set of
rules that is consistently and fairly applied across ETQAs.
69% of research participants confirmed the punitive, as
opposed to developmental, approach instilled by ETQAs as a
bureaucratic non-responsive system.
v. Industry validation peer
review mechanisms
78% of research participants confirmed the low barrier to entry
results in problematic over-regulation on legitimate providers.
The requirement for industry validation was a central theme
articulated as a common sub-text.
vi. Legislative / political / social
impact
72% of research participants confirmed that their reason for
being involved in skills development is to contribute to skills
development and sustainable employment creation for
economic growth.
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57% of research participants commented on the failure of the
public FET school system in developing human capital that
contributes to the South African business development goals.
84% of research participants confirmed that they felt that
government’s policy of prejudicing private providers when
accessing funding was unfair, and that education should be
driven in a free market economy. Diminishing grants and the
allocation of funding in a skewed model to favour public
providers was a particular cause of disagreement from
respondents.
100% of research participants confirmed they were
unimpressed with the NSDS III requirements that compel
private providers to work with public providers to access skills
levies.
Themes from the evaluation of the research questionnaires
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15. Appendix F – SAQA 8 core criteria for provider accreditation
Criteria SAQA elaboration SAQA descriptor
Policy statement The organisation’s aims,
objectives and
purposes need to be
spelt out
SAQA requires that programmes are flexible and
designed with national requirements as well as the
requirements of potential learners and employers. The
arrangement and structure must be responsive to
mutable environments; learning and assessment
approaches that are suitable to the programme.
Learning programmes need to include theoretical and
practical learning components and, wherever possible
and appropriate, experiential learning. The
programme must reflect the integration of the
relevant critical cross-field outcomes, specified in the
unit standard or qualification.
Quality Management
Systems
Identify processes and
outline procedures
that implement quality
management in the
organisation
SAQA requires the following fundamentals associated
to the purpose of the provider (“mission statement”):
A clear and unambiguous statement of the goals and
principles by which the provider operates, a clear
statement of the areas of learning in which the
provider operates and the services provided in respect
of these areas. (For example, this would include the
NQF registered standards and qualifications and the
range of services (tuition, tuition and assessment, etc.)
To be provided as well as the learner audience the
provider will direct these at; an explanation of how
quality management and other provider policies and
strategic plans are reflected in, and driven by, this
purpose, including how these relate to national,
sectoral and local contexts and are responsive to
change requirements; and a clear and unambiguous
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commitment to learners.
Elements linked to the practices of the provider
include:
Strategic business and operational plans that give
direction to the provider over the period of
accreditation and clearly reflect the purpose of the
provider;
Strategic business and operational plans that are
realistic and designed to enable the provider to meet
both quality improvement and sustainability
requirements;
Procedures and methods for the implementation of
plans and policies that are documented and easily
available to staff, learners and other clients of the
provider;
Mechanisms to monitor and review the
implementation of plans and policies that are
implemented, maintained and recorded; and
Mechanisms for ensuring that the evaluation and
amendment of policies and plans are implemented,
maintained and recorded;
Amongst the policies and practices that providers
need to ensure they cover – depending on their type
and form of provision – are the following:
Programme/course development and design;
materials development;
Teaching and learning services and responsibilities;
learner support, access issues including equal
opportunities, authenticity of assessment;
evidence and appeals systems, as well as the use of
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tutors and mentors and learning resources;
the language of teaching and learning; assessment;
finances, fees and payment regulations;
collaboration and partnerships;
management and administration;
marketing;
evaluation and research;
internal quality assurance mechanisms and reviews;
quality assurance reviews and accreditation.
Review mechanisms Outline the ways in
which the
implementation of
policies would be
monitored
Providers must have a quality management system
that embraces policies, procedures and mechanisms
for review. Review mechanisms that confirm the
quality management policies and procedures defined,
are applied and remain effective.
Programme delivery Outline how learning
programmes would
be developed, delivered
and evaluated
Programmes offered by providers must be malleable
and intended to fit into the national objectives and the
needs of prospective learners and employers. The
programme must encourage access and be receptive
to mutable milieu. Learning and assessment methods
must be appropriate to the aims and purposes of the
programme.
The programme must include the relationship to
registered unit standard/s or qualification in detail of
learning outcomes and purpose and the assessment
and accreditation necessities.
The programme must specify the style of learning and
teaching and outline the strategic constructions of the
learning environment, learning and learning support
resources and requirements, assessment approaches,
policies and practices for the management of
assessment including equal opportunities, authenticity
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of assessment confirmation and appeals classification,
and any other requirements essential for the effective
achievement of the programme.
The relevance of the programme must be developed
by means of a needs analysis for learners, the
community or constituency and must include an audit
of existing programmes, market research, national and
provincial priorities and liaison with other education
and training institutions, occupational and/or
professional bodies as specified by SAQA.
The integration quality indicator requires that
programmes should be considered to include
theoretical and practical learning components and,
wherever possible and appropriate, experiential
learning. The programme should be designed and
outlined to reflect the integration
of the relevant critical cross-field outcomes,
particularly those specified in the unit standard or
qualification.
The access quality indicator must provide information
regarding the entry requirements for the programme,
which should be as open as possible and make
provision for the recognition of prior learning and
exemptions.
Over and above the learner entry requirements, the
stated language policy for the programme that is
based on national language policy, on the language
profile of the learners and on career and further or
higher learning contexts. This policy must be reflected
in the learning materials, assessments and learner
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support services.
Staff policies Outline policies and
procedures for staff
selection, appraisal and
development
The provider must provide particulars of its staffing
policies and procedures, including recruitment,
selection, appointment, promotion and termination.
Sufficient staff (full-time or contractual) suitably
qualified in the subject or sector, and
assessment,must be made available to safeguard the
quality of the learning experience and achievement of
the specified unit standards and qualifications.
Confirmation of policies and procedures for staff
development and staff development opportunities
must be available.
Learner
policies
Policies and procedures
for the selection
of learners are outlined,
and learners are
given guidance and
support
The provider must demonstrate how learner policies
provide a connection to motivation and reporting
requirements: learner information is used to design
programmes, courses, materials, learner support and
guidance services that are malleable and learner-
centered.
In respect of ensuring a quality experience for all
learners, learners’ special needs need to be
considered in the design of course and learning
support materials, assessment arrangements and
communication with teachers, tutors, lecturers,
educators or trainers
Assessment
policies
Outline policies and
procedures for forms
of assessment that are
used and how they
are managed
SAQA specifies that assessment can thus be defined as
a measurement of the achievement of the learning
outcome/s.
The provider must demonstrate compliance in relation
describing the design, implementation and
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maintenance of the assessment system:
• The assessment strategies must confirm the aims
and outcomes of the learning programme as recount
the outcomes specified in the unit standard or
qualification.
• Parties involved in the assessment of learners. This
can be designed appropriate to context and outcome
and can include self-, peer and other forms of group
assessment. Moderators for assessment and
assessment monitors may be incorporated.
• A range of assessment instruments is used in the
assessment of learners. This can be
designed in accordance with the context and outcome.
• The scheduling of assessment need be flexible to
accommodate the various and peculiar
needs of learners.
• Assessment information, including learning
outcomes, assessment criteria as well as
assessment procedures and dates should be provided
to all learners and assessors.
• Records of assessments must be kept and learners
must receive detailed and accurate
feedback on their progress and performance.
• The processes and results of assessment that fulfill
the requirements of the NQF standards
in addition, qualifications for which the provider has
been accredited and must meet the requirements of
the ETQA.
Management
system and
policies
Indicate the financial,
administrative and
physical structures and
resources of the
organisations as well as
The lines of responsibility and accountability of the
provider – for example, staff-management chains –
and between the provider and the governing body of
the provider.
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procedures of
accountability within the
organisation
The administrative resource necessities such as
databases of learner information and learner records.
Policies and procedures for the correct capturing,
maintenance and updating of learner information and
records required and observed.
Facilities, apparatus and learning that support the
learning process that is suitable to the learning
service. Appropriate policies and procedures for the
management, maintenance and upgrading of facilities,
resources and materials are required.
16. AppendixG– UKexternal verifiers (National occupational
standards directory).
OCR will allocate an external verifier who will visit the centre to verify assessments and conduct
internal verification.
External verifiers will want to interview candidates, assessors and internal verifiers during their
visits. Assessment records and evidence for all candidates must also be available for verifiers to
see if they ask to. It is the assessor’s (and not the internal or external verifiers’) responsibility to
‘sign off’ each unit of competence.
Centres should have the following available for each external verification visit:
� A list of candidates registered for these qualifications, together with their achievements to
date plus certification records
� Access to evidence (for example, up-to-date portfolios) and CARS
� Access to OCR on-line claim system (interchange)
� Relevant assessors and selected candidates as requested by the external verifier (EV),
including those whose certificates have been claimed through direct claims status (DCS)
� All portfolios (access to evidence) relating to certificates claimed through DCS
� A copy of the external verifier’s last visit report
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� A sample signature list for all assessors and internal verifiers
� Details of training and curriculum vitae for new members of the assessment team
� Allcentre records (seecentre records – assessment and verification for more details)
� Evidence of achieving action points since the last external verifier visit
� Notes of any action carried out due to particular points mentioned by an external verifier in
any correspondence since their last visit
� Recommendations to the external verifier
� If recorded evidence is used, ensure all recordings and appropriate playback equipment is
available.
Assessor requirements (UK National occupational standards directory)
� Assessment is an activity that can be performed by a dedicated individual or as part of an
individual’s wider role e.g. supervisor, manager, tutor.
� Assessors must be occupationally competent in the occupational area they are assessing
where they have sufficient and relevant technical/occupational competence in the unit, at
or above the level of the unit being assessed. This means that each assessor must,
according to current sector practice, be competent in the functions covered by the units
they are assessing;
� Assessors must have the role of assessor identified within their role profile, where
assessment forms part of an individual’s role;
� Assessors that deliver or assess underpinning knowledge must hold a current teaching
qualification as required by ‘The Further Education Teachers’ Qualifications (England)
Regulations 2007’ or hold or be working towards a suitable assessor qualification if
assessing competence only;
� Assessors must be fully conversant with the units against which the assessments and
verifications are to be undertaken and must be able to interpret and make judgments on
current working practices and technologies within the area of work;
� Assessors must carry out assessment according to the relevant Learning and Development
National Occupational Standards (approved January 2010);
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� All assessment decisions made by those working towards a relevant assessor qualification
must be verified by a qualified teacher/trainer assessor or an assessor recognised by the
awarding organisation as appropriate;
� Assessors must maintain their occupational competence by either actively engaging in
continuous professional development activities or by performing the operational role as
part of their regular responsibilities in order to keep up to date with developments relating
to the changes taking place in the logistics sector;
� Trainee assessors must have a developmental plan which is overseen by the relevant
assessor.
Internal verifiers
� Internal verification is an activity that can be performed by a dedicated individual or as part
of an individual’s wider role. All Internal verifiers must:
• Hold or be working towards a suitable internal verifier qualification;
• Have sufficient and relevant technical/occupational familiarity with the units that
are verified;
• Be fully conversant with the standards and assessment criteria in the units to be
assessed;
• Understand the awarding organisation’s quality assurance systems and
requirements for this qualification;
� The verification process must be recorded and available for audit;
� Trainee internal verifiers must have:
• A plan that is overseen by the recognised assessment centre, to achieve an appropriate
internal verifier qualification within an agreed timescale and maintain their occupational
knowledge by actively engaging in continuous professional development activities in order
to keep up-to-date with developments relating to the changes taking place in their sector.
